Unit 2

2/23/23, 12:45 PM Unit 2
Unit 2
Site: Namcol eLearning Platform Printed by: MOLEEN MADZIWO

Course: Academic Writing Date: Thursday, 23 February 2023, 12:43 PM
Book: Unit 2
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2/23/23, 12:45 PM Unit 2
Table of contents
1. UNIT 2: The Academic Writing Process

1.1. What is in this unit?
1.2. Learning Outcomes
1.3. Study Time
2. SECTION 1: Structure and Cohesion

2.1. The context
2.2. Cohesion and coherence
2.3. Strategies to improve cohesion
3. SECTION 2: Effective Academic Writing

3.1. The context
3.2. Effective writing
3.3. Choosing a topic
4. SECTION 3: The Writing Process and Reflection

4.1. Applying prewriting models
4.2. Outlining the structure of ideas
4.3. Revising
4.4. Editing
4.5. Proofreading
4.6. Stages of the writing process
4.7. Key Takeaways
4.10. Writing the first draft
4.11. Paraphrasing and quoting
4.12. Summary
5. Additional Reading
6. References
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1. UNIT 2: The Academic Writing Process
Overview
Unit 2 will look at the academic writing process. At tertiary level, much writing follows the idea of a process, which, in short, means one develops
oneֹ’s text in stages and reflects and revises along the way. The academic writing process will guide you to produce texts that are informative, well
structured, and that follow instructions closely.
Writing can be seen as a process during which a text develops and changes from first ideas to finished text. By revising and rewriting, writers
develop their thinking and texts during this process. The writing process is often presented graphically in a manner that indicates the linear, but
also cyclical nature of writing.
As the text develops, writers return to previous stages of the process to add to and revise their texts. This unit will unpack the nature of academic
writing to equip you with the skills to become an effective academic writer.
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1.1. What is in this unit?
This unit is divided into three sections:
Section 1: Structure and Cohesion
Section 2: Effective Academic Writing
Section 3: The Writing Process and Reflection
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1.2. Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
use cohesive devices to structure sentences;

use prewriting strategies to choose a topic and narrow its focus;
demonstrate the capacity to use various writing forms to achieve the specific purposes of the course; and
demonstrate improvement in the written expression of thought by utilising various techniques.
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1.3. Study Time
A thorough study of this unit will take you about five hours. Do not worry if you take more or less time than stated. Everyone works at his or her
own pace. The important thing is that you have worked through the unit and have achieved the stated outcomes.
You should now understand what is expected in this unit.
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2. SECTION 1: Structure and Cohesion
Introduction
Academic writing structure and cohesion can be simply described as good ideas that are expressed well and arranged in a proper order. Perhaps
you have always wanted to write, but have never actually written anything. Using the strategies in this section could help you overcome the fear of
the blank page and confidently begin the writing process.
This section will help you make your academic writing more cohesive and communicate your message more effectively. It includes advice on how
to analyse and improve your writing by learning about the elements of cohesion. In this section, you will learn about ways to improve the cohesion
and coherence of your writing.
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2.1. The context
Writing is never a one-step action; it is a process comprising several steps. Byrne (1988) explains that the difficulty in writing stems from three
kinds of problems:
Psychological, caused by the lack of interaction and feedback between the reader and the writer.
Cognitive, because the organisation framework of our ideas in written communication has to be mastered.
Linguistic, because in writing we have to express ourselves in a clearer and more grammatical manner than in speech to compensate for the
absence of certain features of spoken language, such as gestures and facial expressions.
A well-structured piece of academic work that flows logically is much easier for a reader to follow and understand. Academic writing has a clear,
logical structure to communicate your points and show the connections between them.
A well-structured assignment is easy for the reader to follow and understand (Hamp-Lyons & Heasley, 2006).
Within the body of a piece of academic work, you should bring together similar concepts or arguments, discuss these and then develop them into
the next idea. In this way, your ideas will follow each other and be connected, rather than random.
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2.2. Cohesion and coherence
In-Text Question: How does one go about creating cohesion using words and phrases that show the relationships between points made?
When we think about how to create cohesion, we must know which words and phrases to use. Cohesive devices are words and expressions that
show relationships between the parts of a text and ideas, such as cause and effect, time, addition, or comparison and contrast.
Therefore, the way we use vocabulary and grammatical structures to make connections between the ideas within a text provides flow and
sequence to your work, and helps making your paragraphs clear to the reader.
In-Text Question: Which specific examples of cohesive words and phrases could you incorporate into your writing? Which are the most common?
Academic writing is improved by coherence and cohesion. It is important to focus on coherence when writing at sentence level. However, cohesion
promotes the flow of writing and should be established. There are various ways to ensure coherent writing:
2.2.1 Linking words
Academic writing usually deals with complex ideas. To enable the reader to follow your thoughts, they need to be clearly and smoothly linked. To
join ideas and sentences, we use several connecting words and phrases. For example:
and – to add information

however – to show contrast
therefore – to show cause and effect
although – to qualify
because – to show cause and effect
while – to signal concurrency
Notice the linking words in the extract that follows:
Although the government was elected for a five-year term, the president decided to hold an early election. At the same time, the opposition parties,
which had anticipated this move, had been planning their election campaigns.
2.2.2 Referring backwards
To avoid repeating words and phrases many times, we use cohesive devices to make reference to other parts of a text, such as:
Pronouns: it, he, she, his, her, they, their
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
Articles: a, the
Adverbs: previously, subsequently
2.2.3 Cohesive words and phrases
These are words or phrases used to connect ideas between different parts of a text. They show the relationship between paragraphs or sections of
a text or speech.
Let’s summarise cohesive words and phrases with specific examples:
Cohesive Words and Phrases Examples
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Additive words Also, and, as well as, at the same time as,
besides, equally important, further,
furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover,
too, not only... but also

Amplification words
As, for example, for instance, in fact, specifically,

such as, that is, to illustrate
Repetitive words

Again, in other words, that is, to repeat
Contrast words

But, conversely, despite, even though, however,
in contrast, notwithstanding, on the one
hand/on the other hand, still, although, though,
whereas, yet, nevertheless, on the contrary, in
spite of this
Cause and effect words

Accordingly, as a result, because, consequently,
Qualifying words
for this reason, since, as, so, then, therefore,
thus
Example
Although, if, even, therefore, unless

Emphasising words
For example, for instance

Reason words Above all, more/most importantly

Order words
For this reason, owing to this, therefore

Afterwards, at the same time, before,

firstly/secondly, formerly, lastly, finally, later,
Explanation meanwhile, next, now, presently, today
/yesterday/last week/next year, subsequently,
then, until, ultimately, while, historically, in the
end, eventually

Attitude
In other words, that is to say

Summary
Naturally, of course, certainly, strangely

enough, surprisingly, fortunately, unfortunately,
admittedly, undoubtedly
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Finally, in conclusion, in short, to summarise
2.2.4 Looking forward
We often use words and phrases to highlight new information for the reader. This helps to make a smooth transition from one point to another.
Such phrases include the following, as follows, below, next, and subsequently.
Notice the words used in the following passage for looking forward:
The following dates have been proposed for the forthcoming election: 30 November 2024. The next issue to be discussed is the influence of the
media on voter confidence in the government.
2.2.5 Synonyms
To emphasise a part of a text, we sometimes repeat a word or phrase. However, this technique can make writing sound repetitive if it is used too
often. To avoid this, we can use words and phrases with similar meanings to refer back to an earlier concept.
In the following example, the word “campaign” repeated in the second sentence continues the topic of the first. Replacing “commenced” with
“beginning” adds variety, but also keeps the focus on the topic.
The government’s election campaign commenced with a media blitz outlining a series of election promises. This beginning of the campaign sparked
numerous media commentaries.
2.2.6 Cohesive writing
Cohesive writing refers to the connection of your ideas both at sentence level and paragraph level. Cohesion is a very important aspect of
academic writing, because it affects the tone of your writing. Here are some examples that illustrate the importance of connecting your ideas more
effectively in writing:
Example 1
The hotel is famous. It is one of the most well-known hotels in the country. The latest international dancing competition was held at the hotel. The
hotel spent a lot of money to advertise the event. Because the hotel wanted to gain an international reputation. But not many people attended the
event. The connection of ideas is not very good.
Example 2
The hotel, which is one of the most well-known hotels in this region, wanted to promote its image around the world by hosting the latest international
dancing competition. Although the event was widely advertised, not many people participated in the competition. The connection of ideas is better
than in example 1.
Example 3
The latest international dancing competition was held at the hotel, which is one of the most well-known hotels in this region. The hotel spent a lot of
money on advertising the event since it wanted to enhance its international reputation, however, it failed to attract many people. The connection of
ideas is better than in examples 1 and 2.
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2.3. Strategies to improve cohesion
The following strategies can be used to improve cohesion in writing:
Select a piece of writing, preferably from a textbook or journal article, from your area of study.
Choose a paragraph and underline or highlight all the different cohesion devices used, such as using linking words, referring backwards,
looking forwards, or adding synonyms.
Try to use a variety of ways to show the relationship between your ideas.
Write sentences that flow by varying the lengths and structures, the use of correct punctuation, and broadening your word choices.
Use simple transitions, such as “in addition”, “additionally”, “furthermore”, “therefore”, “thus”, “on the contrary”, “by the same token”, “at the
same time”, “in other words”, etc.
Repeat your keywords, but be careful of excessive repetition.
Repeat sentence structures, which are used as a rhetorical technique rather than cohesion, to highlight parallelism between sentences, ensuring
thematic consistency.
Start every sentence or paragraph with information that hints at the content of the next sentence.
We have come to the end of Section 1. The next section is titled “Effective Academic Writing”. However, before you carry on, make sure you have
answered all the ITQs and SMAs in Section 1.
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3. SECTION 2: Effective Academic Writing
Introduction
In discussing structure and cohesion, our focus was on the use of cohesive devices. This section will help you understand how to write effectively
at tertiary level. Effective academic writing will help you convey your thoughts logically and develop a sense of authority in your writing. Effective
writing can be simply described as good ideas that are expressed and arranged in a proper order.
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3.1. The context
Learning to write is acomplex process encompassing cognitive, physical, social, and cultural dimensions (Daffern, Mackenzie & Hemmings, 2017).
Texts produced and interpreted may be print-based or multimodal. In the composition of modally complex texts, “writing is one of several modes
of representation” (Kress & Bezemer, 2009, p. 167). As such, students need to be taught a range of skills and meaning-making codes to compose
texts.
In-Text Question: Think about an attention-grabbing story on a local news channel. Many current issues appear on television, in magazines, and on
the internet which can all inspire your writing. What can you do to write more effectively?
Writing effectively is difficult. Even people who write for a living sometimes struggle to get their thoughts onto the page. People who generally
enjoy writing also have days when they would rather be doing anything else. There is no magic formula that will make writing quick and easy.
However, some strategies and resources make managing writing assignments easier.
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3.2. Effective writing
Effective writing is always organised around a central purpose. The first step in effective writing is to define your purpose. Once you have defined
your purpose, strictly stick to it. Do not deviate from your purpose. This is the organising principle of composition.
Writers get lost and confused when they lose sight of their purpose. Focus on your purpose and everything else should follow logically and
naturally.
3.2 Principles of effective writing
Identify your audience: Effective writers identify their audience, address their interests, and know who they are addressing.
Know your goal: Effective writers have a specific purpose and use it to shape their work.
Guide the reader through the text
Select the best format: Effective writers select the best format in which to write their text.
Present yourself well: Through writing, you are presenting yourself, so make sure you look your best.
Plan: Effective writers know it takes time to write a good essay.
Revise, revise, revise: Good writing emerges over multiple drafts.
Different disciplines use different conventions: Not every profession utilises the same writing style; auditors do not write like nurses.
Communicate clearly: Effective writers use simple language to make complex ideas more understandable.
Clean up after yourself: Effective writers proofread their copy.
Seek feedback: Effective writers ask for advice.
Writing is a craft: Effective writing takes practice.
Dare to speak up: Good writing takes courage.
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3.3. Choosing a topic
In addition to understanding that writing is a process, writers also understand that choosing a good general topic for an assignment is an essential
step. Sometimes your instructor will give you an idea to begin an assignment with, and on other occasions you could be asked to come up with
your own topic. A good topic not only covers what an assignment is about, but also fits the assignment’s purpose and audience.
You may find that you need to adjust your topic as you move through the writing stages (and as you complete the exercises in this unit). If the
topic you have chosen is not working, you can repeat prewriting activities until you find a better one.
3.3.1 Writing an effective topic outline
This checklist can help you create an effective topic outline for your assignment. It will also help you determine whether additional reading or
prewriting is necessary.
Do I have a controlling idea that guides the development of the entire piece of writing?
Do I have three or more main points I want to make in this piece of writing? Does each main point connect to my main idea?
Is my outline in the best chronological and spatial order, or order of importance for me to present my main points? Will this order help me get
my main points across?
Do I have supporting details that will help me inform, explain, or prove my main points?
Do I need to add more support? If so, where?
Do I need to make any adjustments to my working thesis statement before I consider it the final version?
We have come to the end of Section 2. The next section is titled “The Writing Process and Reflection”. However, before you carry on, make sure
you have answered all the ITQs and SMAs in Section 2.
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4. SECTION 3: The Writing Process and Reflection
Introduction
Writing at tertiary level follows the idea of process writing, which, in short, means that you develop your text in stages and reflect and revise along
the way. This section will give you the chance to work on all these important aspects of writing. Although many more prewriting strategies exist,
this chapter covers six: using experience and observations, freewriting, asking questions, brainstorming, mapping, and searching the internet.
The writing process is different and unique to all individuals; many people follow the ideal steps of prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and
publishing, as opposed to others taking shortcuts, skipping steps, and going straight to editing.
In-Text Question: Why is writing is found to be difficult to learn? Similarly, in which contexts are only writing the best option?
Academic writing can be made easier by following a writing process. Sometimes ideas do not flow easily, and the essay you may originally start
out writing is not the essay you end up writing.
The important thing is to keep writing and improving until a final product is achieved. The more you write, the better you will become as a writer.
The writing process consists of different stages a writer follows to produce a good piece of writing.
Let’s have a look at the writing process.
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4.1. Applying prewriting models
You are not alone if you think a blank sheet of paper or a blinking cursor on your computer screen is a scary sight. Many writers, students, and
academics find beginning to write intimidating. When faced with a blank page, however, experienced writers remind themselves that writing, like
other everyday activities, is a process.
Every process, from writing to cooking, bike riding, or learning to use a new cell phone, will get significantly easier with practice.
Just as you need a recipe, ingredients, and proper tools to cook a delicious meal, you also need a plan, resources, and adequate time to create a
well-written composition.
In other words, writing is a process that requires following steps and using strategies to accomplish your goals. In this section, we will guide you
through the main stages of the writing process.
There are five steps in the writing process:
Prewriting
Outlining the structure of ideas
Writing a rough draft
Revising
Editing
Let’s look at the five steps in more detail:
4.1.1 Prewriting
Prewriting is the stage of the writing process during which you transfer your abstract thoughts into more concrete ideas manually or digitally.
Although prewriting techniques can be helpful in all stages of the writing process, the following four strategies are helpful when initially deciding
on a topic:
Using experience and observations

Reading
Freewriting
Asking questions
Let’s look at the four strategies of prewriting in more detail:
Using experience and observations
When selecting a topic, consider something that interests you or something you can relate to your own life and personal experiences. Even
everyday observations can lead to interesting topics. After writers think about their experiences and observations, they often make notes to better
develop their thoughts. These notes help writers discover what they have to say about the selected topic.
Reading
Reading plays a vital role in all the stages of the writing process. It features already in the development of ideas and topics. Different kinds of
documents can help you choose a topic and develop that topic. For example, a magazine advertising the latest research on the threat of global
warming may catch your eye in the supermarket. The cover may interest you, and you may therefore consider global warming as a topic. Or
perhaps the courtroom drama in a novel sparks your curiosity about a particular lawsuit or legal controversy.
After you choose a topic, critical reading is essential in developing the topic. While reading almost any document, you evaluate the author’s point
of view by considering his main idea and his support. When you judge the author’s argument, you discover more about not only the author’s
opinion, but also your own. If this step already seems daunting, remember that even the best writers need to use prewriting strategies to generate
ideas.
Freewriting
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Freewriting involves an exercise in which you write freely about any topic for a set amount of time (usually three to five minutes). During that time
period, you may jot down any thoughts that come to mind. Try not to worry about grammar, spelling, or punctuation. Instead, write as quickly as
you can without stopping. If you get stuck, just copy the same word or phrase over and over until you come up with a new thought.
Writing often comes easier when you have a personal connection with the topic you have chosen. Remember, to generate ideas in your
freewriting, you may also consider readings you have enjoyed or which have challenged your thinking. Doing this may lead your thoughts in
interesting directions.
Asking questions
Who? What? Where? When? Why? How? In everyday situations, you pose these kinds of questions to get more information. Who will be my
partner for the project? When is the next meeting? Why is my car making that odd noise? Even the title of this chapter begins with the question
“How do I begin?”.
You seek answers to these questions to gain knowledge, to better understand your daily experiences, and to plan for the future. Asking these
types of questions will also help you with the writing process. As you choose your topic, answering these questions can help you revisit the ideas
you already have and generate new ways of thinking about your topic. You may also discover aspects of the topic that are unfamiliar to you and
that you would like to learn more about. All these idea-gathering techniques will help you plan for future work on your assignment.

Look at the extract below about freewriting from a book titled Till Dusk Down (Manuscript).
In my UNAM early days, everyone was fascinated by having a role model, especially within their fields of study and I really started feeling bad for
my early encounter with the old lady starts lingering in my head and keeps dancing in my head as if trying to prove a point and maybe just maybe
pushing me to look for something to that will inspire my academic journey. I use to sneak out of talk rooms where people were talking about role
models for I kept mine as a secret knowing very well that it could get me on the roasting stands amongst my peer for those Brainiacs were capable
of coming up with many ways to turn a beautiful thing into a laughing point.
Don’t you think that is an overreach for someone that is planning to be a teacher? That is the question that keeps breaking my walls of justification
every time I try to justify myself: my choice of sources of inspiration/role model was just fine. Wrestling with one’s thoughts is a very tedious
endeavor and I was certainly getting tired of doing the same things over and over again and building up justification walls that don’t even last for
a day.
Finding out about Dr. Itah Kandjii-Murangi was such a relief and a cup of cold water after tiring days shoving down my salty choices. I was finally
ready to jump on the wagon of conversations about role models, but it turns out I was late on that front as my peers started conversing bout
gender equality and the social dilemmas that faced our society at times, guess help does come too late some days though just not late to inspire a
young youth to embark on her academic journey.
To this day, I have been inspired by Dr. Kandjii-Murangi in terms of academic success, leadership, and endurance in the challenges she faced in her
professional life. I have known her to be a woman of her word as the then DEAN of students at UNAM and trust me I am a woman of my word and
my leadership game is almost up to pair with hers though I still got a few more ladders to climb before I can say I have lived up to her reputation
and maybe just maybe I might start dreaming of becoming a Minister of Higher Education one of the good days.
We are all just human so let us all lower our expectations of what we hold for one another, and it is very likely that we will also lower our chances
of disappointment. Not all heroes wore caps, nor were all role models and sources of inspiration. No matter how higher of a peck we put someone
we should always learn to tell ourselves that “they are just human”. The phrase “you are just human” was used in the Roman Empire times to
remind the ruler that he is just human and not a god. Every time the ruler gets the throne put on his head the words are whispered in his ears and
if we keep reminding ourselves as the Romans did we will all avoid being disappointed by those that we rate so highly and maybe meeting your
heroes wouldn’t be such a bad thing to do.
TILL DUSK DAWN……. Simon & Kakishi (2022)
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4.2. Outlining the structure of ideas
An outline is a general plan involving the material that is to be presented in a speech or paper. It shows the order of various topics, their relative
importance, and the relationship between the various parts.
4.2.1 Order
There are many ways to arrange the different parts of a subject. Sometimes a chronological arrangement works well. On other occasions, a spatial
arrangement is best suited to the material. The most common order in outlines is to go from general to fact. This means you begin with a general
idea and then support it with specific examples.
4.2.2 Thesis statement
All outlines should begin with a thesis statement or summarising sentence. This thesis sentence presents the central idea of the paper. It must
always be a complete, grammatical sentence, specific and brief, expressing the point of view you will be taking on your selected subject.
4.2.3 Types of outlines
Topic outline: The headings are given in single words or brief phrases.
Sentence outline: All the headings are expressed in complete sentences.
4.2.4 Rules for outlining
1. Subdivide topics into a system of numbers and letters, followed by a period.
Example:
I.
A.
B.
1.
2.
a.
b.
II.
A.
B.
2. Each heading and subheading must have at least two parts.
3. Headings for parts of the paper or speech, such as “Introduction” and “Conclusion”, should not be used.
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4. Be consistent. Do not mix up the two types of outlines. Use either whole sentences or brief phrases, but not both.
Tutors may also require you to submit an outline with your final draft to check the direction of the assignment and the logic of your final draft. If
you are required to submit an outline with the final draft of a paper, remember to revise the outline to reflect any changes you made while writing
the paper.
Format both types of formal outlines in the same way.
Place your introduction and thesis statement at the beginning, under the Roman numeral I.
Use Roman numerals (II, III, IV, V, etc.) to identify the main points that develop the thesis statement.
Use capital letters (A, B, C, D, etc.) to divide your main points into parts.
Use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) if you need to subdivide any As, Bs, or Cs into smaller parts.
End with the final Roman numeral expressing your idea for your conclusion.
4.2.5 Writing an outline
For an essay question on a test or a brief oral presentation in class, all you may need to prepare is a short, informal outline in which you jot down
key ideas in the order you will present them. This kind of outline reminds you to stay focused in a stressful situation and to include all the good
ideas that will help you explain or prove your point.
Here is what the skeleton of a traditional formal outline looks like:
The indention helps clarify how the ideas are related.
1. Introduction: Thesis statement
2. Main point 1 → becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 1
1. Supporting detail → becomes a support sentence of body paragraph 1
1. Subpoint
2. Subpoint
2. Supporting detail
1. Subpoint
2. Subpoint
1. Subpoint
2. Subpoint
3. Main point 2 → becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 2 (a topic sentence is the purpose of your paragraph. The easiest place to
situate the topic sentence is as the first line of each new paragraph, followed by direct evidence)
4. Main point 3 → becomes the topic sentence of body paragraph 3
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5. Conclusion
Remember:
Students must order their ideas, so that the assignment makes sense. The most common types of order are chronological order, spatial order, and
order of importance.
Effective writers prepare a formal outline to organise their main ideas and supporting details in the order they will be presented.
A topic outline uses words and phrases to express ideas.
A sentence outline uses complete sentences to express ideas.
The outline begins with the writer’s thesis statement and ends with suggestions for the concluding paragraph.
After gathering and evaluating the information you found for your essay, the next step is to write a working, or preliminary, thesis statement.
The working thesis statement expresses the main idea you want to develop in the entire piece of writing. It can be modified as you continue the
writing process.
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4.3. Revising
When you read your work and it sounds as if it’s conversational, such as when talking to a friend, the chances are it needs to be revised to be more
formal.
4.3 Guidelines for revising a text
1. Read through the text and ask the following questions:
Who is the text being written for?

What is it about?
How much of the text has been produced already?
1. Read through the text again, but this time ask yourself:
What changes do I need to make to help the reader?

How can I make the text easier to follow?
1. To make these changes, you may need:
to make big or global changes (e.g. rewrite sections); or

to make small or minor text changes (e.g. change the original text slightly).
You will need to decide whether you are going to focus on global changes or text changes first.
1. Global changes you could consider are:
resequencing parts of the text;

rewriting sections in simpler prose;
adding examples;
changing examples for better ones; and
deleting parts that seem confusing.
1. Text changes you could consider are:
using simpler wording;

using shorter sentences;
using shorter paragraphs;
using the active rather than the passive voice;
substituting positives for negatives;
writing sequences in order; and
spacing numbered sequences or lists down the page.
1. Keep reading through the revised text from start to finish to see if you want to make any more global changes.
2. Repeat this whole procedure on the revised text sometime after making your initial revisions, and do this without looking back at the
original text.
3. Repeat stage 7 several times, but draw a line eventually.
Adopted from Hartley (2008, p.187-188).
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4.4. Editing
When you are happy with your paper's content, it's time to edit. Try to do this in the week before your paper is due. Editing will make your writing
more precise and easier to understand (not necessarily shorter, but clearer). When editing, you examine every sentence and ask yourself if it has a
purpose and whether it is complete, clear, and concise in English.
A grammar resource and an English dictionary are both helpful editing tools. Experiment with the following strategies until you find what works
best for you:
Read your paper out loud slowly (or ask someone to read it to you): You will hear mistakes, wordiness, repetition, and lack of clarity, which
you can correct. If you don't know how to correct something, start looking through those grammar books.
Make use of the spell check and grammar functions in Microsoft Word: They will find some errors, but not everything. This should not be
your only strategy.
4.4.1 Editing strategies
Here are some editing strategies to consider for specific problems:
a) Connecting ideas
Read the beginning and end of every paragraph to make sure they flow.
Go through the paper sentence by sentence and find connections between them.
If the ideas don't connect, add a transition, pronoun, repeated word, synonym, or another sentence.
b) Wordiness
Identify all the long sentences (20 words or more). Can they be rewritten more clearly and concisely?
Read each sentence. After each one, ask yourself: Is it necessary? Does it add something new? Could it be eliminated completely or partly?
Could it be combined?
Read each sentence word by word. Is every word necessary? Could some be eliminated or rewritten in a shorter, clearer way? Could passive
verbs be rewritten as active ones?
c) Repetition, lack of variety
Read each sentence and ask yourself: What is the purpose of this sentence? Does it introduce a new idea? Does it support or explain the
previous idea, or does it
simply repeat it?
Read the first five words of each sentence to find sentences starting in the same
way (such as with a transition word). Change some so that your sentence vary.
Look at the length of every sentence. There should be a variety of short and long sentences. Make sentences shorter by splitting them, or
longer by combining them.
Find words that are repeated a lot. Use a thesaurus to find other words to use.
·
d) Sentence structure
Go through your essay sentence by sentence. Label the subject(s) and the verb(s) in every sentence. Make sure each sentence has a subject and
verb. Make sure there are not too many subject-verb combinations in each sentence and that the word order is subject + verb + object. Fix
fragments, run-ons, and word order.
e) Word choice
2/23/23, 12:45 PM Unit 2
Find all the long words. Could some be replaced with shorter, clearer words?
f) Clarity (non-English structure)
Read your paper without much effort, as if you are simply reading for your own interest. If you have to read something twice, it's not written
clearly.
Read your paper and translate it into your native language in your head. If it's easy to translate, the writing may not be following English
structure and style.
Say your ideas out loud in English. Write exactly what you said. You probably speak more clearly understandable than you write.
2/23/23, 12:45 PM Unit 2
4.5. Proofreading
When you think your paper is ready to submit, it's time to proofread it, meaning you are reading it to check for mistakes. If you don't proofread
your paper, it may be full of careless errors. It is a long, slow, unpleasant experience at first. However, the more you proofread, the easier it gets, the
better your English gets, and the better your grades will be too.
To proofread:
do not look at your paper for 24 hours (this requires time management skills);
print your paper – you'll see mistakes that you might not see on a computer screen;
start with the last sentence of your paper and read it sentence by sentence, going backwards; this will help you focus on grammar, not content;
cover all the other lines with another piece of paper;
point at each word with a pen;
consider the grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalisation, and meaning of every word;
if you are unsure about anything, use a dictionary or grammar book; if you are still unsure, mark the line and ask someone for help;
fix any mistakes you may found; and
print your paper and proofread it again.
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Writing typically consists of four main stages: planning, writing, editing, and reviewing. The stages of the writing process are summarised in Figure
1.
Figure 1: Stages of the writing process
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4.7. Key Takeaways
Revising and editing are the stages of the writing process in which you improve your work before producing a final draft.
During revising, you add, cut, move, or change information in order to improve content.
During editing, you take a second look at the words and sentences you used to express your ideas and fix any problems in grammar,
punctuation, and sentence structure.
Unity in writing means that all the ideas in each paragraph and in the entire essay clearly belong together and are arranged in an order that
makes logical sense.
Coherence in writing means that the writer’s wording clearly indicates how one idea leads to another within a paragraph and between
paragraphs.
Transitional words and phrases effectively make writing more coherent.
Writing should be clear and concise, with no unnecessary words.
Effective formal writing uses specific, appropriate words and avoids slang, contractions, clichés, and overly general words.
Peer reviews, done properly, can give writers objective feedback about their writing. It is the writer’s responsibility to evaluate the results of peer
reviews and incorporate only useful feedback.
Remember to budget time for careful editing and proofreading. Use all available resources, including editing checklists, peer editing, and your
institution’s writing lab, to improve your editing skills.
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4.10. Writing the first draft
There are many ways to write the first draft of your paper. The key is to be prepared before you start. Make sure you have a purpose, a thesis,
enough research, and a plan, or some sort of outline. After this you are ready to start writing.
4.9.1 Writing a rough draft
Writing a rough draft is similar to building a puzzle. When you write your rough draft, you begin organising how these ideas relate to each other. A
rough draft is a means of getting started on your essay. When you make a rough draft, you are no longer just thinking about writing or planning
on writing, you are doing it. Writing your rough draft helps you get information and thoughts on paper.
4.9.2 Discovering the basic elements of a first draft
If you have been using the information in this unit step by step to help you develop an assignment, you already have both a formal topic outline
and a formal sentence outline to direct your writing. Knowing what a first draft looks like will help you make the creative leap from the outline to
the first draft. A first draft should include the following elements:
an introduction that piques the audience’s interest, tells you what the essay is about, and motivates readers to keep reading;
a thesis statement that presents the main point, or controlling idea, of the entire piece of writing;
a topic sentence in each paragraph that states the main idea of the paragraph and implies how that main idea connects to the thesis statement;
supporting sentences in each paragraph that develop or explain the topic sentence; these can be specific facts, examples, anecdotes, or other
details that elaborate on the topic sentence; and
a conclusion that reinforces the thesis statement and leaves the audience with a feeling of completion.
4.9.3 Advice for the first draft
Read about the introduction, body, and conclusion in this guide before you start.
Know how to use source material (see Research and APA Style Guide) before you start.
Then just write. Do not worry about perfection yet. Do not worry about grammar.
Keep going. If you are missing information, mark the spot where this occurs, and do more research on that aspect later to fill in the gap.
Be aware of plagiarism. Make a note of the source whenever you make use of an outside source.
Do not wait until the last minute. You will need time to revise, edit, and proofread.
2/23/23, 12:45 PM Unit 2
4.11. Paraphrasing and quoting
When you are producing a piece of writing at tertiary level, you will often refer to what someone else has written on the topic. There are four
distinct ways of doing this:
1. Quoting: Directly including in your work the published words or other data you have found in a source.
2. Paraphrasing: Expressing in your own words the ideas, arguments, words, or other material you have found published elsewhere.
3. Para-quoting: Paraphrasing an idea or area, but retaining one or more important words and phrases from the original in quotation marks.
4. Summarising: Providing a top-level overview of a single larger area of work or multiple sources.
We have come to the end of Section 3 and this unit.
Let’s summarise what we have learnt in this unit.
2/23/23, 12:45 PM Unit 2
4.12. Summary
In Section 1 we discussed that cohesive features are one way to improve style and cohesion in one’s writing. Further, we covered how the structure
of a sentence cues the reader to important information. If you structure your sentences carefully, you are encouraging readers to interpret them
correctly.
The structure has several other important uses: Firstly, you can structure sentences for emphasis, drawing attention to the most important part of
the sentence. Secondly, you can structure your sentences and paragraphs to flow, which is what cohesion and coherence are about.
To understand the distinction between cohesion and coherence, you should remember the following: Cohesion is the degree to which sentences
are “glued” together. Coherence is the logical structuring of writing into internally consistent units (paragraphs).
Section 2 focused on effective academic writing to improve cohesion, with particular emphasis on cohesive devices. Use reference words and
phrases, substitutions, and ellipses to make your writing more cohesive. The use of linking words is only one aspect of cohesion. Be careful not to
overuse linking words, and when you use them, do so appropriately.
Section 3 discussed the writing process and reflection. Firstly, the steps in the writing process may seem time-consuming at first, but following
these steps will save you time in the future. The more you plan in the beginning by reading and using prewriting strategies, the less time you may
spend writing and editing later.
Some prewriting strategies can be employed together. For example, you could use experience and observations to come up with a topic related to
your course studies. Then you could use freewriting to describe your topic in more detail and figure out what you have to say about it.
Furthermore, prewriting is purpose driven; it does not follow a set of hard and fast rules. The purpose of prewriting is to find and explore ideas so
that you will be prepared to write. A prewriting technique, like asking questions, can help you both find a topic and explore it. The key to effective
prewriting is to use techniques that work best for your thinking process. Freewriting may not seem to fit your thinking process, but keep an open
mind. It may work better than you think.
Perhaps brainstorming a list of topics suits your style. In the “accuracy stage”, copy can be proofread to ensure errors that may cause
misunderstanding are removed and that the vocabulary and sentence structures chosen are making the meaning of the text as clear as possible.
Therefore, in this unit, some core elements of the academic writing process were addressed. Keep the following important points in mind:
Begin writing about what you know the most about.

Write one paragraph at a time, and then stop.
Take short breaks to refresh your mind.
Be reasonable with your goals.
Keep your audience and purpose in mind as you write.
Make the writing process work for you. Use any of the strategies that help you move forward in the writing process.
Always be aware of the purpose of your writing and the needs of your audience. Cater to those needs in every possible way.
Remember to include all the key structural parts of an essay: a thesis statement in your introductory paragraph, three or more body paragraphs
as described in your outline, and a concluding paragraph. Then add an engaging title to engage the reader.
Write paragraphs of an appropriate length.
Use your topic or sentence outline to guide the development of your paragraphs and the elaboration of your ideas. Each main idea, indicated
by a Roman numeral in your outline, becomes the topic of a new paragraph. Develop it with the supporting details and the subpoints included
in your outline.
Generally speaking, write your introduction and conclusion last, after you have fleshed out the body paragraphs.
2/23/23, 12:45 PM Unit 2
5. Additional Reading
Graham, S. (2008). Effective writing instruction for all students. Renaissance Learning, 2-6. Available at
https://doc.renlearn.com/KMNet/R004250923GJCF33.pdf
Fitzmaurice, M., & O’Farrell, C. (2013). Developing your academic writing skills: a handbook. Dublin, Ireland, 1-36. Available at
https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Study+writing&btnG=
A Quick Tutorial on the Academic Writing Process. Available at https://www.academicwritingsuccess.com/the-academic-writing-process/
35 Effective Writing Strategies for College Level. Available at https://custom-writing.org/blog/writing-strategies-for-your-assignments
2/23/23, 12:45 PM Unit 2
6. References
Bailey, S. (2003). Academic writing: A practical guide for students. Psychology Press.
Bailey, S. (2014). Academic writing: A handbook for international students. Routledge.
Bromley, K. (2007). Best practices in teaching writing. Best practices in literacy instruction, 3, 243-263.
Creme, P., & Lea, M. (2008). Writing at university: A guide for students. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
Daffern, T., Mackenzie, N. M., & Hemmings, B. (2017). Predictors of writing success: How important are spelling, grammar, and punctuation?
Australian Journal of Education, 61(1), 75-87.
Ellis, A. W. (2018). Modelling the writing process. In Perspectives on cognitive neuropsychology (pp. 189-212). Routledge.
Graham, S. (2008). Effective writing instruction for all students. Renaissance learning, 2-6.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2013). Designing an effective writing program. Best practices in writing instruction, 2, 3-25.
Hamp-Lyons, L., & Heasley, B. (2006). Study writing: A course in written English for academic purposes. Cambridge University Press.
Kress, G., & Bezemer, J. (2009). Writing in a multimodal world of representation. The SAGE handbook of writing development, 167-181.
Mackenzie, J. L., & Hannay, M. (2017). Effective writing in English: A sourcebook. Retrieved
Reither, J. A. (1985). Writing and knowing: Toward redefining the writing process. College English, 47(6), 620-628.
Rijlaarsdam, G., & Van den Bergh, H. (2006). Writing process theory. Handbook of writing research, 41-53.
Santangelo, T., & Olinghouse, N. G. (2009). Effective writing instruction for students who have writing difficulties. Focus on exceptional children,
42(4), 21-22.
Savage, A., Davis, J., Liss, R., Mayer, P., & Shafiei, M. (2007). Effective academic writing. Oxford University Press.
White, R. V. (1988). Academic writing: Process and product. ELT documents, 129, 4-16.
Zemach, D. E., & Rumisek, L. A. (2003). Academic writing from paragraph to essay. Macmillan.

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2/23/23, 12:45 PM Unit 2

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1. UNIT 2: The Academic Writing Process

2. SECTION 1: Structure and Cohesion

3. SECTION 2: Effective Academic Writing

4. SECTION 3: The Writing Process and Reflection

1. UNIT 2: The Academic Writing Process

1.1. What is in this unit?

This unit is divided into three sections:

Section 1: Structure and Cohesion

Section 2: Effective Academic Writing

Section 3: The Writing Process and Reflection

1.2. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

use cohesive devices to structure sentences;

1.3. Study Time

You should now understand what is expected in this unit.

2. SECTION 1: Structure and Cohesion

2.1. The context

2.2. Cohesion and coherence

2.2.1 Linking words

and – to add information

Notice the linking words in the extract that follows:

2.2.2 Referring backwards

Pronouns: it, he, she, his, her, they, their

Demonstratives: this, that, these, those

Adverbs: previously, subsequently

2.2.3 Cohesive words and phrases

Let’s summarise cohesive words and phrases with specific examples:

Cohesive Words and Phrases Examples

Although, if, even, therefore, unless

For example, for instance

Reason words Above all, more/most importantly

For this reason, owing to this, therefore

Afterwards, at the same time, before,

Finally, in conclusion, in short, to summarise

2.2.4 Looking forward

2.2.6 Cohesive writing

2.3. Strategies to improve cohesion

The following strategies can be used to improve cohesion in writing:

3. SECTION 2: Effective Academic Writing

3.1. The context

3.2. Effective writing

3.2 Principles of effective writing

3.3. Choosing a topic

3.3.1 Writing an effective topic outline

4. SECTION 3: The Writing Process and Reflection

Let’s have a look at the writing process.

4.1. Applying prewriting models

There are five steps in the writing process:

Let’s look at the five steps in more detail:

Using experience and observations

Let’s look at the four strategies of prewriting in more detail:

Using experience and observations

TILL DUSK DAWN……. Simon & Kakishi (2022)

4.2. Outlining the structure of ideas

4.2.2 Thesis statement

4.2.3 Types of outlines

Sentence outline: All the headings are expressed in complete sentences.

4.2.4 Rules for outlining

1. Subdivide topics into a system of numbers and letters, followed by a period.

2. Each heading and subheading must have at least two parts.

Format both types of formal outlines in the same way.