THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

The importance of communication cannot be overstated. Family therapist Virginia Satir

has suggested that “Once a human being has arrived on this earth, communication is the single
most important factor determining what kinds of relationships he makes and what happens to him
in the world.” Satir continues by stating in no uncertain terms that “How he manages his survival,
how he develops intimacy, and how he makes sense of his world are largely dependent upon his
communication skills.” (Fujishin, 2009).
Four decades ago when he was the President of the United States of America, Gerald
Rudolph Ford Jr. spoke about the importance of communication skills. If he had a second chance
at college, he said, he would concentrate on learning to write and learning to speak. Today,
communication is even more important and more challenging than in President Ford’s time. We
live in an information age that revolves around communication. So, what exactly is
communication?
Definition of Communication
There is no a single definition of the word communication. There are different definitions
of the word communication. The word communication is from Latin word ‘’ communicare’’
meaning ‘’to share’’.
According to Verderber (1996) communication is the transactional process of creating
meaning. Three concepts are key in this definition. First, transactional means communication must
involve at least two people and those communicating are mutually responsible for the meaning
that each internalizes during and after interaction. Second, by process it means a systematic series
of behaviours with a purpose that occur over a period of time. Third, meaning refers to the content,
intention, and significance that is assigned to communication behaviour.
According to Fujishin (2009) communication is the process where by people create and
exchange meaning. A process means communication is moving, continually changing, with no
beginning or end. To fully understand the process of communication, we must notice how what
we say and do influences and affects what the other person says and does. We must pay attention
to the changes we experience and how these changes influence and affect our perception,
interpretation, and interactions with others, from moment to moment, year to year, and decade to
decade.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 According to Luhman (2001) communication is the process of sharing ideas, knowledge
and information while interacting with another person. Communication is the transfer of
information from one person to another but the information transferred must be understood to the
receiver.
Generally communication can be defined as the purposeful process through which two or
more people share/exchange information, ideas or feelings through verbal and non-verbal
transaction. It is a sum of all things that a person does in order to create an understanding in the
mind of another. Communication is a defining characteristic of human beings. No communication,
no development in all spheres of human life.

Characteristics of Communication
Certain generally accepted characteristics of communication are important to consider
when communicating with others. These characteristics hold true for all people in every culture.
They are the defining characteristics of human communication. By understanding these
characteristics, you will experience greater communication effectiveness.
1. Communication has a Purpose

When people communicate with one another, they have a purpose or goal for doing so. The
purpose of a given transaction may be serious or trivial, but one way to evaluate the success of
communication is to ask whether it achieves its purpose.

(a) To exchange of information

This is the main purpose of communication. Information is a key ingredient for effective
decision making. People communicate so as to inform others about news, policies, procedures,
events, etc.

(b) To persuade others

Some theorists argue that one of the purpose of communication is to influence the
behaviour of others. Influence is the ability to bring about changes in the attitudes and actions of
others. For example, during election campaigns politicians communicate so as to persuade voters
to vote for them. The result can be seen in the feedback.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 (c) To develop relationships

It is through communication that relationships grow and deepen – or stagnate and wither
away. Relationship can be social, work, friendly or intimate but all these are determined by the
frequency and the amount of information we share.

(d) To meet our needs

Human beings have various needs such as food, water, shelter, and others. In order to get
all these needs there is a need to communicate. For example, a person can get sugar from a shop
after speaking but if he/she remains silent will not get it.

(e) To instruct or direct others

Communicators transmit instructions or directives to others to enable them to perform

particular tasks. This is mainly done by those with authority. For example, a manager can direct
the employees to perform a given task.

(f) To enhance and maintain the sense of self

People communicate so as to seek approval of who and what they are. People communicate
so to induce a certain kind of perception to other people. They want people to know their interests,
needs, expectations, likes and dislikes etc. This will also determine the reactions and responses of
others towards them.

2. Communication is Transactional
Communication can be viewed as a transaction in which the meanings of messages are
negotiated between people. Those who are communicating should be mutually responsible for the
meaning that each internalizes during and after interaction. The transaction nature of
communication creates a more other-centered awareness and sensitivity to others. We can no
longer view the receiver of our messages as a receptacle in which we deposit our thoughts and
feelings with little or no message distortion.
For example, suppose John says to his brother, “Go upstairs and get me my jacket.” The
shared meaning that has been created, or the extent to which this message is effective, depends on

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

what happens next. If his brother says, “OK,” runs upstairs, and returns with the jacket, then one
of many shared meanings will have been successfully created.
3. Communication is Learned
The language we acquire, the extent of our vocabulary, the way we speak, our gestures,
eye contact, our touching, and how we dress are just a few of the many examples of learned
communication behavior. The principle that communication is learned suggests also that
communication can be unlearned and new ways of communicating acquired. This is most exciting
because then we can replace our ineffective and unhealthy ways of speaking, listening, and
behaving with more effective and healthy ways. Because we did not learn to communicate in
effective and healthy ways does not mean we are condemned to this fate for the rest of our lives.
4. Communication is a Continuous Process
In other words, you are always communicating. Too often we think that if we are not
talking, we are not communicating. You may not be communicating verbally, but your nonverbal
communication is constantly displaying signs and cues that reflect what you are thinking and
feeling internally. Your posture, gestures, facial expressions, clothing, use of time, and even the
car you drive are just a few of the nonverbal messages that others perceive and interpret.
5. Communication is relational

This means that in any communication setting people not only share content meaning, but
they also negotiate relationship. For example, when Lisa says to Cecile, “I have remembered the
map,” she is not only reporting information. Through the way she says it, she may also be
communicating “You can always depend on me” or “I am superior to you. If it weren’t for me, we
would be missing an important document for our trip.”

Two aspects of relationship can be negotiated during an interaction. One aspect is the affect
(love to hate) present in the relationship. Another aspect of the relational nature of communication
seeks to define who is in control.

6. Communication is a conscious process

Although communication is natural and spontaneous, for effective and appropriate

communication messages need to be consciously encoded. The process of encoding takes
microseconds depending on the processing ability of human brain.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
The process of communication involves several elements including the sender, message,
channel, receiver and feedback. All these elements operate almost instantaneously but for more
understanding they will be examined separately. Understanding these elements will enable one to
become an effective communicator.

1. Sender
The sender is any person who initiates the communication process. It is the person or
persons who want to communicate a message to another person or a group of people. The sender
is also regarded as the source or originator of the information. The sender can be a speaker, a
writer, or one who simply gestures. For example, when you pick up the cellular phone, open the
contacts and call a friend or when you open the Whatsapp and write a message to a friend, you are
acting as the sender.
The sender starts the process of communication by developing thoughts or ideas. The
process of transforming thoughts or ideas into verbal and non-verbal languages is called encoding.
The sender can also be referred as the encoder. Apart from encoding, other roles of the sender
include:
(a) Conceive the message
(b) Encode the message
(c) Select the type of the message
(d) Analyse the receiver
(e) Select the appropriate channel to be used
(f) Encourage feedback
(g) Identify and remove communication barriers that are likely to occur in the
communication process.
2. Message

The message is the idea, thought, or feeling that the source wants to communicate. It is
the subject matter of any communication. The message is encoded or converted into verbal and
nonverbal symbols that will most likely be understood by the receiver. For example, if a person
says “Even Rama came to the party”, this means Rama was not expected to come to that party or

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

a message from a one page text about HIV can be “HIV kills”. In order to send a clear message
the sender must consider the following four issues:

(a) Receiver characteristics.

(b) Message form and content
(c) Receiver feedback
(d) Communication barriers

For effective communication, the message must have the same meaning to both the sender
and the receiver.

3. Channel

A channel is both route and the means through which the message is transmitted from the
sender to the receiver. The message can be send by a letter, telephone, email, memorandum,
pictures, spoken words, and other channels. Most of the message are transmitted through channels
in oral or written forms.

Factors that influence the choice of channel of communication

The channel (or means) that is chosen to send a message is very important. The channel
chosen can influence the message and how it is interpreted by the recipient. Each situation should
be judged individually, and will depend on various factors such as:
(a) Age of the receiver
Age of the participants in ay communication act plays an important role in the choice media
of communication. Young generation prefers mostly social media and real-time messaging such
as web chat ad texts in favour of telephone communications. Elder people are happy using phone
and email but perhaps still not totally comfortable with real time messaging. This is a definite
factor in choice, but not the only one.
(b) Personality of the receiver
Basing on their personality, extroverts will be happier getting on phone and might even
enjoy some chitchat and putting their point across to a contact centre agent. In contrast those with
a reserved and introverted personality might prefer non-verbal channels such email. This means

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

they don’t need to someone ad they can avoid the need to think on their feet when communicating.
Email gives them plenty of time to consider and get across what they want to say.
(c) Socio-economic status of the receiver
This determine the access of the channel used. Farmers in rural areas with low income will
not have access to internet so using email or social media will not be effective. Some areas are so
remote hence sending a message will require a person to travel and call for a meeting. Most of
urban dwellers with good income have access to internet hence using email or social media will
be effective. One cannot choose the use of magazines or letters to the people who don’t know how
to read and write.
(d) Safety and security
This is one of the most important factor for selecting mechanical channels. Some electronic
channels like e-mail can be hacked and information released or changed. This also involves safety
in the delivery of information to the intended person.
(e) Distance
The choice of the channel of communication should consider whether people are within
the same organization or building, town or other side of the world. For example, when people are
communicating in the same building meeting or memo is appropriate.
(f) Time of the day
Time differ from one geographical region to another. There are some channels which are
appropriate during daytime while others are appropriate during night time. Time is also particularly
important when communicating with countries overseas.
(g) Confidentiality
Considering the level of confidentiality of some information some channels will be
appropriate while others will not be appropriate. For more confidential information, e-mail or fax
will not be appropriate but a signed letter enclosed in an envelope will be appropriate.
(h) Context
With context we mean the environmental situation that exists at the time of communication
involving the situation of the sender, receiver and message. In an emergency where we need a fast
answer, we pick up the phone irrespective of our demographic group. In contrast, for less time-
critical interactions sending an email provides the security of written audit trail. Therefore

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

companies need to look at why consumers are contacting them, particularly how urgent their query
is, when balancing resources between channels.
4. Receiver
Receiver is the person for whom the message intended to. The receiver can be an individual
or group of people who are listening, reading, or observing the process of communication. Once
the receiver hears the words and receives the nonverbal cues from the sender, he/she must
transform the verbal and nonverbal cues back into the ideas and feelings of the sender through the
process called decoding. The receiver is also called the decoder. For this to be effective the
receiver must use the same language rules as those used by the sender and also must share some
experiences with the sender. Apart from decoding other roles of the receiver include:
(a) listening or reading carefully
(b) being open to different types of senders and to new ideas
(c) making notes when necessary
(d) providing appropriate feedback to the sender
(e) asking questions to clarify the message

The processes of encoding and decoding messages are at the heart of communication process.

5. Feedback
Feedback is a verbal or nonverbal response of a receiver after decoding the message. The
communication process cannot be successful without appropriate feedback. It helps the sender to
know if the message has been received and understood or not. The response can send be send back
to the sender through the channel selected by the receiver. Feedback is another reason
communication is transactional. Feedback can be positive or negative. It serves the following
functions in the communication process:
(a) It motivates the sender to continue with the communication process.
(b) It improves knowledge on what is communicated.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION

A barrier is any factor that interferes with the success of communication process. It can hinder
effective communication. It can affect any of the basic five elements of the communication process
hence hinder effective communication. The following are some potential barriers of
communication:

1. Semantic barriers/Language barriers

Semantic barriers/language barriers are associated with unintended meaning aroused by

certain verbal or non-verbal clues that can inhibit the accuracy of decoding. They can make the
message not being understood correctly, or a message becoming distorted. These barriers are
mainly associated with the language used. They include the following:

(i) Badly expressed message

This barrier is created because of the wrong choice of words, sequence of words and frequent
repetition. This may be called linguistic chaos. For example messages such as ‘’corruption free
zone’’ or “selfie free zone’’ are badly expressed hence creates multiple interpretations.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 (ii) The use of symbols or words with multiple meanings

A symbol or a word can have different meaning according to the context. If the receiver
misunderstands the communication it becomes meaningless. For example, the word ‘’value’’ can
have different meanings in the following sentences:

(a) What is the value of computer education these days?

(b) What is the value of this mobile set?

(iii) Faulty translation

A manager receives much information from his/her superiors and subordinates and translates it
for all the employees according to their level of understanding. Hence the information has to be
molded according to the understanding or environment of the receiver. If there is a little
carelessness in this process, the faulty translation can be a barrier in the communication.

(iv) Unclarified assumptions

It has been observed that sometimes a sender takes it for granted that the receiver knows some
basic things, therefore it is enough to tell him/her about the major subject matter. For example,
‘’all the businesses went as planned before’’, here the sender assumes that the receiver knows all
the plans.

(v) Technical jargon

This involves the use of some special technical terms to people with separate technical
language. Technical groups include engineers, computer scientists, production development
manager, quantity surveyors etc. For example, an engineer can say’’ the change from 3G to 4G in
Tanzania is a significant development in internet access’’.

2. Social-psychological problems

The importance of communication depends on mental conditions of both parties. A mentally

disturbed part can be a hindrance in communication. Psychological barriers can be also associated

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

with the moods and feelings each person brings to a communication episode. The following are
some socio-emotional barriers in the way of communication:

(i) Emotions

Communication cannot succeed if the person is highly emotional about the topic concerned. If the
sender is perplexed, worried, excited, afraid, nervous then he/she will not be able to organize his
message properly. If emotions are high on the part of the sender or recipient, then it would be
better to wait for a while before trying to put the message across.

(ii) Premature evaluation

Sometimes the receiver of information tries to dig out meaning without much thinking at the
time of receiving or even before receiving information which can be wrong. This type of evaluation
is a hindrance in the exchange of information and the enthusiasm of the sender gets dampened.

(iii) Lack of attention

When the receiver is preoccupied with some important work he/she does not listen to the
message attentively. Attention is highly demanded for communication to be effective. For
example, an employee is taking to his/her boss when the latter is busy in some important
conversation. In such a situation the boss may not pay attention to what the subordinate is saying
hence he/she may not understand the message clearly.

(iv) Closed mind

A person with a closed mind is very difficult to communicate with. People who are
conservative are so rigid and sometimes refuse to listen or read things that are against what they
believe. They listen what they want to listen, instead of what has been actually said.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 (v) Distrust

For a successful communication the transmitter and the receiver must trust each other. If there
is a lack of trust between them, the receiver will always derive an opposite meaning from the
message. Because of this communication will be meaningless.

3. Physical barriers
(i) Noise

A noisy machine in an area where a supervisor is trying to speak with an employee can hinder
effective oral communication. Electronic noise interferes in communication by telephone or loud
speaker system. The word noise is also used to refer to all kind of physical interference like
illegible hand writing, bad photo-copies etc.

(ii) Appearance of the Sender

Unusual clothing, speech mannerisms, body twitches, or a radical hairstyle can cause enough
distraction to prevent us from communicating effectively. For success in oral business
communication, senders should be sure that their dress, cleanliness, and facial and body
movements are appropriate to their professions and to the communication situations they
encounter. Wearing a tuxedo to a beach party is as inappropriate as wearing a swimsuit to the
office.

(iii) Environmental factors

Other environmental factors apart from noise can be barriers to effective communication
include room temperature, odour, light, colour, seating arrangement and distance.

4. Organizational barriers

Organizational structure greatly affects the capability of the employees as so far as the
communication is concerned. Some major organizational hindrances in the way of communication
are the following;

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 (i) Organizational policies

Organizational policies determine the relationship among all the persons working in the
enterprise. For example, it can be the policy of the organization that will be in the written form. In
such a situation anything that could be conveyed in a few words shall have to be communicated in
the written form. Consequently, work gets delayed.

(ii) Status

Under organization all the employees are divided into many categories on the basis of their
levels. This formal division acts as the barrier in communication moves from the bottom to the
top. For example, when a lower level employee has to send his message to a superior at the top
level there is a lurking fear, in his mind that the communication may be faulty, and because of this
fear, he/she cannot communicate effectively.

(iii) Organizational facilities

Organizational facilities mean making available sufficient stationery, telephone, etc. when
these facilities are sufficient in an organization, the communication will be timely, clear and in
accordance with the necessity. In the absence of these facilities communication will be
meaningless.

There are other several barriers of communication such as physical disabilities on the part of the
sender or receive, lack of knowledge, language difficulty and wrong choice of the medium.

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

There are basically three forms of communication that are;

(i) Verbal/oral communication

(ii) Non-verbal communication
(iii) Written communication

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 (i) Verbal/oral communication

Oral communication is the communication where the message or information exchanges by

spoken words. It can be done by both face to face and also through mechanical devices. Verbal
communication is applicable to a wide range of situations, ranging from informal office
discussions to public speeches made to thousands of people. When most of people think of verbal
communication they think of speaking, but listening is an equally important skill for this type of
communication to be successful.

Advantages of Verbal/Oral Communication

1. It can be used to both literate and illiterate people.

2. Speaker is able to get personal attention of the listener: You might spend hours drafting
a memorandum, letter or report only to have recipient scan if superficially or not read it at
all. In a personal contact, however, you have much more command over the receiver’s
attention.
3. It saves time: Where action is required to be taken immediately, it is advisable to
communicate orally. Once you make contact with your audience, there is no time lag
between the transmission and reception of massage.
4. It saves money: At one time you can communicate with more than one person and it saves
money as compared to the written communication when it is within the organization.
5. It allows immediate feedback: When you speak directly to one or more listeners, you can
respond to questions as soon as they arise. You can revise quickly if you have used the
wrong word and offended or confused your audience.
6. Supplemented by non-verbal clues: The person receiving oral communication can
combine it with the expressions and other non-verbal clues around the speaker, the message
can be better understood.

Limitations of verbal/oral communication

1. No evidence: There is no documentary proof of oral communication and as such the impact
of oral communication is purely temporary.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 2. More prone to physical noise: An oral message has more probability of getting distorted
because of physical noise of speech, somebody interfering in between, and likewise.
3. Oral massages do not have any legal validity unless they are taped and made a part of
permanent record.
4. The lengthy messages are not suitable for such type of communication, because of poor
retention power of human being.

When to use verbal/oral communication

Verbal/oral channels of communication can be used when:

• The message to be sent is fairly simple

• There is a need of an immediate feedback
• There is no need of permanent records
• One needs to read the receiver’s body language
• The message has emotional factor.

(ii) Written communication

Written communication is communication where the information, ideas or feeling are

exchanged by written words. Memos, letters, e-mail, web pages, notes, reports, telegrams,
newsletters, and news releases are examples of written communication. It essential for complicated
information such as statistics or other data that could not be easily communicated through speech
alone. Written communication also allows information to be recorded so that it can be referred to
a later time. When producing a piece of written communication, especially one that is likely to be
referred to over and over again you need to plan what want to write.

Advantages of written communication

1. Permanent record. Written messages can be preserved as records and reference sources.
Various media of communication can be filed for future reference. Thus, keeping records
are essential for continuous operation of the business.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 2. Legal reference. Written communication is acceptable as a legal document. That is why
some executives think that even if some messages have been transmitted orally, they should
later be confirmed in writing.
3. Highly accurate. Written messages can be proofread before transmitted which increases
the chance of avoiding mistakes unlike oral communication which is spontaneous.
4. Effective for decision making. Decision-making process becomes easier if old records are
available. Because the messages provide the necessary information for decision-making
purpose.

Disadvantages of written communication

1. Expensive and time consuming. Written messages such as letters, or reports require
enough time to prepare them and costly in printing and sending them.
2. Limited only to people who know how to read and write. Unlike oral communication
which is more human in nature due the fact that all human beings except those with some
disabilities are capable of speaking, written communication is limited to only those who
know how to read and write.
3. It is difficulty to make some clarifications on the message once it has been sent. Unlike
oral communication where the sender can put some emphasize or elaborate more some
points for clear understanding, written communication is not.

When to use written communication

Written communication can be used when:

• The message is fairly detailed or requires careful planning

• There is no need of an immediate response
• There is a need of permanent records
• One wants to minimize the distortion that often occurs when messages are passed
orally from person to person
• The message has no emotional factor

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 (iii) Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication includes all unwritten and unspoken messages, whether intended
or not. Nonverbal messages are an important part of the communication process because they
provide added information the receiver can use in decoding or interpreting the message. However,
the extra information can add to or detract from the meaning of a message. It is closely associated
with the power of observation.

Non-verbal communication is culturally determined like verbal communication, but there are
some characteristics that distinguish nonverbal dimension of communication from the spoken or
written word.

(a) Nonverbal communication is instantaneous

Unlike verbal language, nonverbal communication is instantaneous. When you receive

disappointing news, your face, posture, and breathing can immediately reflect your physical and
emotional response to that information, whereas your verbal response can take a few moments,
minutes, or even years to be expressed.
(b) Nonverbal communication is more universal
Whereas a specific language is understood and meaningful only to those who speak the
language, nonverbal communication is more universally understood. If you observe two people
speaking a language you don’t understand, you can still derive some meaning from their gestures,
posture, facial expressions, touching, tone of voice, volume, rate of speech, and body movement.
If the two are smiling, whispering, and locked in an embrace, you would conclude that they liked
each other, even if you didn’t understand a single word of their conversation.
(c) Nonverbal communication is emotionally rich
Whereas words can convey or communicate the basic meaning of an object, thought, or
feeling, nonverbal communication can often convey the depth, attitude, and feeling of the speaker.
Nonverbal communication conveys emotions and feelings much more effectively than words. For
instance, if you cancel a luncheon date with a friend, his frown, downcast eyes, and slumped
shoulders convey his disappointment even if he says, “That’s all right.”

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 (d) Non-verbal communication is multi-channeled
Nonverbal communication is not limited to only one channel, but can utilize all five channels.
Nonverbal cues can be seen, heard, tasted, smelled, and/or felt simultaneously, like when you swim
in the ocean. You can see, feel, taste, smell, and hear the ocean as you swim. This complexity and
richness of nonverbal communication is testament to its influence and power in conveying
messages.
(e) Nonverbal communication is continuous
Unlike verbal or written communication which end when somebody stops speaking or writing,
nonverbal communication is continues for as long as people are in another’s presence.

Types of non-verbal communication

1. Body Movement

This deals with all the ways people use their bodies to communicate or enhance their verbal
communication. Body movement includes posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye contact.
(a) Eye contact

Eye contact, also referred to as gaze, involves looking directly at the person or people with
whom you are communicating. By maintaining eye contact, you can tell when a person is paying
attention to your words, when a person is involved in what you are saying, whether what you are
saying is causing anxiety, and whether the person you are talking with has something to hide. For
example, in American culture a person look another person straight into the eyes is a sign of
sincerity, confidence, and truthfulness.

(b) Facial expression

Facial expression involves the arrangement of facial muscles to communicate emotional states
or reactions to the message. It includes the arrangement of muscles of the mouth, cheeks, eyes,
eyelids, eyebrows, nose, forehead, and chin to express six basic emotions: happiness, sadness,
surprise, fear, anger, and disgust.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 • Raising eyebrows – maintained for about one-sixth of a second before lowering – among
Europeans, alinese, Papuans, Samoans, South American Indians, Bushmen, and others
means giving approval or agreeing, seeking information, thanking, and when beginning
and/or emphasizing a statement.
The face is probably the most observed part of the body when we communicate with others,
and this is not without reason. Our face usually communicates our internal, emotional
experience. Researchers have suggested that there are at least 640 different facial expression
when you take into account the different eyebrow/forehead, eyes/eyelid, and lower face
expressions possible.
(c) Gesture

Gestures are the movements of hands, arms, and fingers that we use to describe or to emphasize.
When a person says “It’s up to you to decide” or “We can’t let this happen,” pointing a finger,
pounding the first, or other gesture often reinforces the point.

(d) Posture

Posture involves positioning and movement of the body. Changes in posture can also
communicate. For instance, suddenly sitting upright and leaning forward show intensity of
attention, standing up may signal “I’m done now,” and turning one’s back showing a cutting off
of attention. Posture determine the following:

• The degree of attention or involvement

• The degree of liking for the other interactant
• The degree of status relative to the other interactive partner.
• It is also an indicator of the intensity of some emotional states: for example, the drooping
posture associated with sadness, or the rigid or tense posture associated with anger.
2. Paralanguage

Paralanguage refers to how we speak. It is concerned with how something (vocal characteristics)
is said rather than what is said. It includes pitch, volume, rate and quality.

(a) Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of our voice. The pitch of our voice is primarily
determined by the physical length and thickness of our vocal chords, but it can rise if we
GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa
 are frightened, anxious, or excited, and it can lower if we are attempting to sound more
powerful or authoritative.
(b) Volume refers to the relative softness or loudness of our voice. It is mainly determine
force of the air that we expel while breathing. We often speak in a characteristic volume;
some individuals talk loudly, whereas others talk in almost a whisper. We can also adjust
our volume to meet the requirements of the communication setting we are in. In a noisy,
crowded room we raise our volume and speak above the other voices, whereas during a
movie or quiet dinner we lower our voice.
(c) Rate is how fast or slow we speak. People tend to have their own personal rate of speech.
Some speak fast, others slow. We tend to increase our rate of speech when we’re excited,
frightened, or nervous, and we tend to decrease our rate of speech when we’re uncertain,
thoughtful, and sad.
(d) Quality refers to the overall tone or sound of our voice. Each human voice has a
distinctive tone. One voice is loud and deep. Another voice is soft and high pitched. The
quality of one’s voice may be characterized by soothing, harsh, strident, or calm.

3. Self-Presentation

People learn a great about us from the way we choose to present ourselves nonverbally. It includes
clothing, and grooming.

(a) Clothing

Clothing is one of the most obvious and public displays of who we are and what we want to
communicate to others. On days we are feeling casual or want to communicate a less formal public
image to the world, we can dress in old jeans, sneakers, and a tie-dyed T-shirt. On more formal
days, we can choose a business suit, a dress, or even a tuxedo, with jewelry to match. We can
create a variety of public images simply by the clothing we wear.
(b) Grooming
Our grooming can also reflect and communicate messages to the world. The length and style of
our hair, bathing routines, makeup, cologne and perfume, finger and toenail painting (even for men
these days), and many other grooming habits communicate a great deal about who we are and how
we want to be perceived.

4. Environmental structures and conditions

People change environments to help them accomplish their communicative goals; conversely,
environments can affect our moods, choices of words or actions. This category includes:

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 (a) Space

How we order the space around us tells something about ourselves and our objectives. Whether
the space is a bedroom, a dorm room, an office, or a department, people reveal themselves in the
design and grouping of their furniture. Former FBI director J. Edgar Hoover used to make his
visitors sit at a small table below his large, elevated desk. Clearly, he did not want office visitors
to feel equal to him.

(b) Distance

The distance between the communicators will also affect the communication. This distance will
vary with individuals from different cultures. Distance will show intimate, casual or formal
conversations.

(c) Lighting

Lighting can also act as a stimulant or deterrent to communication. In lecture halls and reading
rooms, bright light is expected-it encourages good listening and comfortable reading. By contrast,
in a chic restaurant or television lounge, you expect the lighting to be soft and rather dim, which
makes for a cozy atmosphere and leads to intimate conversation.

(e) Colour

Differences in colour seem to have a particular significant effect on how people behave. We react
to colour both emotionally and physically. The table below show some of the colours and their
suggested meanings:

Colour Meaning
Red Stimulating/exciting
Blue Secure/comfortable/soothing
Orange Distressed/disturbed/upset
Green Calm/peaceful
Black Powerful/strong/masterful/ unhappy/dejected

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 yellow Cheerful/jovial/joyful
purple Dignified/stately

Significance of non-verbal communication

1. A nonverbal communication may be more honest than a verbal one. Nonverbal cues may
be transmitted unconsciously and without having been planned.
2. Nonverbal communication is always present. Neither oral nor written communication
exists without nonverbal communication.
3. Non-verbal communication is multi-channeled. Non-verbal cues, however, may be seen,
heard, felt, smelled, or tasted, and several of these cues may occur simultaneously.
4. Nonverbal communication gives a more insight into emotional states.

COMMUNICATION AND ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

Communication is divided into external and internal communication. External communications

are those communications which are occurring outside the organization like communication with
other companies, with government, general public etc. Internal communications are those which
are inside the organization. Internal communications are further divided into two parts, formal or
official and informal.

1. Formal Communication

Formal communication involves the flow of information along the formal lines of authority in
the organization structure. The information flows along the chain of command and is recognized
as official.

Most organizations/companies produce an organization chart which makes the lines of

communication quite clear. The charts specify who should talk to whom in the chain of
command. Generally, formal communication:

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 • It is planned by the organization/company
• It flows in all directions
• It is essential for the effective operation of the business.

Advantages of formal communication

(i) It keeps uniformity in dissemination of information.

(ii) It ensures the maintenance of authority and accountability of the person in-charge.
(iii) It flows information systematically and the information is trustworthy.
(iv) The source of information is known which creates harmony among the employees.

Disadvantages of formal communication

(i) It increases the workload of various managers as communication is to be transmitted

through them.
(ii) Widens the communication gap between the executives and employees at the lower
level.
(iii) It is time consuming because it follows the scalar chain of authority. The
communication flows from one authority level to another and it takes too much time.
(iv) It is not suitable for communicating interpersonal information hence workers will
have little control over their working lives.
Patterns of Formal Communication

Considering the direction of flow of information, formal communication can be further

subdivided into vertical communication, horizontal communication, and diagonal
communication.

(a) Vertical Communication

In vertical communication, messages flow upward or downward along a path referred to as the
“chain of command.” Reports and proposals commonly follow an upward path; policy
statements, plans, directives, and instructions typically follow a downward path. Vertical

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

communication can be further subdivided into upward communication and downward
communication.

i. Upward communication

This communication involves the flow of messages up the line of authority from subordinates to
managers. Communications are directed upwards to managers, supervisors, or directors by using
memos, reports, meetings, and formal discussions.

Advantages of upward communication

• It helps to know the employees’ accomplishments, problems and attitudes.

• It allows employees to make suggestions and feel they are part of the decision-making
process.
• It improves creativity and enable the introduction of new plans and schemes in an
organization. Employees can make suggestions about which tasks need to be done and
how they can be done.
• It helps in promoting harmony between the management and the employees.
• It can make problems and grievances to be addressed timely.

Disadvantages of upward communication

• Employees fear that their criticism may be interpreted as a sign of their personal
weakness.
• Bypassed superiors feel insulted which leads differences between the relationship of the
superiors and employees.
• Great possibility of message distortion.
ii. Downward communication

This pattern of communication involves the flow of information from individuals in higher levels
of the organization to those of the lower levels. It includes policy statements, procedure manuals,
information needed to conduct work, company publications, job description, etc.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 Advantages of downward communication

• Helps to explain to subordinates the organizational plans, policies program and

procedures, work methodology etc. necessary information for performing the job.
• Helps to convey to the subordinates the expectations of management from them.
• Acts as a mean to control the activities of the subordinates with active feedback.
• Provides motivation to the subordinates.

Disadvantages of downward communication

• Sometimes the message may be distorted in the transmission from one level to another
level.
• If a particular authority is not present on the time of passing information it may leads to
delay in transmission of the message.
• Sometimes when the workload is unevenly distributed among the employees it creates
overload or unload of work which causes dissatisfaction among the employees.
(b) Horizontal communication

Horizontal message flow occurs between workers or units of comparable status who need to
share data or coordinate efforts. They can be departmental heads, managers, directors,
supervisors, etc

Advantages of horizontal communication

• It develops mutual trust and confidence amongst employees of same level which help in
maintaining or promote understanding between similar position holders of different
departments.

• If employees at similar position communicate to each other for a given task it will create
or develop the feeling of co-ordination among various departments.

Disadvantages of horizontal communication

• Sometimes it creates rivalry among employees of various departments.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 • Proximity shows the liking and disliking of an employee who is near by another in
respect of space. Like in any organization HR department and Marketing department are
near to each other than manufacturing department. So proximity exists between HR and
Marketing department and they favour each other as compared to manufacturing
department.

• Biasing shows the liking and disliking of an employee due to religion, caste, family
background, personality etc.

(c) Diagonal communication

This involves different levels and sections with no obvious line of authority. It occurs mainly
when a task that involve more than one section or level emerges. It often relies largely on
cooperation, goodwill and respect between mutual parties.

2. Informal Communication

Informal communication—sometimes referred to as a grapevine— involves the flow of

information among people at the same or different levels of the organizational hierarchy but do
not follow the formal lines of authority or responsibility. It consists of both business-related and
personal information.

Typically, informal communications are maintained through gossip – the sharing of personal
information that is irrelevant to specific task or organizational decision. Most informal
communication is oral, but widespread use of social media has made informal written
communication more popular. Informal communication:

• It is not planned by the organization/company

• It flows in all directions
• Develops and maintains positive human relationships.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa

 Advantages of informal communication

(i) It is much richer in content than formal communication as communicators provide

more details in their messages and are more willing to give and receive feedback.
(ii) It helps employees form meaningful interpersonal relationships, gain a sense of self
respect, meet their sociability needs, and exercise some degree of control over their
working lives.
(iii) It improves organizational decision making and fostering innovation. It enables
people to have access to a wealth of valuable information that they were not officially
supposed to possess. New ideas often come from outside.
(iv) Informal communication are efficient means of meeting anticipated communication
needs, for managing crises, for dealing with complex or detailed problems or sharing
personal information.
(v) The message travel or transmitted faster than any other form of communication
because group formation is based on individual’s own liking and disliking.

Disadvantages of informal communication

(i) The sender has little accountability for the message.

(ii) It is subject to error and distortion because of the speed at which it passes.
(iii) The transmission of the message depends upon the willingness of the sender and what
method they used in grapevine which causes sometimes transmission of incomplete
information.

GST 05202 English Language Skills Ramadhani Issa