Experiment 6(a)

Astable Multivibrator
Aim: To design Astable Multivibrator and observe its output waveform.
Theory:
Multivibrators are non-sinusoidal oscillators which are usually two-stage
amplifiers with positive feedback. These circuits are made up of both active and
passive components. Active components include elements such as BJTs (Bipolar
Junction Transistors), FETs (Field Effect Transistors), Vacuum Tubes, Op-
Amps and 555 timer ICs. Passive components include elements like resistors
and capacitors. However while designing them, care must be taken so as to
ensure that the two-stages of the circuit continuously alter their states between
cutoff and saturation regions.
Astable multivibrators are the multivibrators which have no stable state i.e. the
multivibrators in which the output continuously oscillates between two
permissible states. As a result, they produce square-wave at their output and are
regarded to be free-running in-nature. Further, these multivibrators do not
require any kind of external triggering, except the DC supply, due to which they
fall under the category of relaxation oscillators.
Circuit Diagram:

Output Waveform:
Advantages: The advantages of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −

 No external triggering required.

 Circuit design is simple
 Inexpensive
 Can function continuously
Disadvantages: The drawbacks of using an astable multivibrator are as follows-

 Energy absorption is more within the circuit.

 Output signal is of low energy.
 Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.
Applications: Astable Multivibrators are used in many applications such as
amateur radio equipment, Morse code generators, timer circuits, analog circuits,
and TV systems.
 Experiment 6(b)
Monostable Multivibrator
Aim: To design Monostable Multivibrator and observe its output waveform.
Theory:
Multivibrators are non-sinusoidal relaxation oscillators which can be of three
types viz., astable multivibrators, monostable multivibrators and bistable
multivibrators.
It is a well-known fact that all the systems exhibit the natural tendency to be in
their stable states. However one can even design the circuits which will switch-
over into an unstable state when triggered externally. The time-period for which
the system remains in this quasi-stable depends on the design and can be varied
by changing the values of the associated circuit components. On completion of
this definite time-interval, these circuits will resume their stable state
spontaneously i.e. they do not need any kind of trigger for this action. These
kinds of circuits can be referred to as Monostable Multivibrators as they
possess just a single stable state. Due to the same reason, they are even known
as One Shot Multivibrators, Single Shot Multivibrators, Single Swing
Multivibrators or Delay Multivibrators and Univibrators.
Monostable multibrators produce a perfect square wave at their output as their
output is not concerned with the charging of the capacitor. These are almost half
the size of the astable multivibrators and are simple in design and inexpensive.
As a result, they are extensively used as timers, delay circuits, gated circuits,
frequency dividers, etc. and also to generate fixed-duration pulses sensitive to
some external event, to control the frequency of the analog circuit’s output, to
synchronize the line and frame rate of television broadcasts, to regenerate old
and worn out pulses in telecommunication and computer systems and to
moderate the tunes of various octaves in the case of electronic organs.
Circuit Diagram:

Output Waveform:
Advantages: The advantages of Monostable Multivibrator are as follows -

 One trigger pulse is enough.

 Circuit design is simple
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages: The major drawback of using a monostable multivibrator is that
the time between the applications of trigger pulse T has to be greater than the
RC time constant of the circuit.
Applications: Monostable Multivibrators are used in applications such as
television circuits and control system circuits.
 Experiment 6(c)
Bistable Multivibrator
Aim: To design Bistable Multivibrator and observe its output waveform.
Theory:
The Bistable Multivibrator is another type of two state device similar to the
Monostable Multivibrator we looked at in the previous tutorial but the
difference this time is that BOTH states are stable.
Bistable Multivibrators have TWO stable states (hence the name: “Bi” meaning
two) and maintain a given output state indefinitely unless an external trigger is
applied forcing it to change state.
The bistable multivibrator can be switched over from one stable state to the
other by the application of an external trigger pulse thus, it requires two external
trigger pulses before it returns back to its original state. As bistable
multivibrators have two stable states they are more commonly known as Latches
and Flip-flops for use in sequential type circuits.
The discrete Bistable Multivibrator is a two state non-regenerative device
constructed from two cross-coupled transistors operating as “ON-OFF”
transistor switches. In each of the two states, one of the transistors is cut-off
while the other transistor is in saturation, this means that the bistable circuit is
capable of remaining indefinitely in either stable state.
To change the bistable over from one state to the other, the bistable circuit
requires a suitable trigger pulse and to go through a full cycle, two triggering
pulses, one for each stage are required. Its more common name or term of “flip-
flop” relates to the actual operation of the device, as it “flips” into one logic
state, remains there and then changes or “flops” back into its first original state.
Circuit Diagram:

Output Waveform:
Advantages of Bistable Multivibrator:

 It has the ability to store previous output until no any input trigger is
provided.
 The circuit design is not complex.

Disadvantages of Bistable Multivibrator:

 Every time in order to have transition from one stable state to another,
triggering pulse is required.
 It is somewhat costly than astable and monostable multivibrator.

Applications of Bistable Multivibrator

These are widely used in the circuits of latches and counters. It is also used in
frequency divider circuits and in storage devices.
 Experiment 7
Differential Amplifier
Aim: To design and construct Differential amplifier using BJT(BC107).
Theory:
A differential amplifier (also known as a difference amplifier or op-amp
subtractor) is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference
between two input voltages but suppresses any voltage common to the two
inputs. A differential amplifier is an analog circuit with two inputs (V 1 and V2)
and one output (V0) in which the output is ideally proportional to the difference
between the two voltages.
The formula for a simple differential amplifier can be expressed:

𝑉 = 𝐴(𝑉1 − 𝑉2)

Where

 V is the output voltage

 V1 and V2 are the input voltages
 A is the gain of the amplifier (i.e. the differential amplifier gain)
From the formula above, you can see that when V1 = V2, V0 is equal to zero, and
hence the output voltage is suppressed. But any difference between inputs V1
and V2 is multiplied (i.e. amplified) by the differential amplifier gain Ad.
This is why the differential amplifier is also known as a difference amplifier –
the difference between the input voltages is amplified.

These devices are used as motor and/or servo controllers, signal amplifiers,
analog multipliers, switches, volume controllers, automatic gain controllers,
amplitude modulators, etc., and cover a wide range of applications including
those in instrumentation systems, microphones, analog to digital converters and
myriad applications.
Circuit Diagram:

Output Waveform:
 Experiment 8(a)
Summing Amplifier
Aim: To design summing amplifier using Operational amplifier (IC741), and
verify the output response.
Theory:
An op amp is an amplifier. But an op amp can also perform summing operation.
We can design an op amp circuit to combine number of input signals and to
produce single output as a weighted sum of input signals.
Summing amplifier is basically an op amp circuit that can combine number of
input signals to a single output that is the weighted sum of all inputs.

The summing Amplifier is one variation of inverting amplifier. In inverting

amplifier there is only one voltage signal applied to the inverting input.

In this simple summing amplifier circuit, the output voltage, ( Vout ) now
becomes proportional to the sum of the input voltages, V1, V2, V3, etc. Then we
can modify the original equation for the inverting amplifier to take account of
these new inputs thus:
The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit indeed, enabling us to
effectively “Add” or “Sum” (hence its name) together several individual input
signals. If the inputs resistors, R1, R2, R3 etc, are all equal a “unity gain inverting
adder” will be made. However, if the input resistors are of different values a
“scaling summing amplifier” is produced which will output a weighted sum of
the input signals.

Circuit Diagram:
Using the previously found formula for the gain of the circuit:

We can now substitute the values of the resistors in the circuit as follows:

We know that the output voltage is the sum of the two amplified input signals
and is calculated as:
Output Waveform:
 Experiment 8(b)
Unity Follower
Aim: To design unity follower using Operational amplifier (IC741), and verify
the output response.
Theory:
A unity follower (also known as a buffer amplifier, unity-gain amplifier, or
isolation amplifier) is an op-amp circuit whose output voltage is equal to the
input voltage (it “follows” the input voltage). Hence a voltage follower op-amp
does not amplify the input signal and has a voltage gain of 1.
The voltage follower provides no attenuation or amplification—only buffering.

A voltage follower circuit has a very high input impedance. This characteristic
makes it a popular choice in many different types of circuits that require
isolation between the input and output signal.

Voltage Follower Gain:A voltage follower has a voltage gain of 1 (unity),

because the output voltage follows the input voltage. Although the voltage gain
of a voltage buffer amplifier is approximately unity, it provides considerable
current and power gain. Despite this it is common to say that it has a gain of 1—
referring to the voltage gain (the equivalent 0 dB).

Advantages of Unity Followers:

The advantages of voltage followers include:

 Provides power gain and current gain.

 Low output impedance to the circuit, which uses the output of the voltage
follower.
 The Op-amp takes zero current from the input.
 Loading effects can be avoided.
Applications of Voltage Followers: Some of the applications of voltage
followers include:
 Buffers for logic circuits.
 In Sample and hold circuits.
 In Active filters.
 In Bridge circuits via a transducer.

Circuit Diagram:
Output Waveform:
 Experiment 8(c)
Integrator Circuit
Aim: To design integrator circuit using Operational amplifier (IC741), and
verify the output response.
Theory:
The Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit that performs the
mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause the output to
respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the op-amp integrator
produces an output voltage which is proportional to the integral of the input
voltage.
In other words the magnitude of the output signal is determined by the length of
time a voltage is present at its input as the current through the feedback loop
charges or discharges the capacitor as the required negative feedback occurs
through the capacitor.

When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating

amplifier, the uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like
a short circuit allowing maximum current to flow via the input resistor, Rin as
potential difference exists between the two plates. No current flows into the
amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero output. As the
impedance of the capacitor at this point is very low, the gain ratio of XC/RIN is
also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less than one, ( voltage
follower circuit ).
As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the
input voltage, its impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of
charge. The capacitor charges up at a rate determined by the RC time constant,
( τ ) of the series RC network. Negative feedback forces the op-amp to produce
an output voltage that maintains a virtual earth at the op-amp’s inverting input.
Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input (which is
at virtual ground potential) and the op-amp’s output (which is now negative),
the potential voltage, Vc developed across the capacitor slowly increases
causing the charging current to decrease as the impedance of the capacitor
increases. This results in the ratio of Xc/Rin increasing producing a linearly
increasing ramp output voltage that continues to increase until the capacitor is
fully charged.
At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more flow of DC
current. The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor ( XC/RIN ) is now
infinite resulting in infinite gain. The result of this high gain (similar to the op-
amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the amplifier goes into saturation as
shown below. (Saturation occurs when the output voltage of the amplifier
swings heavily to one voltage supply rail or the other with little or no control in
between).
The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is determined
by the value of the resistor and the capacitor, “RC time constant“. By changing
this RC time constant value, either by changing the value of the Capacitor, C or
the Resistor, R, the time in which it takes the output voltage to reach saturation
can also be changed for example.
If we apply a constantly changing input signal such as a square wave to the
input of an Integrator Amplifier then the capacitor will charge and discharge in
response to changes in the input signal. This results in the output signal being
that of a sawtooth waveform whose output is affected by the RC time constant
of the resistor/capacitor combination because at higher frequencies, the
capacitor has less time to fully charge. This type of circuit is also known as
a Ramp Generator.
We know from first principles that the voltage on the plates of a capacitor is
equal to the charge on the capacitor divided by its capacitance giving Q/C. Then
the voltage across the capacitor is output Vout therefore: -Vout = Q/C. If the
capacitor is charging and discharging, the rate of charge of voltage across the
capacitor is given as:

But dQ/dt is electric current and since the node voltage of the integrating op-
amp at its inverting input terminal is zero, X = 0, the input current I(in) flowing
through the input resistor, Rin is given as:

The current flowing through the feedback capacitor C is given as:

Assuming that the input impedance of the op-amp is infinite (ideal op-amp), no
current flows into the op-amp terminal. Therefore, the nodal equation at the
inverting input terminal is given as:
From which we derive an ideal voltage output for the Op-amp Integrator as:

Circuit Diagram:
Output Waveform:
 Experiment 8(d)
Differentiator Circuit
Aim: To design differentiator circuit using Operational amplifier (IC741), and
verify the output response.
Theory:
A differentiator circuit is an electronic circuit that produces an output equal to
the first derivative of its input.
An op-amp based differentiator produces an output, which is equal to the
differential of input voltage that is applied to its inverting terminal. The circuit
diagram of an op-amp based differentiator is shown in the following figure −

The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor. The capacitor
blocks any DC content so there is no current flow to the amplifier summing
point, X resulting in zero output voltage. The capacitor only allows AC type
input voltage changes to pass through and whose frequency is dependant on the
rate of change of the input signal.
At low frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is “High” resulting in a low
gain ( Rƒ/Xc ) and low output voltage from the op-amp. At higher frequencies
the reactance of the capacitor is much lower resulting in a higher gain and
higher output voltage from the differentiator amplifier.
However, at high frequencies an op-amp differentiator circuit becomes unstable
and will start to oscillate. This is due mainly to the first-order effect, which
determines the frequency response of the op-amp circuit causing a second-order
response which, at high frequencies gives an output voltage far higher than what
would be expected. To avoid this the high frequency gain of the circuit needs to
be reduced by adding an additional small value capacitor across the feedback
resistor Rƒ.
Since the node voltage of the operational amplifier at its inverting input terminal
is zero, the current, i flowing through the capacitor will be given as:

The charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance times Voltage across the
capacitor,

Thus the rate of change of this charge is:

But dQ/dt is the capacitor current, i

from which we have an ideal voltage output for the op-amp differentiator is
given as:

Therefore, the output voltage Vout is a constant –Rƒ*C times the derivative of
the input voltage Vin with respect to time. The minus sign (–) indicates
a 180o phase shift because the input signal is connected to the inverting input
terminal of the operational amplifier.
One final point to mention, the Op-amp Differentiator circuit in its basic form
has two main disadvantages compared to the previous operational amplifier
integrator circuit. One is that it suffers from instability at high frequencies as
mentioned above, and the other is that the capacitive input makes it very
susceptible to random noise signals and any noise or harmonics present in the
source circuit will be amplified more than the input signal itself. This is because
the output is proportional to the slope of the input voltage so some means of
limiting the bandwidth in order to achieve closed-loop stability is required.

Circuit Diagram:
Output Waveform: