Translated from Spanish to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.

com

ECOLOGY

LEARNING GUIDE 1

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECOLOGY

COMPETENCIES

1.- Demonstrate basic general knowledge of ecology and its fields of application.

2.- Recognizes the importance of the relationship between ecology and other sciences.

3.- Demonstrates basic general knowledge of ecosystems.

4.- Understand the characteristics and processes of ecosystems to analyze the way they work.

5.- Argue with a critical perspective.

6.- Perform text analysis.

OBJECTIVES

General:
Introduce the student to the basic concepts of ecological science, the structure and functioning of
an ecosystem.

Specifics:
1.- Supply the student the necessary elements for the understanding of the concept of
ecology.

2.- Understand systems theory as an element to develop the concept of ecosystem.

3.- Determine the structure of an ecosystem from its components.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.- Understand the object of study of ecology.

2.- Describe the structure of an ecosystem based on the factors that make it up.

3.- Recognize the importance of knowledge about ecosystems

 THEMATIC CONTENT.

1.- BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1.- Introduction to Ecology

The destruction of forests, the extinction of plant and animal species and that of microorganisms,
air and water pollution, soil deterioration and contamination, serious waste accumulation
problems, in short, an endless list of phenomena of environmental deterioration makes ecological
knowledge more urgent every day.

The need to understand the relationships that exist between organisms and of these with their
environment is as old as man. Four centuries BC Theophrastus, a friend of Aristotle, was the first to
record ecological stories, which is why he is considered the first ecologist. But ecology in its
modern concept dates back to the 19th century with the research of the German botanist Augusto
Grisebach in 1838 and the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel who in 1870 used the word “oekologie”.
From this moment on, ecology begins to consolidate itself as a part of biology, which uses the
scientific method to solve its research problems. The works of Frederic Clements in 1916 and Victor
Shelford in 1939 and the work of Warder Clyde Allee in 1949 "Principles of Animal Ecology" have
advanced ecology as a science..

The word ecology has its origin in the Greek words oikos, which means house or place where one
lives, and logos, which means study. Etymologically it means the study of the place where one
lives. According to the definition proposed by Haeckel (1870), ecology means the body of
knowledge related to the economy of nature, that is, the investigation of the total relationships of
the animal with its environment, both organic and inorganic, which include above all its
relationship friendly and hostile to those animals and plants with which it comes directly or
indirectly into contact. This concept implies the interrelationships between organisms and the
environment.

This concept of ecology has been reviewed and interpreted in different ways. English ecologist
Charles Elton defined ecology as scientific natural history dealing with the sociology and
economics of animals. The North American ecologist and specialist in plant ecology, Frederick
Clements, considered ecology as the science of the community, the North American ecologist
Eugene Odum defined it as the study of the structure and function of nature and the Spanish
Ramón Margalef as the biology of the ecosystems.

In a broader and contemporary sense, ecology is the study of the relationships and interactions of
living organisms with each other and with their environment through the movement of energy
and nutrients, which regulate the structure and dynamics of the ecosystem.Ecology is a
multidisciplinary science with an almost unlimited field of action, it bases its theory on the
observation of things and processes that exist and develop in nature.It is based on diverse
disciplines such as climatology, hydrology, physics, chemistry, geology, soil science and sciences
such as physiology, morphology, genetics, mathematics, botany, zoology. Due to the breadth of its
field of action and object of study, ecology is considereda science of synthesis of the diverse
knowledge of the natural sciences.

Due to its nature, and according to the object of study and its field of action, ecology has three
different approaches: ecosystems, populations and communities.

Ecosystem approach: an ecosystem has a large number of organisms that perform different
activities and are found in different environments; In this approach, the processes of
energy flow and nutrient cycling are described across organisms and their activities, allowing
comparison between ecosystems.

Population approach: the particular properties of a population are studied at three levels: adaptations
of the individuals in the population to their environment, geographic distribution of the population and
variations in dynamics, size and density.

Community approach: the composition of the populations that make up a community and the
relationships and interactions that exist between them are studied.

Ecology has two methods of study and according to them it is divided into two areas:

- Autoecology:which is the study of organisms taken individually in their relations with the
environment. For example, the study of a cedar tree, or of an animal, a deer, where they
live, with which environmental factors they are related, defense strategies, reproduction
systems.

- Synecology:It is the study of communities or groups of associated populations, for example the
study of the tropical rain forest.

As already stated, ecology is the science that studies the relationships between organisms and
those of these with their environment. When these multiple relationships are interfered with, or
when they are altered in some way, the ecological problem arises, which can be stated as the
imbalance of nature. The ecological problem is complex and concerns several aspects. The ever-
increasing consumption of energy, air, water and soil pollution, the production and disposal of
solid and hazardous waste, the proliferation of human settlements, the exploitation of natural
resources and poor quality of life. But the ecological problem not only implies the exploitation of
the land and natural resources, but also, in doing so inappropriately, with strictly utilitarian aims.

The expressions of ecological crisis, ecological catastrophe, ecocide, are signifying the situation of
anguish that humanity is experiencing as a result of the continuous environmental deterioration. But
the ecological problem is no longer only local, nor is it limited to the death of a river or the
disappearance of a species or the air pollution of a city. The problem affects the entire earth, never
before has the environment been destroyed as it is currently done.

But if the ecological problem is essentially the imbalance of nature, the solutions will approach the
problem to the same extent that they tend to reestablish the natural balance. The quality of life
and the very survival of man also depend on the conservation of natural resources and the
preservation of the environment. Therefore, the conservation of nature is an urgent need because
life depends on it. Thanks to the development of ecology, man has become aware of how much it
is convenient for him to conserve the environment in which he lives, to stop its destruction and
begin its reconstruction.

1. 2.- The Ecological System

1.2.1.- Systems Theory

Ludwig von Bertalanffy Austrian biologist in the mid-twentieth century proposed the General
Systems Theory (GST). In general, it is a way of thinking about the world, at the same time as an
approach to problem solving and model development, which involves a complex series of actions,
and/or elements, as a simple whole.
In systems theory, the same concepts can be used to describe the main features of different
systems, general laws can be sought that facilitate the understanding of the dynamics of any
system, and the description of reality can be formalized. Consequently, systems theory is dynamic,
multidimensional, and multidisciplinary.

A computer is made up of physical elements such as: the central processing unit CPU, the cards,
the keyboard, the mouse, the monitor, and the printer. A computer to work must include a set of
logical commands to control the input and output of data and a typist. Even so, when operating
the computer, one thinks of a simple and complete element: an information system. In the same
way, in a natural area there can be plants and animals that are in interaction with the soil, the
climate, the water, the air. This set of organisms, factors and interactions can be seen as a single
entity: an ecological system.

A system is a set of reciprocally related and organized units that interact with each other to achieve
an objective. The systems are powered by inputs; energy or matter from the environment and
have outlets; energy or matter. The units of a system are called components or elements, when
these components or elements are related to each other and grouped together they form a
subsystem. At the same time, a system can be part of a larger system. If a subsystem is the object
of particular study, it becomes a system in its own right and system concepts are applied in
analyzing it.

1.2.2.- Closed systems

A system is closed when there is no exchange of energy, matter and information with the
surrounding environment. They have feedback mechanisms by which they self-regulate. The
outputs of the system are used to control part of the inputs to the system. Due to the lack of
interaction between its components, they do not undergo any modification. These systems have
an ideal state or starting point.

An example of a closed system is a heater, the starting point is the temperature at which it is
programmed. When the heater exceeds the starting point (programmed temperature), an internal
mechanism is activated (thermostat), to reduce the input to the system, lowering the temperature
and moving away from the starting point. The same thing happens in reverse, when the system
has gone too far from the starting point, the internal mechanism increases the input of the system
until it reaches the starting point again. The readjustment of the starting point is called feedback.

GENERAL MODEL CLOSED SYSTEM

1.2.3.- Open systems

A system is open when it exchanges energy, matter and information with the environment that
surrounds it. Open systems have inputs and outputs. The inputs are modified to produce the
Departures. For an open system to work, it continually needs new inputs. The
open systems grow, adapt to the environment, reproduce, change. The most important open
systems are living systems.

An ecological system is an example of an open system, the system to function must take energy
from the outside through food and nutrients. The system must also release energy to the outside
through the heat that is produced in physiological processes.

GENERAL MODEL OPEN SYSTEM

OPEN SYSTEM

TICKETS SYSTEM DEPARTURES

MATTER TRANSFORMAC MATTER

ENERGY O-ION ENERGY
ENVIRONMENT MEANS PROCESSING RESOURCES ENVIRONMENT
NO INFORMATION TO YOU NO
ON INFORMS
TION

1.3.- Structure of an Ecosystem

1.3.1.- Ecosystem concept

All organisms interact with environmental, climatic, edaphic, water and atmospheric factors, these
factors affect the characteristics of the environment and that of the organisms. Through these
interactions organisms adapt to the environment. The system that results from the relationships
between living organisms and the physical elements of a given area is called an ecosystem.

This concept includes a physical space, organisms, and the relationships of these organisms with
each other and with the physical environment. When soil, climate, water, biogeochemical cycles,
mineral recycling are added to a plant community, it is a forest ecosystem.

All ecosystems are open systems, they require energy inputs and the energy outputs they produce
for their operation, they depend on biogeochemical cycles, water and nutrient recycling. The
largest ecosystem is the earth, but its study is too complex, so the use of the word ecosystem
should be limited to a group of organisms that interact with each other and that can be studied
with results, using current instruments and concepts. A cave in the middle of a forest, a park in a
city, a river in a mountain range.

There is no isolated system, each ecosystem is part of a larger ecosystem, in the same way, each
ecosystem includes ecosystems that contain other ecosystems, until reaching the most basic
environmental relationships. The input of any ecosystem is the output of another ecosystem.
1.3.2.- Types of ecosystems

1.3.2.1.- Aquatic ecosystems

They are those that develop in the water, they are of two types: freshwater ecosystems when they are
found in continental waters such as rivers, lakes, swamps, reservoirs, wetlands and marine ecosystems
when they are found in oceanic waters. Within the aquatic ecosystems there are also the brackish
ecosystems, they are the ones that occur where the water of the rivers meets the water of the sea,
originating coastal lagoons, estuaries and estuaries. The mangrove develops in these ecosystems, an
ecosystem that is characterized by its high productivity due to the fact that its submerged roots provide
habitat, which acts as breeding grounds, for a wide variety of fauna of fish, mammals, invertebrates
and shellfish.

Freshwater aquatic ecosystems can be lentic, those that develop in slow waters such as lakes,
lagoons, reservoirs, wetlands, ponds and lotic when they occur in running water, rivers, streams.
Marine aquatic ecosystems are coastal when they are found in swamps, coastal lagoons, estuaries
and estuaries. And oceanic or marine when they develop in the sea like coral reefs, seagrass beds,
rocky bottoms, sandy bottoms.

The maritime zones are divided into biotic provinces taking into account the depth, temperature,
water density, availability of light. These biotic provinces are: neritic and euphotic zone found at a
depth of 0 to 200 meters, bathyal zone from 200 to 2,000 meters and abyssal zone more than
2,000 meters.

1.3.2.2.- Terrestrial ecosystems

These ecosystems are those that develop on the surface of the earth, in which animals and plants
live. Large terrestrial ecosystems that are characterized by the presence of dominant vegetation
that is influenced by climate are called biomes. Depending on these characteristics, there are
different types of terrestrial biomes such as: deserts, tundra, jungles, taiga, savannahs, steppes,
prairies. The different plant and animal species that live in each of them have their own
characteristics thanks to the fact that they have adapted to the habitat in which they develop.

1.3.3.- Abiotic factors

The physical-chemical factors of an ecosystem are called abiotic factors. The most important
abiotic factors in an ecosystem are precipitation, temperature, sunlight, soil, nutrient availability,
air, and water.

The temperature is related to the climate and to solar energy that is converted into chemical
energy through the process of photosynthesis. All organisms live in certain optimal temperature
values for each of the species in which they can develop favorably in ecosystems.

Precipitation is the amount of rainwater that falls on an ecosystem. It is of great importance in

terrestrial ecosystems and is produced by the condensation of water vapor found in clouds.

Sunlight is essential for an ecosystem to function, it is transformed into food through the
photosynthesis process carried out by plants, starting food chains.
The soil is the surface layer of the earth's crust resulting from the process of physical and chemical
weathering of the pre-existing rock and on which life develops. The soil is the element on which
plants are fixed and supported, obtain the necessary nutrients for their development and where
the organisms of an ecosystem move.

Air is a mixture of gases that form the earth's atmosphere, it is essential for the life of organisms in
an ecosystem. It has the function of retaining the sun's heat and acts as a thermal regulator,
protecting the planet from solar and cosmic radiation. Provides the oxygen necessary for the
respiration of man and animals and provides COtwonecessary for plants to produce food that are
the sustenance of food chains.

Wind is formed when air moves from one place to another, either in the form of a breeze or a
hurricane. Wind is produced when the earth's surface heats up unevenly, causing areas of high
and low pressure. This imbalance causes the air to move, producing winds.

Water is the most important element on the planet and one of the constituent substances of living
matter and the physical environment. It is formed by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen in
a ratio of 2:1. Water acts as a thermal and climate regulator and for living systems.

1.3.4.- Biotic factors

Biotic factors in an ecosystem refer to everything characteristic of living organisms, including all
beings that have life, whether they are plants, animals, bacteria and microorganisms. These biotic
factors need air to breathe, light for photosynthesis, water for life, shelter, food, this is how these
organisms interact with abiotic factors and with other organisms. These interactions are also biotic
factors.
These factors play an important role within an ecosystem and are classified as: producers,
consumers and disintegrators.

Producers.They are organisms that produce their own food from solar energy and organic
compounds through the process of photosynthesis, which is why they are also called autotrophs.
To these organisms belong vascular and non-vascular plants and some bacteria. Their role in an
ecosystem is very important since they accumulate in their tissues the chemical energy from the
sun through photosynthesis, starting food chains.

Consumers.They are heterotrophic organisms, that is, they cannot produce their food. There are
two classes: primary consumers or herbivores, which feed on the producers, that is, plants, and
secondary consumers or carnivores that feed on herbivores.

Disintegrators.There are two types: detritivorous organisms, which are those that obtain the
necessary energy for their physiological processes from particulate organic matter, such as
arthropods, isopods and myriapods. And the saprophytic organisms that obtain their food from
decomposing organic matter such as fungi and bacteria.

1.3.5.- Functioning of an ecosystem.

Different processes occur in an ecosystem that define its functioning: energy flow, nutrient cycle,
interactions and relationships between organisms and the abiotic environment and organisms
among themselves. To understand the dynamics of an ecosystem, efficiency, productivity,
development, it is necessary to understand these processes. The flow of energy refers to the
fixation of solar energy in the ecosystem through the process of photosynthesis, its transfer
through food chains and its final dispersion through respiration. The movement of nutrients from
an inorganic form to an organic form.
Ecosystems are dynamic and are constantly changing, organisms are born, grow, reproduce and
die, populations grow and shrink, matter is recycled through disintegrators and decomposers,
matter circulates through biogeochemical cycles, Organisms change in time and space. Despite
these processes and dynamics, ecosystems have stability in their functioning and structure due to
the complexity and diversity of species.

The stability capacity of ecosystems is called resilience, which is the ability of an ecosystem to resist
changes caused by disturbances and to recover from them. This recovery process after a
disturbance, until reaching its original state or climax is called succession. Due to this process of
resilience and succession, ecosystems are dynamic and flexible, which allows them to resist
disturbance factors to a certain extent. The concept of dynamic equilibrium refers to ecosystem
stability combined with dynamic changes.

Ecosystems are stratified to a certain degree, stratification is the way organisms are arranged in
space and time. Stratification in space can be vertical, in the form of layers, or horizontal, in
concentric circles. Stratification in time occurs when the organisms of an ecosystem present daily
patterns, seasonal or irregular faults that separate them in time. Spatial stratification in terrestrial
ecosystems is determined by plant types and in aquatic systems by water depth, light penetration,
and temperature.

1.4.- Organization of Living Beings in the Ecological System

Ecological systems as open systems are organized in their form and function at different levels.
The ecologist Eugene P. Odum suggested considering the areas of biological study as spectra
made up of different levels of organization, each of which represents a type of biological system.

Figure Nº 4. SPECTRUM OF THE LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF ODUM

According to Odum, 1971 each level of organization (from left to right) includes a biotic component
that interacts with an abiotic component, through an exchange of matter and energy. Each of the
interacting levels produces a different functional biological system with its own complexities and
interactions. Ecology as a science deals with the study of the right side of the spectrum of
organization, organisms, populations, communities and their respective systems: organismic
systems, population systems and ecosystems. The left side of the spectrum is the object of study in
biology, genes, cells and organs.
1.4.1.- Organism.

It is an individual that is physiologically independent of another individual, that is to say that it belongs
to a species, that exchanges matter and energy with the environment, that performs functions of
nutrition, relationship and reproduction. Example: an oak tree, a snail, a bear.
The ecological study of an individual is called autoecology, individual processes are investigated
such as: development and growth, movements, reproduction, feeding, death, how an organism
adapts to varying physical-chemical conditions and what strategies it develops to avoid predators
and locate your food. Individual characteristics such as: age or stage, size, sex are also included.

The conditions and resources of the environment determine where individuals can survive and
reproduce. The conditions are the physical chemical characteristics of the environment such as
temperature, light, humidity, acidity of the soil. They are characterized by their intensity, they can be
modified but not consumed. For example, one tree can produce shade over another, which modifies
the conditions of solar intensity and affects the photosynthesis process. The fall of leaves and fruits
from the trees and their subsequent decomposition modifies the fertility conditions of the soil.

Resources are the elements consumed by organisms and that are used to synthesize their
different parts and organs, to obtain energy and do work. Resources can be abiotic such as
nutrients, light, water or biotic such as plants and prey. The territory is also a resource as a place of
reproduction, rest and where they find food. The use of a resource by one individual precludes its
use by another individual. What represents a condition for one organism may represent a resource
for another. Example: sunlight is a resource for plants, and a condition for animals.

1.4.2.- Population

Population is considered to be a group of organisms or individuals of the same species that inhabit
a specific area for a certain time, that share certain types of food and that reproduce among
themselves. As an example of populations we have: a population of bears, a population of oaks, a
population of fish.

As a population is a set of individuals, they have the same life cycle, they are ecologically similar,
those that are in the same stage of development have the same processes, the rates of these
processes are the same for all organisms and they exchange genetic information between them.

1.4.3.- Community

Community is a set of populations that cohabit, interact, grow and develop in the same
environment, which can be enlarged or reduced and from which they obtain the matter and
energy necessary to survive.

A community is an independent unit made up of a large number of species that live in

interdependence, these interactions preserve their structure and functioning. The members of a
community are divided according to the role they play in it: producers, consumers and
decomposers.

In a community, only a few species, due to their size and activities, are decisive. Plant species are
dominant in terrestrial communities because they are a source of food and shelter for other
species, for this reason many communities are named after the dominant plant species, for
example, oak, catival, guadal. Aquatic communities are distinguished by physical characteristics eg
fish community, periphyton, plankton.
In the study of communities, not all the species belonging to the community can be considered.
The main plants that dominate the community, the largest animal populations and the
fundamental energetic relationships are studied.

SELF APPRAISAL

1.- Define ecology

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

2.- Define an open system

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

3.- Explain autoecology and synecology

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

4.- List and explain the different approaches that ecology has according to its object of study

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

5.- Define what an ecosystem is

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

6.- Explain how an ecosystem is structured

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

7.- How biotic factors are classified within the ecosystem

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

8.- List five abiotic factors of ecosystems.

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

9.- Explain how an ecosystem works

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________

10.- What is the resilience of an ecosystem

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________