reflex response by being paired with the

Learning original unconditioned stimulus.

• Learning – any relatively permanent
change in behavior brought about by
experience or practice.
– When people learn anything,
some part of their brain is
physically changed to record
what they have learned.
– Any kind of change in the way
an organism behaves is
learning.
• Conditioned response (CR) - learned
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist
(person who studies the workings of the
body) who discovered classical
conditioning through his work on
digestion in dogs.
– Conditioned means "learned."
– A neutral stimulus can become
a conditioned stimulus when
paired with an unconditioned
stimulus.
– Wala akong reaction dati,
natutunan ko lang. Ex. Natakot
akong dumaan sa lugar kung
saan ako kinagat ng aso
reflex response to a conditioned
stimulus.
– Sometimes called a conditioned
reflex.
– CS – ice cream truck

• Classical conditioning - learning to make – CR – salivation when hear ice

a reflex response to a stimulus other cream truck bell
than the original, natural stimulus that
– Wala akong reaction dati,
normally produces the reflex.
natutunan ko lang. Ex. Natakot
Classical Conditioning Concepts akong dumaan sa lugar kung
saan ako kinagat ng aso
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a
naturally occurring stimulus that leads
to an involuntary response.

– Unconditioned means
"unlearned" or "naturally
occurring."

– external: exampleTao, bagay,

hayop, pangyayari

• Unconditioned response (UCR) - an

involuntary response to a naturally
occurring or unconditioned stimulus.

– Matik reaction mo

• Conditioned stimulus (CS) - stimulus

that becomes able to produce a learned
Classical Conditioning Concepts
• Acquisition - the repeated pairing of the
NS and the UCS; the organism is in the
process of acquiring learning.

– Although classical conditioning

happens quite easily, there are
a few basic principles that
researchers have discovered:

• The CS must come before the UCS.

• The CS and UCS must come very close

together in time—ideally, only several
seconds apart.

• The neutral stimulus must be paired

with the UCS several times, often many
times, before conditioning can take
place.

• The CS is usually some stimulus that is

distinctive or stands out from other
competing stimuli.

• Stimulus generalization - the tendency

to respond to a stimulus that is only
similar to the original conditioned
stimulus with the conditioned response.

• Stimulus discrimination - the tendency

to stop making a generalized response
to a stimulus that is similar to the
original conditioned stimulus because
the similar stimulus is never paired with
the unconditioned stimulus.

– discriminate yong possible

response from 1 situation to
another

• Extinction - the disappearance or

weakening of a learned response
following the removal or absence of the
unconditioned stimulus (in classical
conditioning) or the removal of a
reinforcer (in operant conditioning).
 – Nawawala
• Spontaneous recovery – the
reappearance of a learned response
after extinction has occurred.
– Learning is a relatively
permanent change in behavior.
– Bumabalik si
response/behavior.
– when the unconditioned
stimulus is repeated with the
conditioned stimulus.
• Higher-order conditioning - occurs
when a strong conditioned stimulus is
paired with a neutral stimulus, causing
the neutral stimulus to become a
second conditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Emotional Response
 Conditioned emotional response (CER) -
emotional response that has become
classically conditioned to occur to
learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or
the emotional reaction that occurs
when seeing an attractive person.
– CERs may lead to phobias –
irrational fear responses.
– If you witness a terrible car
accident, you might develop a
fear of driving.
Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning - the learning of
voluntary behavior through the effects
of pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to responses.
• Modification of behavior
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect - law stating
that if a response is followed by a
pleasurable consequence, it will tend to
be repeated, and if followed by an
unpleasant consequence, it will tend
not to be repeated.
• Good grades, study even more
Skinner’s Contribution
• Behaviorist; wanted to study only
observable, measurable behavior.
– Reinforce.
– Nag aral ako kasi may reward
• Gave "operant conditioning" its name.
– Operant - any behavior that is
voluntary.
• Learning depends on what happens
after the response — the consequence.
Reinforcement Shaping
• Reinforcement - any event or • Shaping - the reinforcement of
stimulus, that when following a simple steps in behavior that lead to
response, increases the probability a desired, more complex behavior.
that the response will occur again.
– Successive approximations -
– Primary reinforcer - any small steps in behavior, one
reinforcer that is naturally after the other, that lead to a
reinforcing by meeting a particular goal behavior.
basic biological need, such as
– Mag introduce ng bagong
hunger, thirst, or touch.
behavior in a step-by-step
– To increase or decrease manner
behavior
Other Classical Conditioning Concepts
– Secondary reinforcer - any
• Extinction – occurs if the behavior
reinforcer that becomes
(response) is not reinforced.
reinforcing after being paired
with a primary reinforcer, • Operantly conditioned responses
such as praise, tokens, or also can be generalized to stimuli
gold stars. that are only similar to the original
stimulus.
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
• Spontaneous recovery
• Positive reinforcement - the
(reoccurrence of a once
reinforcement of a response by the
extinguished response) also happens
addition or experiencing of a
in operant conditioning.
pleasurable stimulus.
• One way to deal with a
• Negative reinforcement - the
child’s temper tantrum is to
reinforcement of a response by the
ignore it. The lack of
removal, escape from, or avoidance
reinforcement for the
of an unpleasant stimulus.
tantrum behavior will
– Example: Taking aspirin for a eventually result in
headache is negatively extinction.
reinforced – removal of
headache!
– May gusto akong tanggalin
– Leaving early from the house
to avoid traffic jams
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Partial reinforcement effect - the
tendency for a response that is
reinforced after some, but not all,
correct responses to be very resistant
to extinction.
• Reward sa quiz pero not all the
time.
• Continuous reinforcement - the
reinforcement of each and every
correct response.
• Laging may plus 2 every quiz.
• Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement -
schedule of reinforcement in which the
number of responses required for
reinforcement is always the same.
• Fixed reward: plus 2 kung mag-
recite every meeting ng
dalawang beses
• Variable interval schedule of
reinforcement - schedule of
reinforcement in which the interval of
time that must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible is
different for each trial or event.
• Unpredictable: plus 2 kung mag
recite every other meeting
other meeting/discussions.
• Fixed interval schedule - of
reinforcement schedule of
reinforcement in which the interval of
time that must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible is
always the same.
• Weekly quiz or every after 2
meetings.
• Variable ratio schedule of
reinforcement - schedule of
reinforcement in which the number of
responses required for reinforcement is
different for each trial or event.
• Unpredictable yong response:
hindi mo masabi kung kelan
magbibigay ng reward si
teacher. / gambling or lottery
games
Punishment
• Punishment - any event or object that,
when following a response, makes that
response less likely to happen again.
• May tatanggalin: cellphone
• Punishment by application - the
punishment of a response by the
addition or experiencing of an
unpleasant stimulus.
• Punishment by removal - the
punishment of a response by the
removal of a pleasurable stimulus.
Punishment has several drawbacks.
• Severe punishment my cause avoidance
of the punisher instead of the behavior
being punished
• Severe punishment may encourage
lying to avoid punishment
• Severe punishment creates fear and
anxiety
 Four ways to Modify Behavior • Behavior modification - the use of
operant conditioning techniques to
Reinforcement Punishment bring about desired changes in
Positive (Adding) Something Something behavior.
valued or unpleasant
desirable • Using reinforcement
Positive Punishment
• Token economy - type of behavior
Reinforcement by
modification in which desired behavior
Example: application
getting a gold example: is rewarded with tokens.
star for good getting a
behavior in spanking for
school disobeying

Negative Something Something

(Removing/Avoiding) unpleasant valued or
desirable
Negative Punishment
reinforcement by Removal
• Time-out - a form of mild punishment
Ex: avoiding a Ex: Losing a
ticket by privilege by removal in which a misbehaving
stopping at a such as animal, child, or adult is placed in a
red light going out special area away from the attention of
with friends others.

– Essentially, the organism is

Negative Reinforcement Versus Punishment by being "removed" from any
Removal possibility of positive
Example of Negative Example of Punishment by reinforcement in the form of
Reinforcement Removal attention.

Stopping at a red light to
avoid getting in an
accident
Mailing an income tax
return by April 15 to avoid
paying a penalty
Losing the privilege of
driving bc you got into too
many accidents
Having to lose some of
your money to pay the
penalty for late tax filing
• Applied behavior analysis (ABA) –
modern term for a form of behavior
modification that uses shaping
techniques to mold a desired behavior
or response.
– asd

Obeying a parent before Being “grounded” (losing

the parent reaches the your freedom) because of
count of “three” to avoid disobedience.
getting a scolding

Behavior Modification
Observational Learning – Bandura • MOTIVATION

• Observational learning - learning new – Finally, the learner must have

behavior by watching a model perform the desire to perform the
that behavior. action.

• Learning/performance distinction - – (An easy way to remember the

referring to the observation that
learning can take place without actual
performance of the learned behavior.
• Natutunan kahit hindi mo
ginagawa
four elements of modeling is to
remember the letters AMIM,
which stands for the first letters
of each of the four elements).

5.12 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

In Albert Bandura’s famous Bobo doll
experiment, the doll was used to demonstrate
the impact of observing an adult
model performing aggressive behavior on the
later aggressive behavior of children. The
children in these photos are imitating the adult
model’s behavior even though they believe they
are alone and are not being watched.

Four Elements of Observational Learning

• ATTENTION

– To learn anything through

observation, the learner must
first pay attention to the model.

• MEMORY

– The learner must also be able to

retain the memory of what was
done, such as remembering the
steps in preparing a dish that MEMORY
was first seen on a cooking
• Memory - an active system that
show.
receives information from the senses,
– Long/short term organizes and alters it as it stores it
away, and then retrieves the
• IMITATION
information from storage.
– The learner must be capable of
• Processes of Memory:
reproducing, or imitating, the
actions of the model.
 – Encoding - the set of mental encoding, storage, and retrieval 
operations that people perform
on sensory information to
convert that information into a
form that is usable in the
brain’s storage systems.

– Storage - holding onto

information for some period of
time.

– Retrieval - getting information

that is in storage into a form
that can be used.  Parallel distributed processing (PDP)
Models of Memory model

• Information-processing model – Model of memory in which

– Model of memory that assumes
the processing of information
for memory storage is similar to
the way a computer processes
memory in a series of three
stages.
memory processes are
proposed to take place at the
same time over a large network
of neural connections.
– Kulay, hugis, at galawa ng isang
bagay, tao at ibapa,

• Levels-of-processing model

– Model of memory that assumes

information that is more
"deeply processed," or
processed according to its
meaning rather than just the
sound or physical
characteristics of the word or
words, will be remembered
more efficiently and for a longer
period of time.

6.1 Three-Stage Process of Memory Sensory Memory

Information enters through the sensory system,
• Sensory memory - the very first stage of
briefly registering in sensory memory. Selective
memory, the point at which information
attention filters the information into short-term
enters the nervous system through the
memory, where it is held while attention
sensory systems.
(rehearsal) continues. If the information
receives enough rehearsal (maintenance or • Base sa Nakita, nadama, na-
elaborative), it will enter and be stored in long- amoy, narinig atbpa.
term memory.
 • Iconic memory - visual sensory memory,
lasting only a fraction of a second.
• Capacity – everything that can
be seen at one time.
• Duration - information that has
just entered iconic memory will
be pushed out very quickly by
new information, a process
called masking.
• Naalala ko ang itsura ng kwarto
kahit nakapikit.
• Eidetic imagery - the rare ability to
access a visual memory for 30 seconds
or more.
• Naalala ko ang image city kahit
once palang nakita
• Echoic memory - the brief memory of
something a person has just heard.
• Naala ko ang lyrics kahit tapos
na ang tugtog
• Capacity - limited to what can
be heard at any one moment
and is smaller than the capacity
of iconic memory
• Duration – lasts longer that
iconic — about 2 to 4 seconds
Short-Term Memory
• Short-term memory (STM) (working
memory) - the memory system in which
information is held for brief periods of
time while being used.
– Selective attention – the ability
to focus on only one stimulus
from among all sensory input.
• Digit-span test – memory test in which
a series of numbers is read to subjects
in the experiment who are then asked
to recall the numbers in order.
– Conclusions are that the
capacity of STM is about seven
items or pieces of information,
plus or minus two items, or
from five to nine bits of
information.
"magical number" = 7
• Chunking – bits of information are
combined into meaningful units, or
chunks, so that more information can
be held in STM.
• Maintenance rehearsal - practice of
saying some information to be
remembered over and over in one’s
head in order to maintain it in short-
term memory (STMs tend to be
encoded in auditory form).
• Duration of STM - lasts from about 12
to 30 seconds without rehearsal.
• STM is susceptible to interference
• (e.g., if counting is interrupted,
• have to start over).
Long-Term Memory
• Long-term memory (LTM) - the system
of memory into which all the
information is placed to be kept more
or less permanently.
• Elaborative rehearsal - a method of
transferring information from STM into
LTM by making that information
meaningful in some way.
• Association sa word na gustong
maalala. Ex. Name: sandy.
Associated to sand. beach
Types of LTM
 • Procedural (nondeclarative) memory -
type of long-term memory including
memory for skills, procedures, habits,
and conditioned responses. These
memories are not conscious but are
implied to exist because they affect
conscious behavior.
• Skills: drive, bike, walk, play
piano
• Declarative memory – type of long-term
memory containing information that is
conscious and known (memory for
facts).
• Facts: like Events, bday, world
events, dinner kahapon
Procedural (Nondeclarative) LTM
• Skills that people know how to do.
• Also include emotional associations,
habits, and simple conditioned reflexes
that may or may not be in conscious
awareness.
• Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory
from the point of injury or trauma
forward, or the inability to form new
long-term memories. Usually does NOT
affect procedural LTM.
• Nakalimutan na may biniling
gamit pagdating sa bahay. Or
nakaimutan ang ginagawa.
• Procedural memory often called implicit
memory - memory that is not easily
brought into conscious awareness.
Declarative LTM
• All the things that people know.
• Semantic memory - type of declarative
memory containing general knowledge,
such as knowledge of language and
information learned in formal
education.
• General knowledge. Kasaysayan
ng pilipinas
• Episodic memory - type of declarative
memory containing personal
information not readily available to
others, such as daily activities and
events.
• personal knowledge.
Highschool graduation
Figure 6.5 Types of Long-Term Memories
Long-term memory can be divided into
declarative memories, which are factual and
typically conscious (explicit) memories, and
nondeclarative memories, which are skills,
habits, and conditioned responses that are
typically unconscious (implicit). Declarative
memories are further divided into episodic
memories (personal experiences) and semantic
memories (general knowledge).
Cues to Help Remember
• Retrieval cue – a stimulus for
remembering.
• Nakakatulong si environment
para maalala ang isang bagay
pangyayari, or bagay
• Encoding specificity - the tendency for
memory of information to be improved
 if related information (such as • Identify information
surroundings or physiological state)
• False positive – error of recognition in
available when the memory is first
which people think that they recognize
formed is also available when the
some stimulus that is not actually in
memory is being retrieved.
memory.
• Same room kung saan nag aral,
• Distorted recollection: naalala
higher chance of retrieval
mo na pinatay mo ang ilaw
Recall pero. Hindi pala

• Recall - type of memory retrieval in Automatic Encoding and Flashbulb Memories

which the information to be retrieved
• Automatic encoding - tendency of
must be "pulled" from memory with
certain kinds of information to enter
very few external cues.
long-term memory with little or no
– Retrieval failure – recall has effortful encoding.
failed (at least temporarily).
• Naalala mo ang lunch mo
• Tip of the tongue phenomenon. kahapon.

• Serial position effect - tendency of • Flashbulb memories - type of automatic

information at the beginning and end of encoding that occurs because an
a body of information to be unexpected event has strong emotional
remembered more accurately than associations for the person
information in the middle of the body remembering it.
of information.
• Significant memories na
– Primacy effect - tendency to nangyari sayo or other people
remember information at the that can trigger emotions
beginning of a body of
Memory Retrieval Problems
information better than the
information that follows. • Misinformation effect - the tendency of
misleading information presented after
– Ex. Mas-naaalala mo ang “una
an event to alter the memories of the
at huling” word or object sa
event itself.
listahan.
• False memory syndrome - the creation
– Recency effect - tendency to
of inaccurate or false memories through
remember information at the
the suggestion of others, often while
end of a body of information
the person is under hypnosis. [false
better than the information
mem of traumatic event]
ahead of it.
• Evidence suggests that false memories
Recognition
cannot be created for just any kind of
• Recognition - the ability to match a memory.
piece of information or a stimulus to a
– The memories must at least be
stored image or fact.
plausible.
Forgetting – Ebbinghaus newer information prevents or
interferes with the retrieval of older
• Curve of forgetting - a graph showing a
information.
distinct pattern in which forgetting is
very fast within the first hour after • New memories interfere to
learning a list and then tapers off retrieve old memories
gradually.

• decline of memory

• retention in time

• Distributed practice - will produce

better retrieval than massed practice

• “spacing” learning activities

• May break time between

activity/study

Forgetting: Encoding Failure

• Encoding failure - failure to process

information into memory.

• information doesn't get into

memory.

• Due to lack of attention.

Forgetting: Interference Theory

MOTIVATION AND
• Proactive interference - memory
retrieval problem that occurs when EMOTION
older information prevents or interferes
Motivation- the process by which activities are
with the retrieval of newer information
started, directed, and continued so that physical
• Old memories interfere to what or psychological needs or wants are met.
you are currently trying to
learn.

• Retroactive interference - memory

retrieval problem that occurs when

Extrinsic motivation- type of motivation in
which a person performs an action because it
leads to an outcome what is separate from or
external to the person
-Trophies, money, social recognition or
praise.
Instinct Approaches to Motivation
Instinct- The biologically determined and innate
patterns of behavior the exist in both people
and animals.
Biological instinct- fixed and inborn
patterns of behavior. Important for an
organism’s survival—such as fear, cleanliness,
parent, love, sympathy, sociability
Instinct approach- approach to motivation that
assumes people are governed by instincts
similar to those of animals.
Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
• Need- a requirement of some material
(such as food or water) that is essential
for survival of the organism.
o As human beings. What are
your needs? Such as food,
water and shelter.
• Drive- a psychological tension and
physical arousal arising when there is a
need that motivates the organism to act
in order to fulfill the need and reduce
the tension.
o Internal need- what pushes you
to finish what you stared, short-
or long-term goals. What makes
you continue your to dos,
dreams, goals etc. A habit that
you can develop.
• Drive Reduction Theory- approach to
motivation that assumes behavior
arises from physiological needs that
cause internal drives to push the
organism to satisfy the need and reduce
tension and arousal
o Biological needs ex: hunger,
thirst and pooping
• Primary drives- those drives that
involve needs of the body such as
hunger and thirst
• Acquired (Secondary) drives- those
drives that are learned through
experience or conditioning, such as the
need for money or social approval
o Extrinsic motivation ex: money,
reward. External reason
• Homeostasis- the tendency of the body
to maintain a steady state
Three Types of Needs
• Need for Achievement (nAch)- a
need that involves a strong desir e
to succeed in attaining goals, not
only realistic ones but also
challenging ones.
 o Achieve success and the better with much lower arousal
motive of an individual to levels, so they might feel
avoid failure compelled to seek out soothing
o They will see value in their and relaxing activities
success in difficult
challenges • Sensation seeker- someone who needs
• Need for Affiliation (nAff)- the need more arousal than the average person.
for friendly social interactions and o Ex: daredevils’ activity
relationships with others.
Incentive Approaches to Motivation
o Urge to form friendships
and attachments and to join • Incentives- things that attract or lure
organizations and enjoy people into action
social gatherings
o A need for open and
sociable interpersonal
relationships
• Need for Power (nPow)- the need
to have control or influence of
• Incentive approaches- theories of
others.
motivation in which behavior is
o To hold control and
explained as a response to the external
authority over another
stimulus and its rewarding properties.
person and influence and
• Expectancy-value theories- incentive
change their decision in
theories that assume the actions of
accordance with his own
humans cannot be predicted or fully
needs or desires.
understood without understanding the
Arousal Approach to Motivation beliefs, values, and the importance that
a person attaches to those beliefs and
• Stimulus motive- a motive that appears values at any given moment in time
to be unlearned but causes an increase o If you think that certain tasks
in stimulation such a curiosity. have value, then huge
o Exploration and curiosity. This possibility that you’ll do better
occurs when you sense in the activity.
something in the environment
that grabs your attention
• Arousal theory- theory of motivation in
which people are said to have an
optimal (best or ideal) level of tension
that they seek to maintain by increasing
or decreasing stimulation MASLOW HEIRARCHY OF NEEDS
o People are motivated to
• Self-actualization- according to Maslow
perform actions in order
the point that is seldom reached at
o Higher level of arousal, which
which people have sufficiently satisfied
out exciting and stimulating
activities. Other people may do
 the lower needs and achieved their full
human potential
o Fulfilling the basic needs
• Peak experiences- according to Maslow,
times in a person’s life during which
self- actualization is temporarily
achieved.
o To finding their true selves.
Common Sense Theory of Emotion
Tapping your potential
o Creative work, music, and
scientific discovery
o Etiquette, rules, and
conventions of societal
acceptance how, when, or
where to express your
emotions.
o Ex: appropriate emotion at the
funeral
• A stimulus leads to an emotion, which
then leads to bodily arousal

Self-Determination Theory of Motivation

• Self-determination theory (SDT) –
Theory of human motivation in which
that social context of an action.
• Intrinsic motivation- type of motivation
in which a person performs an action
because than act itself is rewarding or
satisfying in some internal manner
o Determined and motivated to
obtain what you want without James-Lange Theory of Emotion
external reinforcement Theory in which a physiological reaction leads
o Driven by a need to grow and to labeling of an emotion
gain fulfillment

Elements of Emotion
• Emotion- the “feeling” aspect of
consciousness, characterized by a
certain physical arousal, a certain
behavior that reveals the emotion to
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
the outside world, and an inner
awareness of feelings. Theory in which the physiological reaction and
o It is your response to the the emotion are assumed to occur at the same
environment /situation. time.
Pleasant or unpleasant.
o Internal

• Display rules- learned ways of

controlling displays of emotion in social
settings.
Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion
• Cognitive arousal theory- theory of
emotion in which both the physical
arousal and the labeling of that arousal
based on cues from the environment
must occur before the emotion in
experienced
• Schacter and Singer’s Study of Emotion
o Interpretation about the
stimulus. Together with
physical response

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Theory of emotion that assumes that facial

expressions provide feedback to the brain
concerning the emotion being expressed
which in turn causes and intensifies the
emotion.

Dahil sa facial expression mo kaya nag

induce ng fear.

Cognitive Mediational Theory

A stimulus must be interpreted (appraised)

by a person in order to result in a physical
response and an emotional reaction.

Interpretation. Ex: threat or danger


COGNITION
Thinking and Mental Images
• Thinking (cognition) - mental activity
that goes on in the brain when a person
is organizing and attempting to
understand information and
communicating information to others.
• reasoning, decision-making,
and problem-solving. Ex.
Solving problems. puzzle
• Mental images - mental representations
that stand for objects or events and
have a picture-like quality.
• Daydreaming/visualization
Problem-Solving
• While reading a book
Concepts
• Concepts - ideas that represent a class
or category of objects, events, or
activities.
• Idea, notion, ex, basic concept
of psychology.
• Superordinate concept - the most
general form of a type of concept, such
as "animal" or "fruit."
• Basic level type - an example of a type
of concept around which other similar
concepts are organized, such as "dog,"
"cat," or "pear."
• Subordinate concept – the most specific
category of a concept, such as one’s pet
dog or a pear in one’s hand.
• All mansions are houses, but
not all houses are mansions
• Formal concepts - concepts that are
defined by specific rules or features.
• concrete or specific set of
rules, guidelines, or
properties. Shapes, object
• Natural concepts - concepts people
form as a result of their experiences in
the real world.
• knowing how to put on
pants to what a mountain looks
like. Not fix
• Prototype - an example of a concept
that closely matches the defining
characteristics of a concept.
• A platypus is a "fuzzy" natural
concept
• Problem solving - process of cognition
that occurs when a goal must be
reached by thinking and behaving in
certain ways.
• discover, analyze, and solve
problems
• Trial and error (mechanical solution) –
problem-solving method in which one
possible solution after another is tried
until a successful one is found.
• Algorithms - very specific, step-by-step
procedures for solving certain types of
problems
• Instructions so you can follow
a task. Ex. How to build
something
• Heuristic - an educated guess based on
prior experiences that helps narrow
down the possible solutions for a
problem. Also known as a "rule of
thumb."
• mental shortcuts that allow
people to solve problems
• Representative heuristic –
assumption that any object (or
person) sharing characteristics
with the members of a
particular category is also a
member of that category.
• Pag tanggal ng hindi
importanteng variable.
• Availability heuristic -
estimating the frequency or
likelihood of an event based on
how easy it is to recall relevant
information from memory or
how easy it is for us to think of
related examples.
• After reading an article
about lottery winners,
you start to
overestimate your own
likelihood of winning
the jackpot. You start
spending more money
than you should each
week on lottery tickets.
• Means–end analysis - heuristic
in which the difference
between the starting situation
and the goal is determined and
then steps are taken to reduce
that difference.
• the problem solver
begins by envisioning
the end, or ultimate
goal.
Problem-Solving Barriers
• Functional fixedness - a block to
problem solving that comes from
thinking about objects in terms of only
their typical functions.
• Isang function lang. cup if for
drinking only
• Mental set - the tendency for people to
persist in using problem-solving
patterns that have worked for them in
the past.
• Focused sa isang solution
• Confirmation bias – the tendency to
search for evidence that fits one’s
beliefs while ignoring any evidence that
does not fit those beliefs.
• Hindi ko papansinin ang info na
hindi align sa belief ko. Or
maghahanap ako ng evidence
nag susuport sa belief ko
Creativity
• Creativity- the process of solving
problems by combining ideas or
behavior in new ways.
– Convergent thinking - type of
thinking in which a problem is
seen as having only one answer,
and all lines of thinking will
eventually lead to that single
answer, using previous
knowledge and logic.
• 1 Solution to multiple
problems. Meron
tamang sagot. Math
problems.
– Divergent thinking – type of
thinking in which a person
starts from one point and
 comes up with many different –
ideas or possibilities based on
that point (kind of creativity).

• Solution to multiple
problems. No right or
wrong answer. Your
meaning of beauty.

• Gardner’s Theory

– Multiple intelligences -
verbal/linguistic, musical,
logical/mathematical,
visual/spatial, movement,
interpersonal, intrapersonal,
naturalists and existential
intelligence.

– multiple intelligences proposes

Intelligence that people are not born with
all of the intelligence they will
• Intelligence - the ability to learn from
ever have.
one’s experiences, acquire knowledge,
and use resources effectively in Gardner’s Nine Intelligences
adapting to new situations or solving
problems.

– Ability to understand concepts,

application of knowledge,
reasoning, self-awareness,
logic. etc

• Spearman’s Theory

– g factor – the ability to reason

and solve problems, or general
intelligence.

– s factor – the ability to excel in

certain areas, or specific
intelligence.

Theories of Intelligence
• Triarchic theory of intelligence - Robert
J. Sternberg
• Sternberg’s theory that there are three
kinds of intelligences: analytical,
creative, and practical.
– Analytical intelligence - the
ability to break problems down
into component parts, or
analysis, for problem solving.
• requires you to
compare, contrast,
evaluate, analyze, or
make a logical
judgment
Development of IQ Tests
– Creative intelligence - the
ability to deal with new and
different concepts and to come
up with new ways of solving
problems.
• produce new products,
ideas, or inventing a
new
– Practical intelligence – the
ability to use information to get
along in life and become
successful.
• Purpose:
Adaptation to, shaping of,
and selection of
environments.
IQ Tests
• Intelligence quotient (IQ) - a number
representing a measure of intelligence,
resulting from the division of one’s
mental age by one’s chronological age
and then multiplying that quotient by
100.
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields
an IQ score.
•  memory and reasoning. also
assess problem-solving skills,
short-term memory, the ability
to follow instructions, and
attention.
• Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a
verbal score and a performance score,
as well as an overall score of
intelligence.
•  verbal comprehension,
perceptual reasoning, working
memory and processing speed.
• Standardization - the process of giving
the test to a large group of people that
represents the kind of people for whom
the test is designed.
• uniformity
• Validity - the degree to which a test
actually measures what it’s supposed to
measure.
• test of intelligence should
measure intelligence
• Reliability - the tendency of a test to
produce the same scores again and
again each time it is given to the same
people.
• test is considered reliable if we
get the same result repeatedly.
Intellectual disability
• Developmentally delayed - condition in
which a person’s behavioral and
cognitive skills exist at an earlier
developmental stage than the skills of
others who are the same chronological
age. A more acceptable term for
intellectual disability.

– Intellectual disability or
developmental delay is a
condition in which IQ falls
below 70 and adaptive behavior
Giftedness
is severely deficient for a
person of a particular • Gifted - the 2 percent of the population
chronological age. falling on the upper end of the normal
curve and typically possessing an IQ of
– Hindi fully developed in a
130 or above.
particular age compared to
mainstream. motor function, • Performs higher levels of tasks.
speech and language, cognitive, Ex. Rapid memory, easy to
play, and social skills. understand complex task, deep
intense feelings, vivid
• Four levels of delay are:
imaginations etc
– Mild: 55–70 IQ
Does Giftedness Guarantee Success?
– Moderate: 40–55 IQ
Heredity and Environment and Intelligence
– Severe: 25–40 IQ
• Stronger correlations are found
– Profound: Below 25 IQ. between IQ scores as genetic
relatedness increases.
• Causes of developmental delay include
deprived environments, as well as • Genes play role of a child
chromosome and genetic disorders and having high IQ.
dietary deficiencies.
• Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50.

• The Bell Curve - book that made widely

criticized claims about the heritability of
intelligence.

• Charles Murray:
 • Black people in the U.S. score
lower on average than white
people 

Emotional intelligence – the awareness of and

ability to manage one’s own emotions as well as
the ability to be self-motivated, able to feel
what others feel, and socially skilled. Viewed as
a powerful influence on success in life.

Stabilized your emotions , as well as

understanding people’s emotions

elements:

self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation,

empathy, and social skills

Ways to Improve Thinking

• Mental activity that requires creativity
and the use of memory abilities, such as
working crossword puzzles and reading
books, can help to keep the brain fit.

• Meditation, Playing memory card

games

• Exercise. Sudoko, chess etc

DEVELOPMENTAL
Developmental Research Designs
• Human development - the scientific
study of the changes that occur in
people as they age from conception
until death.
• Stages of human beings live,
cognitively, emotionally and
physically.
• Longitudinal design - research design in
which one participant or group of
participants is studied over a long
period of time.
• the same individuals to detect
any changes that might occur
over a period of time.
• Cross-sectional design - research design
in which several different age groups of
participants are studied at one
particular point in time.
• Cross-sequential design - research
design in which participants are first
studied by means of a cross-sectional
design but also followed and assessed
for a period of no more than six years.
Nature versus Nurture
• Nature - the influence of our inherited
characteristics on our personality,
physical growth, intellectual growth,
and social interactions.
• Temperament, predisposed to
diseases, and mental disorders
• Nurture - the influence of the
environment on personality, physical
growth, intellectual growth, and social
interactions.
• Cultivated, someone is raised,
socioeconomic status, early
childhood experiences,
education, and daily habits.
• Behavioral genetics – focuses on nature
vs. nurture.
Genetics and Development
• Genetics - the science of inherited
traits.
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - special
molecule that contains the genetic
material of the organism.
 • Gene - section of DNA having the same
arrangement of chemical elements.
– Dominant - referring to a gene
that actively controls the
expression of a trait.
 PP [capital letter]
– Recessive - referring to a gene
that only influences the
expression of a trait when
paired with an identical gene.
 pp [small letter]
Mendel Box
• B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes
• 75% have brown eyes.
25% have blue eyes
• Chromosome - tightly wound strand
of genetic material or DNA.
• Chromosome disorders include
Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s
syndrome, and Turner’s syndrome,
whereas genetic disorders include
PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell
anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease.
• Normally, each cell in the human
body has 23 pairs of chromosomes
(46 total chromosomes). Half come
from the mother; the other half
come from the father. 
• Conception - the moment at which a
female becomes pregnant.
• fetus develops inside a
woman's womb or uterus. 40
weeks
• Ovum - the female sex cell, or egg.
• Fertilization - the union of the
ovum and sperm.

• Zygote - cell resulting from the
uniting of the ovum and sperm;
divides into many cells, eventually
forming the baby.
Conception and Twins
• Monozygotic twins - identical twins
formed when one zygote splits into
two separate masses of cells, each
of which develops into a separate
embryo.
• Dizygotic twins - often called
fraternal twins, occurring when two
eggs each get fertilized by two
different sperm, resulting in two
zygotes in the uterus at the same
time.
Physical Development in Infancy and
Childhood
Periods of Pregnancy
• Germinal period - first two weeks
after fertilization, during which the
zygote moves down to the uterus
and begins to implant in the lining
embryo name for the developing
organism from two weeks to eight
weeks after fertilization.
• Embryonic period - the period from
two to eight weeks after
fertilization, during which the major
organs and structures of the
organism develop.
– Critical periods - times during
which certain environmental
influences can have an
impact on the development
of the infant.
– Teratogen - any factor that
can cause a birth defect.
• Fetal period - the time from about
eight weeks after conception until
the birth of the child.
– 8-9th week to 38 weeks after
fertilization
– Fetus - name for the
developing organism from
eight weeks after fertilization
to the birth of the baby.
 • Four critical areas of adjustment for
the newborn are:
– Respiration
– Digestion
– Circulation
– Temperature regulation
• Infants are born with reflexes that
help the infant survive: sucking,
rooting, Moro (startle), grasping,
and Babinski.
• The senses, except for vision, are
fairly well developed at birth.
• Gross and fine motor skills develop
at a fast pace during infancy and
early childhood.
Shown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b)
startle reflex (also known as the Moro
reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when you touch
a baby‘s cheek it will turn toward your
hand, open its mouth, and search for the
nipple);
Figure 8.6 Six Motor Milestones
Shown here are (a) raising head and chest
—2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5
months, (c) sitting up with support—4 to 6
months,
Figure 8.6 (continued) Six Motor
Milestones
(d) sitting up without support—6 to 7
months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and
(f) walking—8 to 18 months. The motor
milestones develop as the infant gains
greater voluntary control over the muscles
in its body, typically from the top of the
body downward. This pattern is seen in the
early control of the neck muscles and the
much later development of control of the
legs and feet.

Figure 8.4 (continued) Five Infant Reflexes

(d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex.
These infant reflexes can be used to check
the health of an infant’s nervous system. If
a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may
indicate brain damage or some other Stages of Language Development
neurological problem. • Cooing - “oohs” and “aahs.”
• Babbling - “ma”, “da” or “um”. 
 • One-word speech (holophrases) –
dada, mama, go, mine
• Telegraphic speech- “I hungry”
Language acquisition device - governs the
learning of language during infancy and
early childhood
Guiding the child in her/his words. Ex. Give,
you will say gave. [if past tense]
.
Noam Chomsky 
Piaget’s Stage Theory
Immunizations
• Sensorimotor stage - Piaget’s first
• Immunizations are far less
stage of cognitive development in
dangerous than the diseases they
which the infant uses its senses and
are designed to prevent and are one
motor abilities to interact with
of the most effective weapons in the
objects in the environment.
fight against infectious diseases.
– uses senses to learn things
• Vaccine for baby: Hepatitis B
(HepB) Haemophilus influenzae type b about both themselves and
disease  their environment
– inborn reflexes such as
sucking and looking.
Cognitive Development
– Object permanence - the
• Cognitive development - the knowledge that an object
development of thinking, problem exists even when it is not in
solving, and memory scheme (plural sight.
schemas) a mental concept formed
through experiences with objects •  if you place a toy
and events under a blanket,
knows it is there and
• Acquiring of knowledge can actively seek it.
• And the building/developing • Preoperational stage - Piaget’s
of brain/mental ability. second stage of cognitive
development in which the preschool
child learns to use language as a
means of exploring the world.
– Egocentrism - the inability to
see the world through
anyone else’s eyes.
• he believes all the
world to think like
himself.
– Centration - in Piaget’s
theory, the tendency of a
young child to focus only on
one feature of an object
while ignoring other relevant
features.
– Conservation - in Piaget’s
theory, the ability to
understand that simply
changing the appearance of
an object does not change
the object’s nature.
Attachment
– Irreversibility - in Piaget’s
theory, the inability of the
young child to mentally
reverse an action.
–  young child's
difficulty mentally
reversing a sequence
of events to their
starting point.
• Concrete operations stage - third
stage of cognitive development in
which the school-age child becomes
capable of logical thought processes
but is not yet capable of abstract
thinking.
• kids are not only able to start
thinking about how other
people view and experience
the world, they even start to
use this type of information
when making decisions or
solving problems. 
• Formal operations - Piaget’s last
stage of cognitive development in
which the adolescent becomes
capable of abstract thinking.
• Able to solve a problem
logically, able to think
abstract due to experiencing
the world
• Attachment - the emotional bond
between an infant and the primary
caregiver.
• tremendous impact that continues
throughout life.
– Secure - willing to explore,
upset when mother departs
 but easily soothed upon her
return.
– Avoidant – unattached;
explore without "touching
base."
• This attachment style
might be a result of
abusive or neglectful
caregivers.
– Ambivalent - insecurely
attached; upset when
mother leaves and then
angry with mother upon her
return.
• As a result of poor
parental availability,
these children cannot
depend on their
Erikson’s First Four Stages
primary caregiver to
be there when they • Trust versus mistrust - first stage of
need them. personality development in which
the infant’s basic sense of trust or
mistrust develops as a result of
– Disorganized-disoriented – consistent or inconsistent care.
insecurely attached and
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt -
sometimes abused or
second stage of personality
neglected; seemed fearful,
development in which the toddler
dazed, and depressed.
strives for physical independence.
• Lack of a clear
• Initiative versus guilt - third stage of
attachment pattern is
personality development in which
likely linked to
the preschool-aged child strives for
inconsistent caregiver
emotional and psychological
behavior. In such
independence and attempts to
cases, parents may
satisfy curiosity about the world.
serve as both a
source of comfort • Industry versus inferiority - fourth
and fear stage of personality development in
which the adolescent strives for a
ERIKSON’S STAGEES OF DEVELOPMENT
 sense of competence and self-
esteem.
Gender Role Development
• Gender- the behavior associated
with being male or female.
• people perceive themselves
and each other, how they act
and interact
• Gender identity - perception of
one’s gender and the behavior that
is associated with that gender.
Erikson’s Fifth Stage
• Identity versus role confusion - fifth
stage of personality development in
which the adolescent must find a
consistent sense of self.
Physical Changes and Aging
• Adulthood begins in the early
twenties and ends with death in old
age.
– Divided into young
adulthood, middle
adulthood, and late
adulthood.
Erikson’s Last Three Stages
• Intimacy - an emotional and
psychological closeness that is based
on the ability to trust, share, and
care, while still maintaining a sense
of self.
• Generativity - providing guidance to
one’s children or the next
generation, or contributing to the
well-being of the next generation
through career or volunteer work.
• Ego integrity - sense of wholeness
that comes from having lived a full
life and the ability to let go of
regrets; the final completion of the
ego.
Theories of Aging
• Activity theory - theory of
adjustment to aging that assumes
older people are happier if they
remain active in some way, such as
volunteering or developing a hobby.
• Being busy and productive
makes you happy as adults
• Cellular clock theory - based on the
idea that cells only have so many
times that they can reproduce; once
that limit is reached, damaged cells
begin to accumulate.
• Wear-and-tear theory - as time goes
by, repeated use and abuse of the
body’s tissues cause it to be unable
to repair all the damage.
• gradual deterioration of the
cells and tissues of the body
via wear and tear.
Stages of Death and Dying
• Denial
• Anger
• Bargaining
• Depression
• Acceptance