Learning

• Learning can be defined as relatively permanent

change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
practice or experience

Learning
• Involves change- better or worse
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience

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 Definitions: Learning is:
• 1. “a persisting change in human performance
or performance potential . . . (brought) about
as a result of the learner’s interaction with
the environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9).
• 2. “the relatively permanent change in a
person’s knowledge or behavior due to
experience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040).
• 3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in the
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of
experience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).
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 Characteristics

• Learning is goal directed or purposive

• Learning is active process

• Learning is individual

• Learning is creative

• Learning is transferable

• It is outcome of interaction of individual with total

situation

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 Theories of Learning

• Black box theory

• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning

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 Black Box

Stimulus Response

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 Classical Conditioning

• A type of conditioning in which an individual

responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.

Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
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Ivan P. Pavlov

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Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response
Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response

Neutral Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response
 Cont..

• Stimulus Substitution

• Extinction and spontaneous recovery

• Stimulus generalisation and Discrimination

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 Operant Conditioning

Reward Punishment

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 Operant Conditioning
The theory that behavior is a function of its
consequences and is learned through
experience.
– Operant behavior: voluntary or learned
behaviors
• Behaviors are learned by making rewards
contingent to behaviors.
• Behavior that is rewarded (positively reinforced) is
likely to be repeated.
• Behavior that is punished or ignored is less likely
to be repeated.
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B.F. Skinner

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 Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement Punishment

Positive

Negative

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 Four contexts of operant conditioning
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement occurs when the likelihood of a certain
behavior increases as a result of the presentation of something
pleasant after the behavior.
Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement occurs when the likelihood of a certain
behavior increases as the result of removing something
unpleasant after the behavior.
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment occurs when the likehood of a certain
behavior decreases as the result of the presentation of something
unpleasant after the behavior.
Negative Punishment
Negative punishment occurs when the likelihood of a certain
behavior decreases as the result of the removal of something
pleasant after the behavior.
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 Reinforcement- Behaviour
Modification
• Positive reinforcement
– Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
• Negative reinforcement
– Removing an unpleasant consequence when
the desired behavior occurs.
• Punishment
– Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate
an undesirable behavior.
• Extinction
– Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to
cause its cessation. 18
 Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.
 Schedules of Reinforcement
(cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.

Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.
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