Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Keywords:
CARBON, carbon pricing, COUNTRY, INCOME, EMISSION, FOSSIL, CLIMATE, EFFECT,
ENERGY, distributional effects
Digest:
.We argue that an inverse U-shape relationship between energy expenditure shares and income
explains why carbon pricing tends to be regressive in countries with relatively higher income.
Since these countries are likely to have more financial resources and institutional capacities to
deal with distributional issues, our findings suggest that mitigating climate change, raising
domestic revenue and reducing economic inequality are not mutually exclusive, even in low-and
middle-income countries. A common concern of introducing even moderate carbon prices - and
thereby increasing fossil fuel prices - is their possible adverse impact on poverty and inequality.
We assess the effects of carbon pricing on income by means of a microsimulation to determine
the costs of maintaining current consumption with a carbon price in place. Second, we estimate
whether a carbon price would be progressive or regressive in each country. We find that
distributional outcomes within a country largely depend on energy expenditure patterns. Our
results show that, as income levels rise, carbon prices are more likely to be regressive, i.e. the
poorest households would be charged a greater proportion of their income than the national
average. We show that this effect can be attributed to an inverse U-shape Engel curve
relationship between income and the proportion of energy expenditure. These findings can help
to inform national governments in designing domestic policies to reduce emissions, and for
international negotiations on carbon pricing. We present the results of various analyses in
Section 4, including the direct income effect of carbon taxes for the lowest income groups (4.1),
the distributional effects within countries (4.2), within-country differences with varying
consumption patterns (4.3) and an estimation of the energy Engel curve (4.4). One major
objection against carbon pricing in developing countries is related to the large share of emissions
from land-use, agriculture and the use of traditional biomass as fuel. Carbon pricing in our
analysis, therefore, refers to carbon emissions from fossil energy. Carbon pricing for fossil
energy-related emissions can have important non-environmental benefits for developing
countries....
(Kami berpendapat bahwa hubungan bentuk-U terbalik antara bagian pengeluaran energi dan
pendapatan menjelaskan mengapa penetapan harga karbon cenderung regresif di negara-
negara dengan pendapatan yang relatif lebih tinggi. Karena negara-negara ini cenderung
memiliki lebih banyak sumber daya keuangan dan kapasitas kelembagaan untuk menangani
masalah distribusi, temuan kami menunjukkan bahwa mitigasi perubahan iklim, meningkatkan
pendapatan domestik, dan mengurangi ketimpangan ekonomi tidak saling eksklusif, bahkan di
negara berpenghasilan rendah dan menengah. negara. Kekhawatiran umum memperkenalkan
harga karbon yang moderat - dan dengan demikian meningkatkan harga bahan bakar fosil -
adalah kemungkinan dampak buruknya terhadap kemiskinan dan ketidaksetaraan. Kami menilai
dampak penetapan harga karbon terhadap pendapatan melalui simulasi mikro untuk
menentukan biaya mempertahankan konsumsi saat ini dengan harga karbon yang berlaku.
Kedua, kami memperkirakan apakah harga karbon akan progresif atau regresif di setiap negara.
Kami menemukan bahwa hasil distribusi dalam suatu negara sangat bergantung pada pola
pengeluaran energi. Hasil kami menunjukkan bahwa, dengan naiknya tingkat pendapatan, harga
karbon cenderung regresif, yaitu rumah tangga termiskin akan dibebankan proporsi yang lebih
besar dari pendapatan mereka daripada rata-rata nasional. Kami menunjukkan bahwa efek ini
dapat dikaitkan dengan hubungan kurva Engel bentuk-U terbalik antara pendapatan dan
proporsi pengeluaran energi. Temuan ini dapat membantu memberi informasi kepada
pemerintah nasional dalam merancang kebijakan domestik untuk mengurangi emisi, dan untuk
negosiasi internasional tentang penetapan harga karbon. Kami menyajikan hasil berbagai
analisis di Bagian 4, termasuk efek pendapatan langsung dari pajak karbon untuk kelompok
pendapatan terendah (4.1), efek distribusi di dalam negara (4.2), perbedaan di dalam negara
dengan pola konsumsi yang bervariasi (4.3 ) dan estimasi kurva Engel energi (4.4). Salah satu
keberatan utama terhadap penetapan harga karbon di negara-negara berkembang terkait
dengan besarnya emisi dari penggunaan lahan, pertanian dan penggunaan biomassa tradisional
sebagai bahan bakar. Harga karbon dalam analisis kami, oleh karena itu, mengacu pada emisi
karbon dari energi fosil. Penetapan harga karbon untuk emisi yang terkait dengan energi fosil
dapat memiliki manfaat non-lingkungan yang penting bagi negara-negara berkembang....)
Jurnal kedua:
..Linguistic Core can not confidently detect language of text or detected language is not
supported. Used language-independent algorithm....
Keywords:
DAN, TRANSAKSI, YANG, JUTA, INDONESIA, ATAS, dan Neraca Perdagangan, Neraca
Transaksi Berjalan dan Neraca Perdagangan, Neraca Perdagangan, Kinerja Transaksi Berjalan
Digest:
Jurnal Ketiga:
Keywords:
EMISSION, INDONESIA, CARBON, FOREST, REDUCE, COUNTRY, REDD, EMISSIONS
TRADING, PROTOCOL, Carbon Markets
Digest:
Over the past decade the United Nations has developed a framework consistent with conserving
carbon and biodiversity-rich forests while simultaneously reducing global greenhouse gas
emissions. Putting a price tag on the role forest ecosystems play in carbon capture and storage
allows forest conservation to compete economically with historically more lucrative forest
exploitation practices. In 2011, Indonesia and Norway signed a landmark deal stipulating that
Norway would pay Indonesia USD $1 billion if the country verifiably reduced carbon emissions
stemming from deforestation and peatland conversion. The challenge for Indonesia is for such an
offset system to achieve economic growth, social equity, and reduced forest cover loss
simultaneously. The Protocol sets emissions limits for 37 industrialized countries and the
European community, including limits on carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (Kyoto Protocol, 1998).
Two types of true carbon market trading systems were created, "cap-and-trade" and "carbon-
offsets." Cap-and-trade (CAT) mechanisms have been more widely used than carbon-offsets, as
concerns have been raised about whether offset projects produce their intended results. This
transfer of emissions credits is referred to as emissions trading. Each CAT system also includes
allowances, which are an authorization to emit the upper limit on pollution, measurement
systems to track emissions, and flexibility for any source to choose how to reduce emissions.
The Kyoto Protocol sought to use trading to help developed countries reduce GHG emissions by
5% from 7 1990 levels by 2012. The Kyoto Protocol established conditions for the first non-
voluntary carbon market by committing certain nations to meet GHG emissions reduction targets
and by establishing a framework for allowance trading across international borders. Since the
Protocol's international carbon market has yet to develop, regional carbon markets, such as the
European Union's Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS), the world's largest CAT system, have
begun. Traditional carbon-offset systems are based on trading emissions between industrialized
countries and poorer, less developed countries. Offsets allow industrialized countries to release
emissions in trade for preventing emissions in developing countries and compensating them with
carbon credits (Waskey, 2012).