Travel and Tourism Management

Module I Introduction to travel and tourism

Travel and Tourism-Meaning, definition, types and forms of tourism and tourists, difference
between tourist, traveler, excursionist, visitor, nature and scope of tourism, Origin, evolution of
tourism and milestones, myths and realities in tourism, components, typology and inter-
disciplinary approach of tourism

Module II Elements of tourism

Components of tourism-A’s of tourism, cuisine, seasonality, geography, Leipers touriusm

system, characteristics of tourism products. Travel motivation-meaning and types, motivation
theories-push and pull model, Cohens, McIntosh and Maslow. Tourism Destinations-Types,
Location, DMOs. Transportation-Meaning, Types, Origin and its importance-transport
relationship

Module III Tourism Accommodation

Origin and evolution of accommodation, types and classification of hotels. Meal plan, types of
rooms, types of reservations, mode of payment, reservation and billing procedures, Hotel circuits
in India, Private Public Participation model and hotel industry

Module IV Impacts of Tourism

Socio, cultural impact, economic impact, environmental impact and multi cultural impacts of
tourism, multiplier effect, leakages, demonstration effect. Measures to regulate tourism impact,
prospects of tourism

Module V Tourism Institutions and organizations

State: KSTDC ( Karnataka State Tourism Development Corporation )

National: Ministry of Tourism, Civil Aviation Department of Tourism, FHRAI, ITDC, FAITH
(Federation of Associations in Indian Tourism and Hospitality)

International: UNWTO (World Tourism Organization), UFTAA (Universal Federation of Travel

Agents Association), PATA (Pacific Asia of Travel Agents), WTTC (World Travel and Tourism
Council)
Module I
Introduction to travel and tourism
The word tourism derived from the Latin word Tournus which stands for “Wheel” or “Round
journey”.

Tourism means it is a temporary visit to a destination, it is concerned with pleasure,

holiday, recreation, leisure etc, it is not more than one year and less than 24 hours, it is not
imply the establishment of a permanent resident and is not concerned with any
remunerated activity.

Definitions of Tourism-
1) According to Swiss Professors Hunziker and Krapf in 1942”Tourism is the totality of the
relationship and phenomenon arising from the travel and stay of strangers,provided the
stay does not imply the establishment of a permanent residence and is not connected with
a remunerated activity”.
2) According to WTO recommendations”Tourism comprises the activities of persons
travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one
consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes”

Brief history of tourism worldwide and in India

Different tourism experts categorized development of tourism into 6 stages/ eras, and these are as
under:

1. The Empire Era (BC to 5th century )

2. The Middle age Era (5th to 14th century)
3. The Renaissance Era (14th to 16th century)
4. The Grand Tour Era (1613 to 1785 A.D)
5.The Mobility Era (1800 to 1944 )
6. The Modern Era (1945 to present )

1. The Empire Era (BC to 5th century ) The Empire Era are started from the time of the
Egyptians to the Greek and finally came to an end with the fall of the roman empire.
During the time , people began travelling in large numbers for governmental ,
commercial, , educational and religious purposes. Factors that influence people to
travel during the Empire era :
Affluent population with time and money to travel.
 Safe and easy travel.
 Widely accepted currencies.
  Widely used language.
 Legal system which protects personal safety.

2. The Middle age and Renaissance Era (5th to 14th century) Travel almost disappeared
during the Middle Ages where travel became dangerous and sporadic. The travel
situation during the middle Ages :
Transportation and Safety declined
Less acceptance of currencies and less knowledge of common languages
Some travel by crusaders to Holy Lands
Macro polo’ s historic travel in the late 13th century
The rebirth in travel emerged slowly during the Renaissance Era (14th to 16th
century) 4 | P a g e Introduction and Historical Development of Tourism
Trade routes slowly began to reopen ,as commercial activities grew and the
merchants ventured into new territories
Increased interest in travel for commerce and pleasure

3. The Renaissance Era (14th to 16th century)

The Renaissance phase bloomed with the romance of travel, widening the dimensions of human
horizons. This was the period of exploration to France, Germany, Italy and Egypt. The Industrial
Revolution had awakened man and the sixteenth century experienced the development of
coaches in hungry, luxuries inns started mushrooming in England and the popularity of travel
reached to Scotland and France. Samuel Johnson took a journey to Italy in 1976.
His friend records him saying, “… a man who has not been to Italy is always
conscious of inferiority from his not having seen what it is expected, a man should
see

4. The Grand Tour Era (1613 to 1785 A.D)

Trend of luxurious travel started by Wealthy English
. Developed as a status symbol and spread throughout Europe.
 Goal was to experience the “Civilized World” and study the arts and
 sciences. These travel often lasted for several years.
 Growth in travel for business reasons

5. The Mobility Era (1800 to 1944 )

Growing economic activity.
 Increase in systems, modes, and speeds of travel (roads, railroads, steamships
) Thomas Cook ( Father of Tourism) developed tour packages for mass travel
. Invention of automobile and airplane expanded freedom to travel.
 In 1841, Thomas Cook organized the first tour for a group of 570 to attend a
temperance rally in Leicester, England.
 6. The Modern Era (1945 to present)
Paid vacations introduced in the early 1990s made leisure travel possible for
working and middle classes.
Millions of people were introduced to international travel during world war II.
Advent of Jet travel shortened travel time.
Time, money, safety and interest in travel led to unparalleled growth of tourism.
Development of mass tourism.

Types of tourism
1) Inter-regional tourism
2) Intra-regional tourism
3) Inbound tourism
4) Outbound tourism
5) Domestic tourism
6) International tourism
1) Inter-regional tourism-Travel between two or more regions are called inter-regional
tourism.
Eg-Travel between Europe and Asia.
2) Intra-regional tourism-Travel between the same region is called as the intra-regional
tourism
Eg-Travel within Europe
3) Inbound tourism-The person who visit other country, he is inbound tourist for other
country and this type of travel or tourism is called an inbound tourism.
For eg-Indian citizen visit Nepal means he is inbound tourist for Nepal.
4) Out bound tourism-The person who visit other country , he is out bound tourist for his
country and this type of tourism is called an outbound tourism.
For eg-Indian citizen visit Nepal means he is outbound tourist for India.
5) Domestic tourism-Domestic tourism means travel within his or her own country and
origin and destination is in domestic country.
For eg-Indian citizen travel within India.
6) International tourism-International tourism involves the movement of people between
different countries in the world. The travel by people to a country other than that in
which they normally live, and which is a separate national unit with its political and
economic system, constitutes international tourism.
Forms of tourism
1) Religious tourism
2) Historical tourism
3) Social tourism
4) Adventure tourism
5) Health tourism
6) Business tourism
7) Sports tourism
8) Senior tourism
9) Culture and nature oriented tourism
10) Ethnic or roots tourism
11) Space tourism
12) VFR
13) Special interest tourism
14) Ecotourism
15) Rural tourism
16) MICE tourism

1) Religious tourism-Religious tourism is also known as pilgrimage or spiritual

tourism. Religious tourism is a journey undertaken for the sake of worship and to pay
respect to a site of special religious significance.
For eg-Travelling Hajj in Mecca
Travelling Dilwara temple, Mount Abu in Rajasthan.
2) Historical tourism-Historical tourism involves visit to heritage locations that is
connected with history like museums, churches, temples, forts and palaces.
For eg-Taj Mahal(Uttar Pradesh)
Humayun’s tomb(Delhi)
Sun temple(Konark,Orissa)
3) Social tourism-Social tourism refers to programs and activities means social tourist
enjoy the social activities, event or programs of a particular destination.
For eg-Khajuraho dance festival, Snake boat race.
4) Adventure tourism-Adventure tourism is a package of recreation, enjoyment,
education, and the thrills of participating in an adventure activity.Adventure tourist
look for some unusual experience, they seek adventure activity that may be
dangerous, trilling, risk oriented such as rock climbing, river rafting, bungee
jumping.
Classification of adventure sports
a. Land based-Mountaineering, safari.
b. Water based-White water rafting, scuba diving.
 c. Aero based-Para sailing, ballooning, sky diving.
5) Health or medical tourism-Health or medical tourism means people are travelling
from one country to another country to obtain medical treatment in that country. The
first recorded instance of medical tourism dates back 1000s of years when Greek
pilgrims traveled from Mediterranean to the small territory in the sardonic gulf called
Epidauria. Epidauria became the original travel destination for medical tourism. Spa
towns and sanitariums may be considered an early form of medical tourism.
Foreigner’s select India as a medical tourism destination because
a. Most of the doctors and surgeons at Indian hospitals are trained.
b. Most of the doctors and nurses are fluent in English
c. Less expensive and no waiting lists.
d. Global standards of care and technological advantages in healthcare are rapidly
improving all over India.
6) Business tourism-The business traveler main motive for travel is work. He or she
visits a particular destination for reasons like attending a business meeting,
conference, convention, trade fairs, selling products, meeting clients ,ect.
7) Sports tourism-The concept of sports tourism started with british nationals travelling
abroad for winter sports. Here people are travelling for watching and involving sports
activity.Eg-Asian games.
8) Senior tourism-Senior citizen tourism mainly focussed towards old age people. They
are mainly concentrated towards extra care and medicines in the place visited.
9) Culture and nature tourism-Cultur tourism means people are travelling to learn the
way of life, beliefs, food, beverages, crafts, fairs and festivals. People are always
curious to know more about foreign land, people and their culture. Nature tourism
means people are travelling to see the natural attractions. It may be forests, wild
animals,ect. Nature tourism is responsible travel to natural areas which conserves the
environment and improves the welfare of local people.
10) Ethnic or roots tourism-When a person visits a place to search his family or
ancestors, he is ethnic or roots tourism. The tourists visit the local homes and,
observes and participate in their traditional rituals, ceremonies, dances, festivals, ect.
11) Space tourism-Space tourism is the practice of travelling into space for recreational
purposes. Space tourism term broadly applied to the concept of paying customers
travelling beyond the earth’s atmosphere.
12) VFR-This includes visiting one’s relatives and friends for interpersonal reasons. This
particular type of tourism is very common in India.
13) Special interest tourism-Special interest tourism has evolved from a search for new
avenues. The special interest tourist looks for the unusual and not for the routine
itineraries.
14) Ecotourism-Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the
environment and sustain the wellbeing of local people
 Four principles of Eco-tourism
a. Maximizing environmental impacts
b. Maximizing the benefit to local people
c. Maximizing tourist satisfaction
d. Respecting local culture.
15) Rural tourism-People are travelling to rural areas to know about rural cuisine, fairs
and festivals, art and architecture. Usually they are enjoying local food,
transportation, and their accommodation.
16) MICE tourism-Meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions (MICE) is a type
of tourism in which large groups, usually planned well in advance, are brought
together. Recently there has been an industry trend towards using the term 'meetings
industry' to avoid confusion from the acronym. Other industry educators are
recommending the use of "events industry" to be an umbrella term for the vast scope
of the meeting and events and profession

Meeting: Is a general term indicating the coming together of a number of people in

one place, to confer or carry out a particular activity. Meeting planners and other
meeting professionals may use the term “meeting” to denote an event booked at a
hotel, convention center or any other venue dedicated to such gatherings.
Incentive: A meeting event as part of a program which is offered to its participants to
reward a previous performance.
Conference: Participatory meeting designed for discussion, fact-finding, problem
solving and consultation. As compared with a congress, a conference is normally
smaller in scale and more select in character – features which tend to facilitate the
exchange of information. The term “conference” carries no special connotation as to
frequency. Though not inherently limited in time, conferences are usually of limited
duration with specific objectives.
Exhibition: Events at which products and services are displayed.

Visitor

A visitor is any person visiting a country other than that in which he or she has his or her usual
place of residence, for any other reason than following an occupation from within the country
visited.

Visitors may be further categorized as an excursionists and tourists.

Excursionists

An excursionist is a day visitor who stays for less than 24 hours at a place. Excursionists do not
stay overnight .
Tourist

A temporary visitor to a place. When people leave their usual place of residence and work to
have a change from their usual routine for a short time, they are called tourists. They stay at the
place for at least 24 hours.

Traveler

A traveler is a person who travels from one place to another. It is a general term used for a
person who travels irrespective of the purpose of travel, distance of travel or duration of stay. All
tourists are travelers or visitors but all travelers or visitors are not tourists.

10 Reasons Why Tourism Is Important/ Scope of Tourism

Many people love to travel. They seek out new places like vibrant cities, cozy small towns, and
beautiful natural environments like beaches and forests. For years, the tourism industry has
evolved and grown as people scour the globe for unique experiences and activities. Things
stalled in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, but as countries like the United States start to
see improvement, tourists are once again booking trips in high numbers. This signals hope for
the future of the industry. Here are ten reasons why tourism is important:

1. The tourism industry employs a lot of people

For years, tourism has been a big job generator. Because the industry is so varied and includes
jobs like pilots, hotel workers, travel guides, and more, it can be hard to estimate exactly how
many, but it’s a lot. In 2017, reports estimated that about 1 in 10 jobs were part of the tourism
industry. In the US alone, almost 5.5 million were employed by the industry in 2021.

2. The tourism industry can pay very well

While salary varies depending on where you live, the tourism industry offers many opportunities
for good-paying jobs. At one point, the US Travel Association found that 40% of Americans
who start in travel and tourism reach an annual career salary of over $100,000. Certain jobs, like
luxury travel advisors, pilots, hotel managers, and cruise ship directors tend to pay the most.
3. Tourism impacts GDP growth (and decline)
Considering how many people tourism employs, it makes sense it would affect a country’s GDP.
In 2019, the direct contribution of travel and tourism accounted for 3.3% of the world’s total
GDP. That represented a small rise since 2018. That changed in 2020 because of the pandemic.
Tourism’s contribution to the GDP dropped by almost 50% according to the World Travel and
Tourism Council. If there was any doubt about tourism’s impact on GDP, 2020 put that doubt to
rest.

4. Tourism supports low-income countries

Many of the world’s lowest-income countries depend on tourism. In 2015, 48 of the lower-
income and lower-middle income countries saw a surge of tourists, which brought in about $21
billion (USD). For the world’s Small Island Developing States (SIDS), 30% of their export
revenues come from tourism. In Palau, an island nation in the Pacific, tourism is responsible for
90% of all exports. For these nations, tourism is key to their growth.
5. Tourism plays a role in gender equality
In most parts of the world, women fill the majority of the tourism industry. Unfortunately, they
tend to hold more jobs on the lowest rung and many perform unpaid labor in family tourism
businesses. That said, the wage gap is smaller according to UN Women. Women earn 14.7% less
than men and fill more leadership roles than in other fields. Tourism is a field ripe for
opportunities and strategies that can further empower women.
6. Tourism is good for rural areas
“Rural tourism” has become increasingly popular as tourists from busy cities long for more
natural environments. They seek out unique experiences such as staying on a farm, going for
days-long hikes with guides, rock-climbing, and more. These visits create jobs for people living
in these rural areas and show authorities that these places are worth preserving and investing in.
It also presents opportunities for tourists to learn more about an area in its natural state and form
a closer connection with the people who live there.

7.Tourism can play a role in fighting against climate change

When you think of entities contributing to climate change, you might not think of tourism, but
the industry contributes 8% of all global greenhouse gases. That’s driven by planes, other
transportation, and the consumption of goods and services. As tourism grows, the impact on the
climate will grow, too. Luckily, the industry is fighting back. The World Travel and Tourism
Council is a major leader and developed a plan in 2019 to become climate neutral by 2050. It’s
also a top priority for the World Tourism Organization, which is a United Nations entity.

8. Tourism encourages conservation

One way tourism can help nature is through conservation. Nature-based tourism is very popular,
which gives authorities a strong incentive to protect nature such as old-growth forests, lakes,
coastlines, state parks, gardens, and wildlife. Tourists want to scuba-dive in gorgeous
clear water, walk through woods, and camp in the wilderness. Costa Rica is a good example of a
nation realizing that conservation can draw tourists. After a deforestation trend, the country
reversed course and gained twice the forest cover it had in three decades. In 2019, this brought in
the US equivalent of $6.14 billion.
9. Tourism preserves culture
Tourism helps culture in a few ways. One is through the support of artisans who sell their wares
to visitors. Markets and shops are a draw to many tourists interested in souvenirs for people back
home or as a way to remember their trip. Tourists also often visit cultural sites and watch local
music, dance, theater, and other performances. These sustain intangible culture, which gives
regions their unique identity and protects the multiculturalism of our world.

10. Travel has many benefits

You know how tourism affects the economy, climate change, and culture, but what about the
tourists themselves? There are many benefits to traveling if a person is privileged enough to do
it. Adam Galinsky, a professor from Columbia Business School studies the link between
international and creativity. He says that experiences in other countries can increase a person’s
cognitive flexibility, though it depends on how a person engages. Travel is also known to boost a
person’s happiness and lower their stress. Few can afford a luxury travel experience, but even
visits to local cultural sites or natural areas can benefit a person’s well-being. You can learn
more about tourism and its benefits in a free online course.

Characteristics or nature of tourism product

1) Intangibility
2) Inseparability
3) Perishability
4) Variability
5) Absence of ownership
6) Customer participation
7) Seasonability
8) Multiple use
9) Heteroginity
1) Intangibility-Tourism product cannot be seen or touched, because it is a intangible
product. Until we purchase a service product we cannot get any experience from the
service product.
2) Inseparability-In tourism product, separation of service provider and cosumer is not
possible. Both service providers and service users have to be physically present for
mutually satisfying exchange.
3) Perishability-Services cannot be stored, they perish if not consumed.
Eg-If tourist do not come to see the Taj Mahal the view is lost for that day.
4) Variability-Tourism quality depends on who provides the service and when and where
they are provided. In tourism product , service providing is different from person to
person and situation to situation.
5) Absence of ownership-In tourism product ownership cannot be transferred to one person
to another.
 6) Customer participation-Customer or tourist participation is must and should for the
tourism industry, without that tourism is not completed.
7) Seasonability-Demand for a particular destination or a particular attrction is vary from
season to season. Eg-If you take a waterfall, high demand in riny season not in summer.
8) Multiple use-We can use a particular tourism destination for a multiple times, not for a
single time.
9) Heteroginity-Five components are essential for a tourism industry like attraction,
accommodation, accessibility, amenity and activity. Any one component missing means
tourism is not completed.

Typology
Cohen`S Tourist Typology (1972)

Cohen`s divided tourist in four categories:

i) Organized mass tourists:- Organized mass tourists are highly dependent on

environmental bubble. They are characterized by fully packaged holidays. They usually
take up Western style accommodations.
ii) Individual mass tourist:- Individual mass tourists use institutional facilities of the tourism
system e.g. scheduled flights, centralized booking etc. They like to travel individually
and they stay on the beaten track.
iii) Explorer:- This is the kind of tourist which aims at newness along with comfort. They
like to stay off the beaten track. They rely on the modern amenities.
iv) iv) Drifter:- This kind of tourist seek the innovations at any cost even discomfort and
danger. They immerse completely in the local society. And there term of stay is long.
Cohen described two types of tourist as –
1. First two as Institutionalized tourists, and
2. The latter two as non-institutionalized
Smith's Tourist Typology
Smith`s divided tourist in seven categories:
i) Explorer:- They are lust to explore new destinations. They accept the lifestyle of
their hosts. They live as active participants.
ii) Elite tourists:- They are rarely seen. They take up the pre arranged facilities.
They adapt fully but temporarily to local norms.
iii) Off beat tourists:- They do something beyond norms. They always want to be
away from tourist crowds.
iv) Unusual tourists:- These are occasional in number. They prefer to travel in an
organized tour. They buy an optional one day package tour.
v) Incipient mass tourist:- It is steady flow of people seeking western amenities and
comfort.
vi) Mass tourists:- These are the visitors of middle income. They prefer to visit in
groups.
vii) Charter tourists:- They have minimal involvement with people and culture of the
visited country. They too demand the western amenities.

Amex`s Tourist Typology

Amex divided tourists in five categories:

i) Adventurer:- These are the educated tourists. They like to try new experiences.
ii) Worriers:-These type of tourists are having lacking in self confidence. They are
nervous about flying. They tend to take domestic holidays.
iii) Dreamers:- They have high aspirations about travel and exotic destinations
which are not born in actual travel out in the actual travel experience which tends
to be rather ordinary destinations.
iv) Economizer:- They perceive that travel does not add any value to their lives.
They are always engage in travel thinking. They see no worth in paying extra for
special amenities.
v) Indulgers:- They are wealthy travelers. They pay for the extra comfort. They
tend towards staying in five star accommodations.
Plogs Tourist Typology (1977)
Plog classifies tourists into three categories as described below –
i) Allocentric (The Wanderers):− A tourist who seeks new experiences and
adventure in a wide range of activities. This person is outgoing and self-confident
in behavior. An Allocentric person prefers to fly and to explore new and unusual
areas before others do so. Allocentric enjoy meeting people from foreign or
different cultures. They prefer good hotels and food, but not necessarily modern
or chain-type hotels. For a tour package, an Allocentric would like to have the
basics such as transportation and hotels, but not be committed to a structured
itinerary. They would rather have the freedom to explore an area, make their own
arrangements and choose a variety of activities and tourist attractions.
ii) Psycho Centric (The Repeater) :− A tourist falling in this category is usually
nonadventuresome. They prefer to return to familiar travel destinations where
they can relax and know what types of food and activity to expect. Such tourists
prefer to drive to destinations, stay in typical accommodations, and eat at family-
type restaurants.
iii) Mid-centric (Combination):− This category of tourists covers the ones who
swing between the above said two types.
Different Tourism Systems and Models
Travel and tourism are one of the oldest activities known to human kind. During
the prehistoric times, man used to travel in search of food and shelter. However,
with the passage of time, travel had become a leisure activity largely undertaken
to break away from mundane routine. The concept of paid holidays during the
time of industrial revolution played a crucial role in popularising leisure tourism
and weekend getaways leading to development of mass tourism destinations.
However, with time, the concept of mass tourism has had a damaging effect to the
destination owing to factors like pollution, over-crowding et al. which paved way
for emergence of alternate forms of tourism like sustainable tourism, green
tourism, heritage tourism, eco-tourism, which not only offer tourism opportunities
but also cause less (or almost negligible) damage to the destination. This provides
for a win-win situation for all tourism stakeholders viz. tourists, government, local
community, businesses, etc. Nevertheless, development of any industry or activity
requires a streamlined and systematic approach. Thus, the above factors led to
development of theory of tourism system, to go into the depth of this
phenomenon, specifically, considering factors like drawing power or pull force
offered by a destination, push factors or what motivates people to undertake travel
and finally what tourists do in the intermediate time frame. We shall study this
concept and allied theories in this chapter

TOURISM AS A SYSTEM: Systems theory proved to be a revolutionary

hypothesis. Realising this fact, tourism researchers were quick to adapt and apply
this to tourism. Thus, various scholars came up with their unique interpretations.
As of today, theories given by Lepier, Mill and Morrison and Mathison and Wall
are considered a pioneer work in this field. Tourism as a system is not only made
up of hotels or restaurants or cultural attractions but is a combination of various
elements intertwined and woven together to form an interdependent relationship.

Components of Tourism system: The five vital components of tourism system

areAccessibility, Accommodation, Attraction, Activities and Amenities

1. Leiper’s Geo-spatial model

2. Mill Morrison
3. Mathieson and wall model
4. Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle(TALL)
5. Doxey’s Irridex Index
6. Demonstration effect
7. Crompton’s push and pull theory
8. Stanley Plog’s model
9. Gunn’s model
 1. Leiper’s Geo-spatial model

Leiper’s Tourism System is a basic conceptualisation of the structure of the tourism industry. It
is one of the most widely accepted and most well-known models used in tourism research when
attempting to understand the tourism system

Who was Leiper?

Neil Leiper was an Australian tourism scholar who died in February 2010. His work was

extremely influential and continues to be well cited throughout the tourism literature.

Leiper has four major areas in which he focussed his research: tourism systems, partial

industrialisation, tourist attraction systems and strategy. It is his work on tourism systems that I

will discuss in this post.

Leiper’s research was identified as having a significant influence on travel and tourism academic

literature, as well as the conceptualisation of tourism as a discipline. This applies to both

research and educational contexts.

Leiper was famed for the connections that he made between theory and strategy, which helped to

bridge the gap between theory, policy and practice.

You can read more about Neil Leiper and his academic contributions in this paper.
Why was Leiper’s Tourism System developed?

Discussions about what tourism is and how tourism is defined have been ongoing for many

years.

Leiper’s contribution to the debate was to adopt a systems approach towards understanding

tourism.

Leiper (1979) defined tourism as:

‘…the system involving the discretionary travel and temporary stay of persons away from their

usual place of residence for one or more nights, excepting tours made for the primary purpose of

earning remuneration from points en route. The elements of the system are tourists, generating

regions, transit routes, destination regions and a tourist industry. These five elements are

arranged in spatial and functional connections. Having the characteristics of an open system,
the organization of five elements operates within broader environments: physical, cultural,

social, economic, political, technological with which it interacts.’

Rather than viewing each part of the tourism system as independent and separate, Leiper’s

definition was intended to allow for the understanding of destinations, generating areas, transit

zones, the environment and flows within the context of a wider tourism system.

Do you work in the tourism industry? Do you want to learn more about managing your

businesses sustainably and effectively? Here at Tourism Teacher we offer a range of staff

training and development opportunities and consultancy services. Contact me for more
information.

In essence, therefore, Leiper’s Tourism System was developed to encourage people to view

tourism as an interconnected system, and to make relevant assessments, decisions, developments

etc based upon this notion

The basic elements of Leiper’s Tourism System

There are three major elements in Leiper’s Tourism System: the tourists, the geographical

features and the tourism industry.

The Tourists

The tourist is the actor in Leiper’s tourism system. They move around the tourism system,

consuming various elements along the way.

The geographical features
In Leiper’s tourism system he identifies three major geographical features: the traveller

generating region, the tourist destination region and the tourist transit region.

I will explain which each of these geographical features means short.

The tourism industry

The tourism industry is, of course, at the heart of the tourism system. All of the parts that make

up the structure of tourism, are found within the tourism system.

The geographical features of Leiper’s Tourism System model

Leiper identifies three main geographical regions in his tourism system. These are visually

depicted in the diagram above.

I will explain what each of the geographical features mean below.

The traveller generating region

The traveller generating region is the destination in which the tourist comes from.

Exactly what this means, is not entirely clear. Does it mean the departure airport? The home

country? The area of the world? The home town? Well in part, I think that this depends on the

nature of the tourism that is taking place.

If, for example, a person is taking a domestic holiday, then their home town will almost certainly

be classified as the ‘traveller generating region’.

However, when we travel further away, the precise details of our home locations become less

important. For example, you may refer instead to the country or district in which you live. Or

you may simply refer to the country.

For example, if I were to travel to Spain, I may refer to my traveller generating region as the

United Kingdom.

Similarly, sometimes we refer to areas of the world. This is especially the case with travellers

from Asia. Some countries in Asia (such as China) are substantial tourist generating regions.

Rightly or wrongly, however, the traveller destination region is often given the vague description

of simply being ‘Asia’.

Within the traveller generating region there are many components of tourism.

Here you will often find stakeholders in tourism such as travel agents and tour operators, who

promote outbound or domestic tourism.

The tourist destination region

The tourist destination region can largely be described in the same vain.

In Leiper’s tourism system, the tourism destination region is the area that the tourist is visiting.

This could be a small area, such as a village or tourist resort. For example, Bentota in Sri Lanka

or Dahab in Egypt.

The tourist destination region could be an entire province. For example, Washington State.
Likewise, it could be a country, such as Jordan. Or it could even be an area of the World, such as

The Middle East.

In the tourist destination region you will find many components of tourism. Here you will likely

find hotels, tourist attractions, tourist information centres etc.

The tourist transit region

The last geographical region identified in Leiper’s Tourism System is the tourist transit region.

The tourist transit region is the space between when the tourist leaves the traveller generating

region and when they arrive at the tourist destination region. This is effectively the time that they

are in transit.

The tourist transit region is largely made up of transport infrastructure. This could be by road,

rail, air or sea. It involves a large number of transport operators as well as the organisations that

work within them, such as catering establishments (think Burger King at the airport).

The tourist transit region is an integral part of Leiper’s Tourism System.

The benefits of Leiper’s Tourism System

There are many benefits of Leiper’s tourism system.

Leiper’s model allows for a visual depiction of the tourism system. The model is relatively

simple, enabling the many to comprehend and use this model.

Leiper’s Tourism System model has been widely cited within the academic literature and widely

taught within tourism-based programmes at universities and colleges for many years.

The way in which this model demonstrates that the different parts of the tourism industry are

interrelated and dependent upon each other provides scope for better planning and development

of tourism.
The disadvantages of Leiper’s Tourism System

There are, however, also some disadvantages to Leiper’s Tourism System model.

Whilst the simplicity of this model can be seen as advantageous, as it means that it can be

understood by the many rather than the few, it can be argued that it is too simple.
Because the model is so simple, it is subject to interpretation, which could result in different

people understanding it in different ways – I demonstrated when I discussed what ‘region’

meant.

Leiper developed this model back in 1979 and a lot has changed in travel and tourism since then.

Take, for example, the use of the Internet.

Lets say that a person lives in Italy and books a trip to Thailand through an online travel agent

who is based in the USA. Where in the model does the travel agent fit? Because they have little

place in either the traveller generating region or the tourist destination region….
The post-modern tourism industry is not accounted for in this model, thus it can be argued that it

is limited in scope because it is outdated.

Likewise, this model fails to address the way in which the tourism system is actually part of a

network of interrelated systems. What about the agriculture sector? Or the construction industry?

Or the media? All of these areas play an essential role in [feeding, building, promoting] tourism,

but they are not represented in the model.

2. Mill Morrison
Introduced by Mill and Morrison in the year 1985

Mill-Morrison (Robert Christie Mill and Alastair M Morrison)

System= A system is a group of elements or components or interrelated entities that are formed
for a common purpose

Why characterize tourism as a system not as an industry?

Reasons given by Mill and Morrison

1. Interdependency- Several interrelated part work together to achieve a common goal (ex-
mixture of 5 A’s)
2. Open system-Nature of tourism is a ongoing system , new concepts and phenomenon
appear frequently (adventure travel, sustainable tourism development, eco-tourism)
 3. Complexity and variety-Tourism is influenced by external factors (politics, technology,
war, terrorism, demographics)
4. Competitiveness-Destinations are competing with one another with unique marketing
strategies and providing exceptional offers and packages
5. Partnership
6. Friction and disharmony-In 21st century with advancement of technology traditional
tourism services distribution is threatening
7. Responsiveness

The parts of tourism system

1. Demand-The factors influencing the market

2. Travel-After deciding to travel, who to travel with, when, where, how to reach the
destination
3. Destination-Destination mix is a combination of attractions, events, facilities,
infrastructure, transportation and hospitality resources.
4. Marketing-Strategy, planning, promotion and distribution, market segmentation, product
life cycle, selecting distribution channel

3. Mathieson and wall model

Mathieson and Wall Model of Travel-Buying Behaviour

Felt need/ travel desire

Information collection and evaluation image

Travel decision (Choice between alternatives)

Travel preparation and travel experiences

Travel satisfaction outcome and evaluation

Mathieson and Wall (1982) suggested a five-stage linear model of travel buying behaviour as
shown in the aa.

1. Felt Need/ travel desire: A travel desire is felt amongst the tourists, mostly caused by
intrinsic factors such as spending time with friends and family, rejuvenation, relaxation,
developing a particular skill set (say, hiking, trekking, cycling) and many more. All the
aforesaid reasons are assessed in this process. bove diagram.
2. Information collection and evaluation image: In this stage, information regarding travel
information is collected from various formal and informal sources. The information
received is evaluated against each other
 3. Travel decision: It involves the decision regarding destination to be visited (amongst
array of choices available), accommodation, activities to be undertaken, attractions to be
visited, et al. In the decision-making process tourist expectations and the benefits sought
relate to a core tourism product
4. Travel preparation and experience: It involves travel booking (including travel documents
like visa and passport) and commencement of travel. It fundamentally includes the
appropriation of travel decisions undertaken in the former step
5. Travel satisfaction evaluation: After undertaking the desired travel (or vacation) the next
step is to evaluate the post trip satisfaction taking into consideration a total tourism
product that encompasses the attraction, transport, accommodation, food, hosts, weather
and many other elements which form the total tourism experience. This also influences
further travel decisions. Although all the stages of decision-making process by tourist are
equally important, it is the endmost stage that is crucial to securing recurring visits to the
destination.

4. Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle(TALC)

Butler publishes in 1980 a model of evolution of tourist destinations known as TALC - Tourism
Area Life Cycle- which stipulates that a site exploited for tourism and leisure knows 6 phases in
its evolution:

Exploration,

Involvement,

Development,

Consolidation,

Stagnation,

Decline or rejuvenation.
 a. Exploration (small number of tourists)

Exploration is the first stage of the model. It is a stage where a very limited number of visitors
visit the area. Visitors usually make their individual travel arrangements and the pattern of
visitation is irregular. The area may have attracted the visitors, usually the non-local ones due to
its cultures and scenic beauty.

In this stage, local people are not involved in money making from tourist-related activities, and
therefore, enjoy a very little or no economic benefits from their interactions with the tourists.

ii.Involvement(local residents become involved in tourism)

Involvement is the stage where the number of people visiting the area is increasing. Therefore,
residents now see economic benefits in providing some facilities such as food, accommodation,
guides, and transports to the tourists. As the stage progresses, some marketing efforts to take the
attraction out there are in place and a recognised tourist season is somehow realise
iii.Development(large number of tourists)

Development is a stage where the area becomes widely recognised as a tourist attraction, partly
because of heavy advertising and promotional efforts. As the attraction is becoming known and
popular, investors and tourist companies see opportunities for financial gains. Consequently,
more cultural attractions and facilities such as big hotels, restaurants, bars, arenas, and
convention centres are developed to supplement the original attraction

iv.Consolidation(tourism growth slows but the number of tourists exceeds the local
population)

During the consolidation stage tourism growth slows. This may be intentional, to limit tourist
numbers or to keep tourism products and services exclusive, or it may be unintentional.

There will generally be a close tie between the destination’s economy and the tourism industry.
In some cases, destinations have come to rely on tourism as a dominant or their main source of
income.

v.Stagnation(visitor number have reached their peak, tourism causes environmental, social
and economic problems)

Stagnation as the name suggests, is the stage where many aspects of an attraction have reached
maximum capacity and cannot grow any further. Local environment is polluted, and many
species can no longer survive. The attractions depend heavily on repeat visitation and substantial
marketing efforts are required to keep the business going.

vi.Decline or Rejuvenation

Decline scenario-Area may become a tourism slum or drop out of the tourism market completely

Rejuvenation scenario-Requires a major change in tourism attractions

After the stagnation stage, the area may face different possibilities. One of the possibilities is
decline where the area is no longer able to compete with newer attractions. This decline stage is
characterised by weekend and day trips as the attraction has lost its appeal.

Support for local and national governments may be necessary at this stage of the cycle. Santiago
(Chile) is a good example of rejuvenation which has experienced a major transformation in the
last few years
 5.Doxey’s Irridex Index
Irridex theory established by Doxey in 1975

Irritation index is based on the understanding of local resident’s attitude change toward tourists
and tourism development in different stages.

The stages

1. Euphoria (a feeling or state of intense excitement and happiness)

2. Apathy (Lack of interest, enthusiasm or concern)
3. Irritation
4. Antagonism (opposition)
1. Euphoria ( exploration and involvement, happiness)

Small number of tourists

Host community welcomes tourism

Limited or no commercial activity by tourism

2. Apathy (Development, unconcern/disinterest)

Visitors number increase

Formal relationship between tourists and residents

3. Irritation/Annoyance (Discomfort)

Number of tourists grow significantly

Residents begin to show misgivings about the tourism industry due to increasing tourists,
external investment and infrastructure.

4. Antagonism (Hated, Tourists become responsible for everything bad that has happened in
the host community)

Irritation are expressed verbally

Tourists seen as a cause of problem

6. Demonstration Effects on tourism
The term demonstration effect introduced by American economist” James stumble duesenberry”
in the year 1949

The behavior of individuals caused by observation of the actions and their consequences

Demonstration effect is an outcome of the guest, host relationship where residents/locals of a

tourist destination perceive the tourists as superior beings and try to imitate their behavior

The basic propositions of demonstration effect

 1. Behavior of tourist and hosts are initially different
2. Behavior pattern are transferred from tourist host
3. Imitators(host) maintain the demonstrated behavior

Types of Demonstration effect

1. Acculturation
2. Commodification
3. Standardization
4. Transculturation
1. Acculturation- When local people entertain tourists, they adopt tourists needs, attitudes
and values and ultimately start following them
2. Commodification- Commodification is the conversion of a destination culture into a
commodity (tangible/intangible) in response to the perceived demand or actual demand
of the tourist market
3. Standardization- Standardization of cultural destination means bringing recognizable
components of tourism industry (food, accommodation, movies, facilities) to exotic
location to comfort tourists with familiar surroundings. It also involves changing the
culture of the destination to appeal the tourists which loses the authenticity of the tourist
spot
4. Transculturation- The process of culture transformation manifested by the invasion of
new culture elements and the loss or alteration of existing ones.

7.Crompton’s push and pull theory

1979, “Push and Pull” factors have been widely accepted to explain tourist bevavior and travel
motivations.

THE PULL AND PUSH FACTORS OF TOURISM

• tourist motivation is the push-pull model

• factors which encourage individuals to move away from their home setting through tourism
(push factors - matching supply and demand, including target marketing).

• those attributes of a different place which attract or 'pull' them towards it.

• pull factors refer to the qualities of the destination area which are either natural (such as the
climate or topography), derived (the warmth of the people) or contrived (theme parks or hotels)

The Push-Pull Model

People travel because they are:

• “Pushed” into making travel decisions by internal, psychological forces • Intangible desires to
travel generated from within

• “Pulled” by external forces of the destination’s attributes • Attractions such as Disneyland or

Sea World

The Push-Pull Model

PUSH PULL

Escape Scenic beauty

Self-Discovery Historical areas

Rest, Relaxation Cultural attractions and events

Prestige Sporting events

Challenge Beaches

Adventure Parks

Excitement Recreation facilities

Family togetherness Shopping

Health and fitness

8. Stanley Plog’s model

Classification of tourists: Stanley plogs (1977)

Classified tourist into three categories

1. Allocentric tourists (The wanderers)

Seek adventure and new experience
Explorers
Make own travel arrangements
Enjoy meeting new people and their culture
2. Midcentric tourists (Combination)
Midcentric tourists shows the characteristics of both allocentric and psychocentric
tourists
3. Psychocentric tourists (The repeater)
Unadventurous
Return to familiar destination
Want to relax
 Structured itinerary
Safety and security is important.
9. Gunn’s model
Tourism as system

This model demonstrates every part of tourism is interrelated to each other

Elements

The elements of tourism are numerous and complicated

Ex- Lodging (accommodation)

Types of facility

Feasibility

High level services

Gunn’s framework of tourism implies that there are two main categories that comprise the main
industry

1. Demand component
2. Supply component
1. Demand component

This includes four factors

i.A tourist

ii. Motivation

iii. Financial ability to pay for service and facilities

iv. Time and physical ability

2. Supply component

Three supply side sectors

i.Private business
ii.Governmental organizations
iii.Non profit organizations

Five major components of supply side

a. Attraction
 b. Services
c. Transportation
d. Information
e. Promotion-It includes four activities
Advertising
Publicity
Public relation
Incentives

Disciplinary approach of tourism

Interdisciplinary Approaches to Study Tourism

Institutional Approach
Product Approach
Managerial Approach
Economic Approach
The Cost-Benefit approach
Sociological Approach
Geographical Approach
The Environmental Approach
Historical Approach
Interdisciplinary Approach
Institutional Approach
The institutional approach
to study tourism is one of the major approaches which take into account the institutions
as the name depicts and the intermediaries which work towards providing tourism
services to the customers. These include the tour operators who are basically the
wholesalers of travel packages and the travel agents who act as intermediaries between
the tour operators and the potential travellers. Apart from them, there are transportation
services provided by the airlines companies, car rental companies, railways and cruises
who sell their tickets in bulk to the tour operators and travel agencies and also directly to
the consumers which are an important institutional link between the service providers and
the customers. As tourism industry is completed by joining different industries together,
the accommodation industry also contributes heavily in explaining the institutional
approach which includes the different types of accommodation facilities provided to the
visitors like hotels, motels, hostels, home-stays etc. The US Census bureau conducts a
survey every five years on carefully chosen services like travel agencies and
accommodation services which offer a data base for further research and inference for the
researchers, academicians and enthusiastic travelers.
Product Approach
The product approach to study tourism involves all the activities related to tourism
products ranging from manufacturing of the products, marketing to consumption of them
by the consumers. It would involve understanding the creation or production of different
tourism products like the airline seats and hotels rooms. Once they are available to the
customers the next step is to market or promote them through different promotional
modes like the print media which includes newspapers, magazines, brochures, electronic
media like advertisements in the television, promotional messages in mobile phones with
attractive offers like discounts can really help promote these services and products to the
potential customers. Once the marketing is a success, the consumption pattern of the
customers is studied which would depend on the approach of marketing by the particular
companies, the target market, the type of consumer, consumer behavior, time of
promotion and purchase and many such conditions. The similar procedure as above
would be applicable to all other products and services of the tourism industry such as car
rentals, hotel rooms, restaurant meals, tickets to any destination specific events and many
others. This approach is considered to be a lengthy and time consuming approach and
makes the process of understanding of the major concepts of tourism is slowed down.
Managerial Approach
This approach is enterprise or firm oriented approach that emphasizes mainly on
management activities which are required to manage perform tourism practices. It is a
micro economic in nature that may include management activities like organizing,
planning, controlling, research and development, costing, marketing and promotions.
Management functions are a must in every field which needs to be working in a planned
and organized manner. Tourism is one such business which if preceded in an unplanned
way or not manage properly can damage not only the environment of the destination but
also the community serving the customers would affect adversely. Hence, management
approaches are a vital force to perform the tourism related activities and keep a check on
the positive and negative analysis of the activities taking place in the destination.
Economic Approach
This approach relates tourism towards economic development of the place and people
where tourism is practiced. The economic approach focuses upon the economic benefits
caused by practicing tourism like empowerment of the community, revenue generated out
of the tourism activities, employment opportunities provided to the locals and foreign
exchange gained by the tourism products and foreign travelers. The economic approach
also helps in understanding the demand and supply mechanisms of the products and
services so as to focus on the right amount of supply from the suppliers’ side and aim
towards getting the right products in the market. But where tourism provides a long list of
positive economic impacts it also poses a lot of negative economic impact on the
destination and its communities like economic leakage when most of the investors in
tourism business in the destination are outsiders and not the local people or when the cost
of building up and creating tourism related infrastructure and services is more than the
price with which it is sold. There are certain cases in tourism industry where the tourism
activities have provided less economic benefit to the destination. Thus, the economic
approach in tourism helps the students to understand the economic implications of the
tourism on the economy. This is related to the effects which implies by tourism on
countries economy and tourism development on the basis of economic aspects
The important economic effects are:
a) Foreign Currency Effect: Tourism is one of the important sources for earning foreign
currency. But from the point of view of seeing its effect on the economy it becomes
necessary to see what the net foreign currency receipt is. So, the imports of investment
and consumer goods required by tourists have to be deducted from the country’s gross
receipts from foreign tourism. b) Income Effect: Income Effect refers to the direct income
earned that resulting from the expenditure made by the tourists. It is also the indirect
income which results from the multiplier effect i.e., when the first recipient spends a part
of his income again. For example: an accommodation owner spends part of his earnings
on buying grocery for his self-consumption; here income earned by one is generating
income for some other also.
c) Employment Effect: Tourism is a labor intensive industry which creates both direct
and indirect employment like jobs in the airline industry or the hotels. These are
examples of direct employment and the suppliers of food beverages are the sources of
indirect employment. Studies show that the employment effect is much higher in the
developing countries than developed countries.
d) Regional Equalization Effect: Tourism can make a positive contribution to the
development of economically poor regions which do not have any significant source of
income generation. It contributes to the economic development poor regions. Tourism
thus brings in more income and employment in these regions and hence has an
equalization effect. There are different opinions regarding all these effects but the
important risk of tourism is the fact that it is seasonal, and also the social inferiority of
tourism occupation. What is really important is that the positive economic effects should
outweigh the negative ones.
The Cost-Benefit approach
This approach suggests that when planning for the development of tourism the Costs
(disadvantages) and the Benefits (advantages) occurring out of the various tasks
undertaken for the tourism development should be taken into consideration. The different
bodies like public authorities at local, regional and national levels, and also the private
sector involved in the decision making, to rationalize decisions and tourist policy
measures such as investments, legislative enactments, and publicity campaigns and so on.
Two Fundamental Rules of Cost-Benefit approach
a) The need for clearly defined, feasible goals: It is important to clearly lay out the goals
that are desired to be achieved through tourism development to be able to calculate costs
and benefits. The goals provide the criteria for evaluating the costs and benefits of a
particular action .The goals have to contain clear instructions on the actions required to
achieve them.
b) The need to consider alternative courses of action: This implies that the decisionmaker
just does not adopt the first measure that appeals to him without considering other
possibilities that may offer greater chances of success. To take a rational decision
requires a choice between alternative courses of action. The costs and benefits of various
alternatives have to be compared and the best should be selected.
Sociological Approach
Apart from having a strong impact on the economy, tourism also have a significant
impact on the society. The destination practicing tourism activities would impact the
society as the local communities itself are the people who run the activities and interact
with different types of tourist on daily basis. The locals’ involvement and engagement in
the tourism activities provide them which financial as well as societal changes like
upliftment of their lifestyle, change in culture and improvement in socioeconomic status.
People travel to experience the unique culture of different places which includes their
traditional food and attire, their lifestyle, their cultural practices, folklores and dances.
This is how tourism is attached to societal norms and contributes in changing culture and
tradition of a society.
Geographical Approach
Geography is an integral part of tourism. A lot many geographical aspects relate to
tourism like the landscape, climate, weather, environment, bio diversity, flora and fauna.
Geography has so many things which relate to tourism and the components of the
destination. Different geographical locations give rise to different types of communities,
adventure activities, tourism products, services and lifestyle. Which change in landform,
the community changes their languages, traditional practices change, which makes
tourism unique and diverse at every little distance. This approach is very wide as it
indulges, land use, demographical aspects of the destination, cultural issues, sociological
impacts and economic impacts. The geography links to several characteristics of a
destination and its people and is responsible for the changes of all the elements of the
destination landscape and community’s practices.
Environmental Approach
This approach proposes that for the development of tourism it is important to study the
role environment plays and its aspects. These are to be taken into consideration while
developing tourism of any country or destination. One of the major draws for a tourist to
a place is its scenic attraction, the landscape, the beauty, the structure. These are also the
most important factors for tourist motivation. For example: When a tourist goes for a
holiday he is looking for a change of environment or a “contrast experience”. But the
landscape loses its tourist value through its overuse by the tourists and local people. The
natural beauty can be preserved better if there is no unplanned tourism, which can have
serious negative impacts on the environment. For example; building up of hotels or
resorts with no planning will lead to destruction of the landscape. The landscape is the
real raw material and attraction of tourism. In any other branch of the economy if capital
put in is lost it can be multiplied again. But in tourism, once the basic attraction of
tourism –the land is lost it can never be reclaimed. So while planning for the development
it becomes very significant to understand the impact of tourism growth on the
environment and to ensure that it doesn’t get adversely affected
Historical Approach
Tourism is a very ancient practice and there have been many vital reforms in the world
due to tourism, thus, it becomes important to keep a record of the changes that occurred
due to tourism in the physical and natural environment. The different happenings and
occurrences in the history that has changed the surroundings form a major link up
between the ancient habits of the tourists and community with the present form of
tourism being practiced in different regions. Pearce (1980) had identified certain factors
that link historical context with tourism development of a particular place: Factors
responsible for beginning of tourism in a destination The chronological order of
incidences occurring towards development of tourism in destination The motives of
happening of incidences Benefits of the tourism activities taking place The
identification of negative impacts at an early stage The groups being affected and
conveying the message of negative impacts of tourism at their place Therefore,
historical aspect of tourism helps an individual understand the past of tourism and also to
predict the future happening and trends in tourism industry.