Contents

METAL CUTTING................................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.01 Orthogonal Cutting ............................................................................................................................................ 3
1.02 Oblique Cutting ................................................................................................................................................... 3
SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL .......................................................................................................................................... 4
1.03 Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry/ Nomenclature .................................................................................... 4
1.04 Tool Signature ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Cutting Tools Material .................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.05 Properties of cutting tool ............................................................................................................................... 6
1.06 Various Cutting Tool Materials....................................................................................................................... 6
Tool Life............................................................................................................................................................................ 7
1.07 FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE ...................................................................................................................... 7
1.08 TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION ...................................................................................................................... 8
Chip Formation ................................................................................................................................................................ 8
1.09 Continuous Chips ............................................................................................................................................. 9
1.10 DISCONTINUOUS CHIPS .................................................................................................................................... 9
1.11 Continuous Chips with built-up edge ........................................................................................................... 10
LATHE.............................................................................................................................................................................. 10
1.12 Lathe Types .................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.13 Lathe Parts ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
1.14 Work Holding Devices.................................................................................................................................... 13
Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut ....................................................................................................................................... 18
1.15 Cutting Speed ................................................................................................................................................. 18
1.16 Feed ................................................................................................................................................................ 18
1.17 Depth Of Cut ................................................................................................................................................... 19
Lathe Operations ........................................................................................................................................................... 19
1.18 Lathe Operations ........................................................................................................................................... 19
LATHE SPECIFICATION.................................................................................................................................................... 24
1.19 LATHE SPECIFICATION.................................................................................................................................... 24

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 METAL CUTTING

 Metal cutting, commonly known as machining is the most common phenomenon used in
manufacturing industries.

 The two mechanisms of metal cutting are:

 Orthogonal Cutting

 Oblique Cutting

1.01 Orthogonal Cutting

 Orthogonal cutting is a type of metal cutting in which the cutting
edge of the wedge shaped cutting tool is perpendicular to the
direction of the tool motion

 It is also known as 2D (two dimensional) cutting because the force

developed during cutting can be represented by 2D coordinates
1.02 Oblique Cutting
 Oblique cutting is a type of cutting in which the cutting edge of the wedge
shaped cutting tool makes an angle except right angle to the direction of tool
motion.

 Also known as 3D cutting since the cutting forces developed during

cutting can be represented by 3D coordinates

Orthogonal Cutting V/S Oblique Cutting

Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

1.Cutting edge of the wedge shaped cutting
tool is perpendicular to the direction of the
tool motion
2. The chip flows in the direction normal to
the
Cutting edge
3. Only two components of forces
considered cutting force and thrust force
4. Forces can be represented in 2D
coordinate system
5. The shear force developed per unit area
is high which increases the heat developed
1. Cutting edge of the wedge shaped
cutting tool makes an angle except right
angle to the direction of tool motion
2. The chip makes an angle with normal to
the cutting edge
3. Three components of forces considered
cutting force, thrust force and radial force
4. Force can be represented by 3d
coordinate system
5. The shear force developed per unit area
is low and hence the heat developed is less
and hence increased tool life

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 SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

Single point cutting tool Multi point cutting tool

1.One cutting point or tip is available 1. More than one point or tip is available
Eg. Lathe machine tool, Planing machine Eg. Milling cutter, Grinding wheel, etc
tool

1.03 Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry/ Nomenclature

Shank
 This is the main body of the tool. The shank is used to hold the tool (i.e tool holder)
Flank
 The surface or surface below and adjacent to the cutting edge is called flank of the tool.
Face
 The surface on which the chips slide is called the face of the tool.
Heel
 It is the intersection of the flan and the base of the tool. It is a curved portion at the bottom of the
tool.
Nose
 It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersects.

Angle:

Back rake angle

 Back rake angle is the angle between the face of the single point cutting tool and a line parallel with
base of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge

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  If the slope face is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake angle and if it is upward
toward nose, it is positive back rake angle. Back rake angle helps in removing the chips away from
the work piece

Side rake angle

 Side rake angle is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined side ways. Side rake angle is the
angle between the surface the flank immediately below the point and the line down from the point
perpendicular to the base.

 Side rake angle of cutting tool determines the thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. It is
provided on tool to provide clearance between work piece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of
work piece with end flake of tool

End relief angle

 End relief angle is defined as the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below
the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right angles to the
flank. End relief angle allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the work piece.

Side relief angle

 Side relief angle is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool measured at right angles to the side.

 Side relief angle is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the material. It is
incorporated on the tool to provide relief between its flank and the work piece surface.

End cutting edge angle

 End cutting edge angle is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the
shank of the tool. It provides clearance between tool cutting edge and work piece.

Side cutting edge angle

 Side cutting edge angle is the angle between straight cutting edge on the side of tool and the side
of the shank. It is responsible for turning the chip away from the finished surface

1.04 Tool Signature

 Tool signature is a standardized abbreviated system used for specifying tool angles. It indicates the
angles that a tool utilizes during the cut. It specifies the active angles of the tool normal to the
cutting edge.

 The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting tool are always stated in
the following order: (ASA)

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 1) Back rake angle (0°)
2) Side rake angle (7°)
3) End relief angle (6°)
4) Side relief angle (8°)
5) End cutting edge angle (15°)
6) Side cutting edge angle (16°)
7) Nose radius (0.8 mm

If a tool has shown by 2, 9, 5, 5, 9, 11, 3 it means

1) Back rack angle: 2°
2) Side rack angle: 9°
3) End relief angle: 5°
4) Side relief angle: 5°
5) End cutting edge angle: 9°
6) Side cutting edge angle: 11°
7) Nose radius: 3mm

Cutting Tools Material

1.05 Properties of cutting tool

1) It should be harder than the work piece material

2) High hot hardness temperature
3) High toughness
4) High wear resistance
5) High thermal condectivity
6) Low co-efficient of friction
7) Low Cost
8) Ease in fabrication

1.06 Various Cutting Tool Materials

1) High Carbon Steel

2) High Speed Steel (H.S.S)
3) Cemented Carbides
4) Cermets
5) Diamond
6) Ceramics and sintered oxides

Comparison Of High Carbon Steel and High Speed Steel (H.S.S)

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 High Carbon Steel High Speed Steel (H.S.S)
1) Its Composition is C=0.8 to 1.3%, Si=0.1 to 0.4%, 1) It is a high carbon tool steel containing large
and Mn=0.1 to 0.4% amount of tungsten
2) Used for machining soft metals 2) A typical H.S.S is 18% tungsten, 4% chromium
and 1% Vanadium
3) Used at cutting speed of 5 m/min 3)They are used in specific types of tools like
drills,reamers, taps, etc
4) Loose hardness above 2500C

Tool Life
 The actual machining time between 2 successive regrinds of a cutting tool is known as tool life

1.07 FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE

1) Cutting Speed
2) Cutting Temperature
3) Feed and Depth of Cut
4) Tool Geometry
5) Tool Material
6) Work piece Material
7) Nature and Cutting
8) Use of Cutting Fluids
9) Operator's Skill.

Cutting Speed

 If increasing the cutting speed then tool life definitely decreases.

Cutting Temperature
 If increasing the temperature of the tool then decreases the life of the tool.
Feed and Depth of Cut
 If increasing the feed and depth of cut that causes friction will increases between the tip of the tool
and work piece which decreases the life of the tool.
Tool Geometry
 If you are not making the proper rack angle, back rack angle, etc then also it will affect the life of
the tool.
Tool Material
 Tools are made with different materials like carbide, ceramic, high-speed steel, carbon steel, etc.
Which are the various mechanical properties on which the life of the tool depends.
Work piece Material
 If the cutting tool is not selected according to the workpiece material, it also affects the life of the
tool.

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Nature and Cutting
 Nature of material which type of environment cutting condition also affects the life of the tool.
Use of Cutting Fluids
 If the cutting fluid is not used properly or of good quality, it will reduce the life of the tool.
Operator's Skill
 Operators must be well skilled in operating machining processes otherwise tool life is likely to be
reduced.

1.08 TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION

VTn =C
 V= Cutting speed (m/min)
 T= Tool life (minutes)
 n= a constant whose value depends upon the material of the cutting tool & job, called tool life Index.
o n=0.08 to 0.02 for H.S.S tools
o n=0.2 to 0.4 for cemented carbide tools
o n= 0.5 to 0.7 for Ceramic Tools
o n = 0.1 to 0.15 for cast alloys
 C = a constant, called machining constant

 The machining cast iron use high-speed steel tool life of 50 minutes was observed with a cutting speed of
100 m/min. Determine the tool life with a cutting speed of 80 m/min. ? (n = 0.09)

 Find the tool life equation, if a tool life of 80min is obtained at a cutting speed of 30m/min and 8 min at
60m/min ?

Chip Formation
 When the tool comes in contact with the metal surface, elastic compression and then plastic
compression of the metal face in contact with the tool rake face takes place. This develops shear
and ultimately yielding or fracture starts.
 Finally, the deformed metal or chip flows over the tool face and get removed.
 The chip will be removed and get further deformed due to friction, depending upon the cutting
conditions.

Types Of Chips
 There are mainly three types of chips:
1) Continuous Chips
2) Discontinuous Chips
3) Continuous Chips with built-up edge

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1.09 Continuous Chips

 They are formed by continuos plastic

deformation of the metal without fracture in
front of the cutting edge of the tool and is
formed by smooth flow of the chip up to the
tool face
 The chips formed have same thickness
throughout
 Favourable conditions for forming continuous
chips:
1) Workpiece should be ductile
2) Large rake angle
3) High cutting speed
4) Small chip thickness
5) Minimum friction between tool face and workpiece material
6) Proper use of coolant and lubricant
7) Tools should have low co-efficient of friction
 Merits of Continuous Chips:
1) Gives high surface finish while machining ductile material
2) Minimizes friction loss
3) High tool life
4) Low power consuption

1.10 DISCONTINUOUS CHIPS

 These are the chips that form in segments

 They are formed by series of rupturing
occurring approximately perpendicular to
the tool face
 They are convenient to handle and dispose
off
 Favourable conditions for forming
discontinuous chips:
1) The work piece should be brittle
2) Slow cutting speed
3) Small rake angle of the tool
4) Large depth of cut
 Merits of discontinuous chips:
1) They are easy to handle and dispose off

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1.11 Continuous Chips with built-up edge

 This type of chips is formed during

machining of ductile metal with excessive
friction between tool and work piece
 It is same as that of continuous chips except
for the formation of a built up edge on the
tool face
 High friction and high local temperature
between the tool work piece interface will
lead to the welding of the work piece
material to the cutting edge of the tool
 Surface finish will be less
 Favourable conditions for forming continuous chips with built-up edge:
1) Ductile work piece
2) High friction on tool face
3) High temperature between tool and work piece
4) Lack of coolant and Lubrication

Comparison
Chip Type Material type Rack angle Depth of cut Cutting speed
Continuous Chip Ductile High Small Large/Medium
Discontinuous Brittle, Ductile But Medium High Low
Chips hard
Continuous Chips Ductile Low/Medium Medium Medium
with built edge

LATHE
 The lathe machine is one of the
earliest machine tools and one of the
most versatile and widely used as
machine tool for performing the
machining operations.

 A lathe is a large machine that rotates

the work, and cutting is done with a
nonrotating cutting tool. The shapes
cut are generally round, or helical. The
tool is typically moved parallel to the
axis of rotation during cutting.

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  Principle: The job to be machined is held and rotated in a lathe chuck; a single point cutting tool is
advanced which is stationary against the rotating job. Since the cutting tool material is harder than
the work-piece, so metal is easily removed from the job.

1.12 Lathe Types

1) Speed lathe
2) Tool room lathe
3) Centre lathe or Engine Lathe
4) Bench lathe

Speed lathe
 It is very simple in design
 It has only headstock, tailstock, and a very simple tool post
 It can operate speed is very high
 It is used for light machine works like wood turning, metal spinning and metal polishing

Tool Room Lathe

 It is a very versatile lathe machine
 It can give better accuracy and finish
 It has wider range of speeds
 It can give different types of feeds
 It is very useful in manufacturing die

Centre lathe or Engine Lathe

 It is designed for low and high power operations
 Machine length can be up to 60 feet
 Various metal can be machined
 Machine can operate at wide range of speed rations

Bench lathe
 These types of lathe machines are small in size and are used for very small precision work.
 Bench lathe machines are mounted on the bench.
 It has all the similar parts of engine lathe and speed lathe. Bench lathe machine performs almost all
the operations of engine lathe and speed lathe its only difference being in the size.

1.13 Lathe Parts

1) Lathe bed
2) Head stock
3) Tailstock
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 4) Carriage
5) Feed Mechanism
6) Gear Box
Lathe bed

 It is the base or foundation of the lathe. It is heavy, rugged and single piece casting made to support
the working parts of the lathe. The headstock and tail stock are located at either end of the bed and
the carriage rests over the lathe bed and slide over it. On the top of the bed, there are two sets of
guide ways - outer ways and inner ways. Outer ways is for the carriage and the inner ways for the
tailstock. The guide ways are of two types wide flat guide ways and inverted V-guide ways.
 The lathe bed is the main guiding member of the lathe machine so it must satisfy the following
condition.
a. It should be sufficiently rigid to prevent deflection
b. It must be massive with sufficient depth and width to absorb vibration
c. It must resist the twisting
d. To avoid distortion
 For this point of view the bed material should have high compressive strength, should be wear
resistant and absorb vibration. Cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium forms a good material
suitable for lathe bed.

Head stock

 The headstock is permanently fastened on the inner ways at the left side of the bed.
 The headstock spindle, a hollow cylindrical shaft supported by bearings, provides a drive from the
motor to the work holding device.
 A live centre and sleeve, a face plate, or a chuck can be fitted to the spindle nose to hold and drive
the work. All lathes receive their power with the help of a head stock.
 The power transmission device may be step cone pulleys or a geared head drive

Tailstock
 It is situated at the right hand end of the bed and is mounted on the inner guide ways.
 It can be moved towards or away from the operator. Tailstock can be locked in any position along the bed of
the lathe by tightening the clamp lever or nut.
 The tailstock spindle is a hollow tapered shaft (left side end). It can be used to hold the dead centre or other
tools having the same tapers such as drills and reamers.
 This has two main use:
o It supports the other end of the work
o it hold a tool for performing operation such as drilling, reaming, tapping etc.

Carriage

 The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool. By the help of this, tool moves away or towards the
headstock. It has five major parts

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  Saddle: It is an H-shaped casting mounted on the top of the lathe ways so it slides along the ways
between the headstock and tailstock. On the top it supports the crossslide and tool post
 Cross Slide: It is mounted on the saddle. The cross slide has a dovetail that fits over the saddle
 Dovetail: It provides the cross movement (towards or away from the operator) to the cutting tool.
It supports the compound rest.
 Compound Rest: It is mounted on the top of the cross-slide and is used to support the cutting tool.
It can be swivelled to any angle for taper turning operations.
 Tool Post: It is mounted above the compound rest. A T-slot is machined in the compound rest to
accommodate the tool post. It clamps the cutting tool or cutting tool holder in a desired position.
 Type of tool post :
o Single screw tool post
o Four bolt tool post
o Open side tool post
o Four way tool post
 Apron: It is fastened to the saddle and contains the feeding mechanism. The apron hand wheel can
be turned by hand to move the carriage along the bed of the lathe. The automatic feed lever is used
to engage power feeds to the carriage and the cross slide.

Feed Mechanism
 The movement of the tool relative to the work is termed as "feed".
 A lathe tool may have three types of feed:
1) Longitudinal Feed: When the tool moves parallel to the work i.e. towards or away from the
headstock.
2) Cross Feed: When the tool moves perpendicular to the work i.e. towards or away from the
operator.
3) Angular Feed: When the tool moves at an angle to the work. It is obtained by swivelling the
compound slide.
 Cross and longitudinal feed are both hand and power operated but angular feed is only hand
operated.
 Lead screw is used for cutting of the threads in combination with the split nut. Split nut (Half nut)
ensures that carriage moves without any slippage.
 Feed Rod is used for powered longitudinal movement of the carriage and cross slide.

Gear box
 The quick-change gear-box is placed below the headstock and contains a number of different sized
gears.

1.14 Work Holding Devices

 The work holding devices are used to hold and rotate the workpieces along with the spindle.
Different work holding devices are used according to the shape, length, diameter and weight of the
workpiece and the location of turning on the work. They are

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 1) Chucks
2) Face plate
3) Driving plate
4) Catch plate
5) Carriers
6) Mandrels
7) Centres
8) Rests

Chucks
 Workpieces of short length, large diameter and irregular shapes, which cannot be mounted
between centres, are held quickly and rigidly in chuck. There are different types of chucks namely,
three jaw universal chuck, four jaw independent chuck, Magnetic chuck, Collet chuck and
Combination chuck.
1) Three Jaw self- centering chuck
2) Four Jaw Independent Chuck
3) Magnetic Chuck
4) Collet Chuck

1) Three Jaw self- centering chuck

 The three jaws fitted in the three slots may be
made to slide at the same time by an equal
amount by rotating any one of the three pinions by
a chuck key.
 This type of chuck is suitable for holding and
rotating regular shaped workpieces like round or
hexagonal rods about the axis of the lathe.
 Workpieces of irregular shapes cannot be held by this
chuck

2) Four Jaw Independent Chuck

 There are four jaws in this chuck. Each jaw is moved
independently by rotating a screw with the help of
a chuck key.
 A particular jaw may be moved according to
the shape of the work. Hence this type of
chuck can hold woks of irregular shapes. But
it requires more time to set the work aligned
with the lathe axis.
 Experienced turners can set the work about the
axis quickly. Concentric circles are inscribed on the
face of the chuck to enable quick centering of the workpiece

3) Collet Chuck

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  Collet chuck has a cylindrical bushing known as collet. It is made of
spring steel and has slots cut lengthwise on its circumference. So,
it holds the work with more grip. Collet chucks are used in capstan
lathes and automatic lathes for holding bar stock in production
work

4) Magnetic Chuck
 The holding power of this chuck is obtained by the magnetic
flux radiating from the electromagnet placed inside the chuck.
 Magnets are adjusted inside the chuck to hold or release the
work. Workpieces made of magnetic material only are held in
this chuck.
 Very small, thin and light works which cannot be held in an
ordinary chuck are held in this chuck

Face plate
 Faceplate is used to hold large, heavy and irregular shaped
workpieces which can not be conveniently held between
centres. It is a circular disc bored out and threaded to fit
to the nose of the lathe spindle. It is provided with radial
plain and ‘T’ – slots for holding the work by bolts and
clamps

Driving plate
 The driving plate is used to drive a workpiece when it is held
between centres. It is a circular disc screwed to the nose
of the lathe spindle. It is provided with small bolts or
pins on its face. Workpieces fitted inside straight tail
carriers are held and rotated by driving plates

Catch plate
 When a workpiece is held between centres, the catch plate is used
to drive it. It is a circular disc bored and threaded at the
centre. Catch plates are designed with ‘U’ – slots or
elliptical slots to receive the bent tail of the carrier.
Positive drive between the lathe spindle and the
workpiece is effected when the workpiece fitted with
the carrier fits into the slot of the catch plate.

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Carrier (Lathe Dogs)

 When a workpiece is held and machined between

centres, carriers are useful in trans- mitting the driving
force of the spindle to the work by means of driving
plates and catch plates. The work is held inside the eye
of the carrier and tightened by a screw. Carriers are of
two types and they are:
o Straight tail carrier
o Bent tail carrier
 Straight tail carrier is used to drive the work by means of
the pin provided in the driving plate. The tail of the bent tail carrier fits into the slot of the catch
plate to drive the work

Mandrel

 A previously drilled or bored workpiece is held on a mandrel to be driven in a lathe and machined.
There are centre holes provided on both faces of the mandrel. The live centre and the dead centre
fit into the centre holes. A carrier is attached at the left side of the mandrel. The mandrel gets the
drive either through a catch plate or a driving plate. The workpiece rotates along with the mandrel.
There are several types of mandrels and they are:
o Plain mandrel
o Collar mandrel
o Step mandrel
o Cone mandrel
o Gang mandrel
o Expansion mandrel

 Plain mandrel
o The body of the plain mandrel is slightly tapered to provide proper gripping of the
workpiece. The taper will be around 1 to
2mm for a length of 100mm. It is also known
as solid mandrel. It is the type mostly
commonly used and has wide application

 Gang mandrel
o It has a fixed collar at one end and a movable
collar at the threaded end. This man- drel is used
to hold a set of hollow workpieces between
the two collars by tightening the nut

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  Screwed mandrel
o It is threaded at one end and a collar is
attached to it. Workpieces having internal
threads are screwed on to it against the collar
for machining.

 Cone mandrel
o It consists of a solid cone attached to one end of the
body and a sliding cone, which can be adjusted by
turning a nut at the threaded end. This type is
suitable for driving workpieces having different
hole diameters.
Centres
 Centres are useful in holding the work in a lathe between
centres. The shank of a centre has Morse taper on it and the
face is conical in shape. There are two types of centres
namely
o Live centre
o Dead centre

Rests
 A rest is a mechanical device to support a long slender workpiece when it is turned between
centres or by a chuck. It is placed at some intermediate point to prevent the workpiece from
bending due to its own weight and vibrations setup due to the cutting force. There are two
different types of rests
o Follower rest
o Steady rest

 Follower rest
o It consists of a ‘C’ like casting having two adjustable
jaws to support the workpiece. The rest is bolted to the
back end of the carriage.

o During machining, it supports the work and moves

with the carriage. So, it follows the tool to give
continuous support to the work to be able to machine
along the entire length of the work

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  Steady rest

o Steady rest is made of cast iron. It may be made to slide

on the lathe bed ways and clamped at any desired
position where the workpiece needs support.
o It has three jaws. These jaws can be adjusted according
to the diameter of the work. Machining is done upon
the distance starting from the headstock to the point of
support of the rest.
o One or more steady rests may be used to support the
free end of a long work

Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut

1.15 Cutting Speed

 The cutting speed is the distance travelled by a point on the outer surface of the work in one
minute. It is expressed in meters per minute

πdn
Cutting speed= m/min
1,000
Where ‘d’- is the diameter of the work in mm
‘n’- is the r.p.m of the work
Recommended Cutting Speeds for six materials in RPM

Cutting Tool Mild Steel Carbon Aluminium Soft Brass Cast iron Annealed
steel Stainless
Annealed
HSS 100 80 250-350 175 100 80 to 100
Carbide 300 200 750-1000 500 250 200 to 250

1.16 Feed
 The feed of a cutting tool in a lathe work is the distance the tool advances for each revolution of the
work. Feed is expressed in millimetre per revolution

Feed for Various Materials (using HSS tool)

Materials Roughing Cut (IPR) Finishing Cut (IPR)

Mild steel .005-.020 .002-.004
Tool Steel .005-.020 .002-.004
Cast Iron .005-.020 .002-.004
Brass .005-.020 .002-.004
Aluminum .005-.020 .002-.004

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1.17 Depth Of Cut

 The depth of cut is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the uncut
surface of the workpiece. It is expressed in millimetre
 In a lathe, the depth of cut is expressed as follows
d1 - d 2
Depth of cut =
2
Where ‘d1’- diameter of the work surface before machine
‘d1’- diameter of the machined surface

Lathe Operations
1.18 Lathe Operations
 Various operations are performed in a lathe machine other than plain turning. These are:-
o Facing
o Turning
 Straight turning
 Step turning
o Chamfering
o Grooving
o Forming
o Knurling
o Undercutting
o Eccentric turning
o Taper turning
o Thread cutting
o Drilling
o Reaming
o Boring
o Tapping

 Facing
 Facing is the operation of machining the ends of a
workpiece to produce flat surface square with the axis.
The operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular to
the axis of rotation of the work

 Turning

 Straight Turning
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 
Turning in a lathe is to remove excess material from
the workpiece to produce a cylindrical surface of
required shape and size.
o Straight turning
 The work is turned straight when it is made to rotate
about the lathe axis and the tool is fed parallel to the
lathe axis. The straight turning produces a cylindrical surface by removing excess metal
from the workpieces
 Step turning

 Step turning is the process of turning different

surfaces having different diameters. The work is held
between centres and the tool is moved parallel to the
axis of the lathe. It is also called shoulder turning

 Chamfering

 Chamfering is the operation of bevelling the extreme

end of the workpiece. The form tool used for taper
turning may be used for this purpose. Chamfering is
an essential operation after thread cutting so that the
nut may pass freely on the threaded workpiece

 Grooving

 Grooving is the process of cutting a narrow groove on the cylindrical surface of the
workpiece. It is often done at end of a thread or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a small
margin. The groove may be square, radial or bevelled in shape.

 Forming

 Forming is a process of turning a convex, concave or any

irregular shape. For turning a small length formed surface, a
forming tool having cutting edges conforming to the shape
required is fed straight into the work..

 Knurling

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  Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the surface of the
workpiece. The knurling tool holder has one or two
hardened steel rollers with edges of required pattern.
The tool holder is pressed against the rotating work. The
rollers emboss the required pattern. The tool holder is
fed automatically to the required length.
 Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped
pattern on the surface of the workpiece. The knurling
tool holder has one or two hardened steel rollers with
edges of required pattern. The tool holder is pressed
against the rotating work. The rollers emboss the required pattern. The tool holder is fed
automatically to the required length.
 The purpose of knurling is

o To provide an effective gripping surface

o To provide better appearance to the work
o To slightly increase the diameter of the work

 Undercutting

 It is a process of enlarging the diameter if done

internally and reducing the diameter if done
externally over a short length. It is useful mainly to
make fits perfect. Boring tools and parting tools are
used for this operation
 Undercutting is done
o At the end of a hole
o Near the shoulder of stepped cylindrical surfaces
o At the end of the threaded portion in bolts

 Eccentric Turning

 If a cylindrical workpiece has two separate axes of rotating, one being out of centre to the
other, the workpiece is termed as eccentric and turning of different surfaces of the
workpiece is known as eccentric turning.
 The distance between the axes is known as offset. Eccentric turning may also be done on
some special machines. If the offset distance is more, the work is held by means of special
centres. If the offset between the
centres is small, two sets of
centres are marked on the faces
of the work.
 The work is held and rotated
between each set of centres to
machine the eccentric surfaces.

 Thread Cutting

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  Thread cutting is one of the most important
operations performed in a lathe. The process of
thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a
cylindrical surface by feeding the tool
longitudinally.
o The job is revolved between centres or
by a the longitudinal feed should be
equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut
per revolution of the work piece.
o The carriage should be moved
longitudinally obtaining feed through the leadscrew of the
o A definite ratio between the longitudinal feed and rotation of the headstock spindle
should be found Suitable gears with required number of teeth should be mounted
on the spindle and the leadscrew.
o A proper thread cutting tool is selected according to the shape of the It is mounted
on the tool post with its cutting edge at the lathe axis and perpendicular to the axis
of the work.
o The position of the tumbler gears are adjusted according to the type of the thread
(right hand or left hand).
o Suitable spindle speed is selected and it is obtained through back
o Half nut lever is engaged at the right point as indicated by the thread chasing
o Depth of cut is set suitably to allow the tool to make a light cut on the
o When the cut is made for the required length, the half nut lever is The carriage is
brought back to its original position and the above procedure is repeated until the
required depth of the thread is achieved.
o After the process of thread cutting is over, the thread is checked by suitable gauges

 Drilling

 The process which is used to make a cylindrical hole in

the work piece is called DRILLING. It is done by a tool drill
bit fixed it on the tail stock revolving against the
revolution of work piece.

 Reaming

 The process which is used to finish already drilled holes in the work piece is called REAMING. It is
also used to enlarge the drilled hole of the work piece. It is done by using a tool called reamer fixing
it on the tail stock like drilling but at low speed

 Boring

 The process in which material is removed from the inside of work piece is called BORING. It
is used to enlarge the inner diameter of the hole. It is done by using a tool called boring bar
along the axis of the work piece

 Taper Turning

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  A taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a piece of work
measured along its length.
 Taper turning methods
o Form tool method
o Compound rest method
o Tailstock set-over method
o Taper turning attachment method
o Combined feed method

 Form tool method

 A broad nose tool is ground to the required length and angle. It

is set on the work by providing feed to the cross-slide.
 When the tool is fed into the work at right angles to the lathe
axis, a tapered surface is generated.
 This method is limited to turn short lengths of taper only. The
length of the taper is shorter than the length of the cutting
edge.
 Less feed is given as the entire cutting edge will be in contact
with the work

 Compound rest method

 The compound rest of the lathe is attached to a circular base
graduated in degrees, which may be swivelled and clamped at
any desired angle. The angle of taper is calculated using the
formula
D-d
Tanα =
2l
 The compound rest is swivelled to the angle calculated as
above and clamped. Feed is given to the compound slide to generate the required taper

 Tail stock set-over method

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  Turning taper by the set-over method is done by shifting
the axis of rotation of the workpiece at an angle to the
lathe axis and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis.
 The construction of tailstock is designed to have two
parts namely the base and the body. The base is fitted on
the bed guideways and the body having the dead centre
can be moved at cross to shift the lathe axis.
 The amount of set-over – s

D-d
s= L x
2l
Where s- Amount of setover D- Large diameter
d- Small Diameter L- Length of the work
1-Length of the taper

LATHE SPECIFICATION

1.19 LATHE SPECIFICATION

 A lathe is generally specified by:

o Swing : The largest work diameter that can be swung for the lathe bed.
o The distance between headstock and tailstock centres.
o Bed length in meter.
o The pitch of the lead screw.
o Horse Power of the machine.
o Speed Range
o The weight of the machine in tonne.

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GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
MANANTHAVADY

Assignment- 3
Course Outcome - Co2 , Co3 & Co4
Machine Tool-3023

Name:_____________________________
Class:_____________________________
Roll No.:_____________________________
Reg.No.:_____________________________
 Table of Contents
Drilling Machines .............................................................................................................................................................. 2
Types of Drilling Machine.............................................................................................................................................. 2
Drilling Operations ........................................................................................................................................................ 4
Drill Nomenclature ........................................................................................................................................................ 6
Tool Holding Devices ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
Drill Chucks................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Drill Sleeves and Sockets ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Work Holding Devices ................................................................................................................................................... 7
Speed, Feed and Depth of cut........................................................................................................................................... 7
Shaper ............................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Working Of a Shaper ....................................................................................................................................................... 8
Parts of Planer Machine ............................................................................................................................................... 11
Milling Machine ................................................................................................................................................................ 12
MILLING CUTTERS ................................................................................................................................................... 16
Operations on milling machine ............................................................................................................................... 17
INDEXING .................................................................................................................................................................... 20
GRINDING MACHINE ................................................................................................................................................... 20
Purpose of Grinding .................................................................................................................................................... 26
ABRASIVES ............................................................................................................................................................... 27
TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS.............................................................................................................................................. 32
SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUID ............................................................................................................................... 33
Methods Of Cutting-fluid Application ..................................................................................................................... 33
Classification Of Lubrications .................................................................................................................................. 34
Properties of Lubricants .......................................................................................................................................... 35
NC & CNC Machines ........................................................................................................................................................ 35
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 35
Classification of NC Systems ................................................................................................................................... 38
Numerical control programming ............................................................................................................................ 40
Classification of NC Machines based on Feed Back System ................................................................................... 40
COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL ........................................................................................................................ 41
How CNC Machine Works? ..................................................................................................................................... 43
Differentiate between NC and CNC machines ........................................................................................................ 44
Drives and Mechanisms .................................................................................................................................................. 46
Tool magazines and transfer systems ..................................................................................................................... 46
 Drilling Machines
• Drilling machines are primarily designedto create holes.
• It is one of the most important machinetools in workshop next to lathe.
• Holes may be drilled quickly at low cost.
• Holes are generated by rotating edge of a cutting tool known as drill which exerts large force on the work
clamped on the table.

Types of Drilling Machine

 Portable Drilling Machine
 Sensitive Drilling Machine
 Bench mounting
 Floor mounting
 Upright Drilling Machine
 Round column section
 Box column section
 Radial Drilling Machine
 Plain
 Semi universal
 Universal
 Gang Drilling Machine
 Multiple Spindle drilling machine
 Deep hole drilling machine
 Vertical
 Horizontal

Portable Drilling Machine

 Operated with ease any where in theworkshop.

 Used for drilling holes in work piece in any position which can not be drilled in a standard drilling
machine.
 Some of the portable machines are operated by hand power, but most of the machines are driven by
individual motor.
 Maximum size of the drill that it can accommodate is not more than 12 to 18 mm.
 Machine can be operated at high speed as smaller drills are used.
 Some of the portable machines are driven by pneumatic power.

Sensitive Drilling Machine

 Designed for drilling small holes at high speed inlight jobs.

 The base of the machine may be mounted on abench or on the floor.
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  There is no arrangement for any automatic feed of the drill spindle and the drill is fed into the work by
purely hand control.
 As the operator senses the cutting action, at any instant, it is called SENSITIVE DRILLING MACHINE.
 Sensitive drilling machine are capable of rotating drills of diameter from 1.5 to 15.5 mm.
 Super sensitive drilling machines are designed to drill holes as small as 0.35mm in diameter and the
machine is rotated at a high speed of 20,000 rpm or above.

Upright Drilling Machine

 It is larger and heavier than sensitive drilling machine.

 Large number of spindle speeds and feeds available for different types of work.
 The arm and table may be moved up and down on the column for accommodating work-piece of
different height.
 The arm and table may be moved in an arc up to 180° around the column and may clamped at any
position. This permits setting of the work below the spindle.
 Table may be rotated 360° about its own centre independent of the arm for locating work piece under
the spindle.
 Parts of upright drilling machines:
1. Base
2. Column
2. Table
3. Head
4. Spindle and drill head assembly
5. Spindle drive and feed mechanism

Radial Drilling Machine

• Parts of radial drilling machine:

1. Base
2. Column
3. Radial Arm
4. Drill Head
 It is designed for medium to large and heavy workpiece.

 It consists of a heavy, round, vertical column mounted on a large base.

 The column supports a radial arm which can raised and lowered to accommodate workpiece of different
height.

 The arm may be swung around to any position over the work bed.

 The drill head containing mechanism for rotating and feeding the drill is mounted on a radial arm and can be
moved horizontally on the guide ways and clamped at any position.

 These three movement in a radial drilling machine when combined together permit the drill to be located at
any desired point on a large w/p for drilling the hole.

 Types of radial drilling machines:

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 1. Plain radial drilling machine
2. Semi universal machine
3. Universal machine

Gang Drilling Machine

• When a number of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side by side on a common base and
have a common worktable, the machine is known as the gang drilling machine.
• In it 4 to 6 spindle may be mounted side by side.
• The speed and feed of the spindles are controlled independently.
• Each spindle may be set up properly with different tools for different operations.

Drilling Operations

1. Drilling
2. Reaming
3. Boring
4. Counterboring
5. Countersinking
6. Spot facing
7. Tapping
8. Lapping
9. Trepanning
Drilling

 Drilling is the most important and common drilling machine operation. Drilling
produce a cylindrical hole inside the workpiece and remove the material inside it.
Here, the material is removed by the rotating edge of the cutting tool. And that
rotating edge is called a drill.
 Drilling does not produce a fine hole. The internal surface of the hole is usually
rough, and the hole is always bigger than the drill size.
 Suppose if we have a drill of 12mm dimeter then, the size of the hole produced by it
may be 12.125 mm or greater than that.

Reaming

 The size of the hole after the drilling process may not be perfect. Most of the time,
its internal surface may not be finished properly.
 Reaming is done to obtain the desired size of the hole. Also, the internal surface of
the hole gets appropriately finished with this process. Reamer is used for reaming.
Reamer is a multi-point cutting tool.
 The important benefit of the reaming is that it can remove an extremely small
amount of metal approximately 0.375 mm
 The spindle speed in reaming is half of that of the drilling process.

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 Boring

 Boring is a type of drilling operation in which we increase the diameter of the hole
which was previously produced.
 Boring is done due to the following reasons:
1. It is implemented for machining the internal surface of the hole
which was produced by the casting process.
2. For correcting the roundness of the hole.
3. For finishing the hole correctly and for making it of the required size.
 The boring tool is used for this process. The boring tool has only one cutting edge. The boring tool is placed
in a boring bar which has a tapered shank. The speed of the spindle in the boring is usually very less than the
reaming.
Counter Boring

 In the counterboring, the end of the hole is enlarged cylindrically. A counterbore works
as a tool in the counterboring.
 The counterbore consists of cutting edges. These cutting edges may be straight or
spiral. The cutting speed in the counterboring process is usually slow. Typically, this
cutting speed is 25% smaller than that of the speed in the drilling.

Countersinking

 Countersinking is usually done to make a cone-shaped enlargement at the end of the

hole. The included angle of the conical surface may be 60° to 90°.
 A countersink has multiple cutting edges on its conical surface.

Spot Spacing

 In the spot facing, the surface around the hole is squared. In this process, that surface
also gets finished. For spot facing, a counterbore or any other spot facing tool is used.

Tapping

 In tapping, a tap is used for making internal threads. That means tap works as a cutting
tool inside the tapping.
 Tapping in a drilling machine can be performed by hand. Or you can also use any
external power for doing this.
 The metal is removed, when the tap is inserted into the hole. Tap also produces
internal threads which can be fit into the external threads of the identical size.

Lapping

 Lapping is the operation of sizing and finishing a small diameter hole already hardened by removing a very
small amount of material by using a lap. There are many kinds of lapping tools.
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  The copper head laps are commonly used. The lap fits in the hole and is moved up and down while it
revolves.
Trepanning

 Trepanning is a technique used for drilling larger hole diameters where

machine power is limited as it is not as power consuming as conventional
drilling where the entire hole is converted into chips.
 The trepanning tool does not machine the whole diameter, only a ring at
the periphery. Instead of removing all the material in the form of chips, a
core is left at the centre of the hole. Consequently, this method is for
through-hole applications.

Drill Nomenclature

Tool Holding Devices

 The most common tool holding devices:
o Drill Chucks
o Drill Sleeves
o Drill Socket

Drill Chucks
 Most common devices used for holding straight-shank cutting tools.
 Most contain three jaws that move simultaneously when outer sleeve
turned.
 Two common types of drill chucks
 are:
o Key
o Keyless

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 Drill Sleeves and Sockets
• Drill Sleeves:
o Used to adapt cutting tool shank to machine spindle if taper on tool
is smaller than tapered hole in spindle.

• Drill Socket:
o Used for holding twist drills with shanks that are too large
to fit either the drill press spindle or a sleeve.
o Used as extension sockets.

Work Holding Devices

 T-bolt and clamps
 Drill Press vise
 Step block
 Drill Jigs

T-Bolt & Clamps

 T-Bolt clamps provide uniform sealing pressure for a

positive, reliable seal. Designed for use in high
vibration and large diameter applications common in
heavy trucks, industrial machinery, off-road equipment,
agricultural irrigation and machinery.

Drill Press vise

 A drill press vise is a tool that holds a workpiece in place between its
jaws so that it does not move when the drill bit is driven into it. It uses
a threaded rod to force two jaws together, similar to other vises.

Step Block
 A step block will allow you to adjust the height of the clamp while stabilizing and
securing the workpiece in place

Drill Jigs
 We can say that every JIG is a FIXTURE but every FIXTURE is not a JIG . in case of Vice, it's on object with
two parallel jaws. In which one is fixed and other is movable

Speed, Feed and Depth of cut

Speed:
• It is the rpm with which the drill bit is rotating with respect to the work piece.

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 • It is given by 𝝅𝑫𝑵 /1000 m/min

• Cutting speed depends on:

o The type of material being drilled.

o Cutting tool material.
o The quality of hole desired.
o The efficient use of cutting fluid.
o The way in which the work is set up or held.
o Size and type of drilling machines
Feed
• Feed of the drill is the axial distance the drill advances into the work piece for each complete
revolution of the drill and is given in mm/rev.

Depth
• Depth of cut in drilling is equal to one half of thedrill diameter.

• depth of cut (t) = D/2 mm

Metal Removal Rate (MRR)

• MRR is the amount (volume) of material removed per unit time.
In case of drilling,
MRR = (πD2/4)fN
f – feed, N - rpm

Shaper
 A machine which produces flat surfaces
 A RAM holding the Tool reciprocates
 Work is feed perpendicular to the tool

Working Of a Shaper

 In the shaper, the cutting tool has a reciprocating motion, and it cuts only during the forward stroke
 Cutting tool repeatedly travels along A B
 Work is fed a small distance each time
 Feed of work & line of tool motion are in same plane but perpendicular
 The tool line eventually reaches position C D
 Combination of two movements results in the flat plane ABCD being machined

Shaper Types

 Horizontal Shaper- Ram holding the cutting tool moves In horizontal plane

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  Vertical Shaper
 Traveling head Shaper- The cutting tool moves in vertical plane

Parts of shaper

Specifications of Shaper

 Max. length of Stroke of Ram

 Type of Drive
 Power input
 Floor Space required
 Weight of the Machine Cutting to Return Stroke ratio
 Feed
 Size of table
 Maximum horizontal and vertical travel of the table

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 Shaper Operations

 Machining Horizontal Surfaces

 Machining Vertical Surfaces
 Machining Angular Surfaces
 Cutting Slots, Grooves & Key ways
 Machining irregular surfaces
 Machining Splines / Cutting Gears
Machining Horizontal Surfaces

 Fix the work properly on the table

 Adjust the length of stroke
 Set the required cutting speed
 Give required feed of the table
 Fix an appropriate tool in the tool head
 Give suitable depth of cut for rough cuts
 Finishing the job by giving less depth of cut

Machining Vertical Surfaces

 Fix up the job on the table firmly

 Alig n the surface to be machined properly
 Fix up a side cutting tool in the tool head
 Set the vertical slide exactly at zero swivel the apron away from the job switche
on the machicne
 Rotate down feed screw by hand to give
downfeed
 Feed in about 0.25 mm

Cutting Rack or Splines

 Fix up a square nose tool in tool head

 Adjust the length & Position of stroke
 Reduce the cutting speed
 Give suitable depth of cut
 Feed the work properly to get equal splines

Machining Irregular Surfaces

 Fix up a forming tool in tool post

 Give cross feed in conjunction with down feed
 Swivel the apron suitably according to the contour required

10 | P a g e
 Advantages and Limitations of Shaper

Advantages
 The set up is very quick and easyand can be
readily changed from one job to another.
 The work can held easily.
 The single point tools used arein inexpensive;
 These tools can be easilygrounded
to any desired shape. Lower first cost.
 The cutting stroke has a definitestopping point.
 Because lower cutting forces, thin and fragile
jobs can be conventionally machined on
shapers.
Limitations
 8y nature is a slow machine because of its
straight line,forward and return stroke. The
single point tool requires several strokes to
complete a work.
 The cutting speeds are notusually very high
speeds of reciprocating motion due to high
inertia forces developed in the motion of the
units and components of the machine. Owing
to these reasons the s haper does not find
ready adaptability for assembly and production
line.

Parts of Planer Machine

 BED
 TABLE
 COLUMN
 CROSS RAIL
 TOOL HEAD

Bed
 It is large and heavy.
 It supports the column and moving parts of the machine.
 It is made longer than the table.
 The bed consists of v-shaped waysthat help in the back and forth motion of the table.

Table
 It supports work and reciprocatesalong the bed.
 It is made from cast iron.
 T-slots are provided on the entirelength of the table so that work and work holding devices may be bolted.

Column
 These are rigid vertical structure placed on each side of the table
 It facilitates tool head mechanism
 The cross slide ma be made to move up and down for accommodating different heights of work.
 Also known as houing.

Cross Rail
 The cross rail connects the two columns of the planer machine
 It is placed parallel to the top surface of the table
 It can be lowered or raised and can be clamped at desired position using clamping devices.

Tool Head
 Generally two tool heads are mounted in the:
11 | P a g e
 o Horizontal cross rail and
o One on each of the vertical housing
 The tool heads may be swivelled to make angular cuts.

Planer Specifications
 A planer is specified by:
1. Distance between two housings.
2. Height between table and cross rail at its uppermost position.
3. Maximum length of table travel.
4. Number of speeds and feeds available.
5. Power input.
6. Floor space required.
7. Type of drive.
8. Net weight of the machine.

Difference between Shaper and Planer

SHAPER PLANER
1. Light in construction 1. Large and heavy in construction
2. Requires less floor area 2. Requires large floor area.
3. Work piece is stationary and tool is reciprocating 3. Tool is stationary and work piece is reciprocating
4. Only one tool is used 4. Multiple tools can be used.
5. Adopted for small work 5. Adopted for large works.
6. Cost of machine is less 6. Cost of machine is high.

Milling Machine
 Milling is one of the most important machining operations which employ a multi-point cutting tool, called milling
cutter.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

 In milling, the material is removed as the work fed against a rotatingmultipoint cutter
 The cutter rotates at a high speedand removes metal at a very fast rate

Applications of milling machines

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  Horizontal surfaces
 vertical surfaces
 angled surfaces
 slots
 grooves
 keyways
 gears and other
 Profile cutting

TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES

 Column and Knee type
o Hand milling
o Plain / horizontal milling machine
o Universal milling machine
o Omniversal milling machine
o Vertical milling machine
 Fixed - bed type milling machine
 Planer type machines
 Special purpose machines
o Rotary table milling machine
o Planetary milling machine
o Cam milling machine
o Profile milling machine

Column and Knee Type

 The knee vertical adjustable on the column so that the table can be moved up and down to accommodate
work of various heights.
 The column and knee type milling machines are classified.
 According to the various methods of supplying power to the table.
 Different movements of the table
 The different axis of rotation of the main spindle

Hand milling

 In hand milling machine the cutter is mounted on a horizontal arbor and is rotated by power.
 The work mounted on table is fed manually against the cutter.

Plain (horizontal) milling machine

 The plain milling machine with horizontal spindle is called horizontal milling machine.
 The work fitted on the table may be fed in three directions
 The table movements are provided by hand or power.

Universal milling machine

 It is similar to a plain milling machine and differs in respect of the table movements.
 In addition to three motions (longitudinal, cross and vertical), the table of universal milling machine can be
13 | P a g e
 swiveled in a horizontal plane.
 It is used for cutting helical grooves on the work.

Omniversal milling machine

 Besides the movements of a universal milling machine, its knee can be swiveled to tilt the table in a vertical
plane.
 The machine is specially suitable for cutting spiral grooves on angular jobs.

HORIZONTAL MILLING MACHINE

 Base
 Column
 Saddle
 Knee
 The work table
 The overarm
 Arbor support
 Spindle
 The arbor

Base
 The base is a grey iron casting which support the columnat its one end.
 It is made hollow for storing the coolants.

Column
 It is a large casting mounted vertically on the base.
 On the front of the column guide ways are provided to support the knee.
 The column contains driving mechanisms for the spindle and tablefeed.

Knee
 The knee is attached on the slide on the face of column. It movesvertically up and down by hand-feeds.
 A slide on the top of the knee provides a guide for the saddle.

Saddle
 The saddle is moved horizontally towards or away from the face ofthe column by turning thecross-feed.
 The saddle supports the work table.

The work table

 The work table provides the longitudinal movement to thework by hand or power.
 The table is provided with T-slotsfor direct mounting of the work pieces, vices or other fixtures.

Over arm
 Overhanging arm act as a support forthe arbor. It is located in the slide way at the top of the column.
 The overarm is adjustable so that thebearing support may be provided nearest to the cutter. More than
one bearing support can be provided for the arbor.

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Arbor support
 The arbor support is positioned on the underside of the overarm.
 It provides support for the arbor.

Spindle
 The machine spindle is located in the upper part of the columnand receives power from motor through belts,
gears and clutches.

The arbor
 It locates the cutters in position,and is driven by the spindle.
 A series of spacer (or collars) may be used to position the
cutters.

VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE

 In addition to the base, column, knee, saddle and table, it hasram and tool head.
 The ram is located on the top of the column. The tool head isattached to the end of the ram.
 in some machines it is possible to swivel the head throughan angle to mill inclined surfaces.
 The cutters may be mounted directly into the spindle taper;for fixing smaller cutters, tool collets may be
used.

bed type milling machine

 These machines are larger and more robust than the column-and-knee type. The bed-type machine can have
o single spindle (Simplex),
o two spindle (duplex), and
o three spindle (triplex).

Planer type machines

 A planer-type milling machine (plano-milling machine) consists four spindles each with its own drive motor.
The table movement gives the feed and is much slower than planer.
 It is used where high metal removal is the prime consideration.

Special purpose machines

 These machines are designed to suit special purposes. This category includes the following machines.
o Rotary table milling machine
o Planetary milling machine
o Cam milling machine
o Profile milling machine

15 | P a g e
Rotary table milling machine

 Rotary table milling machine resembles vertical milling machine but its work table rotates about a vertical
axis.
 It is used for machining flat surfaces with a high production rate.

Planetary milling machine

 Planetary milling machine is used for external or internal milling of Circular surfaces.
 It is particularly adapted for milling of internal or external threads of different pitches.

Cam milling machine

 Cam milling machine is used for making the profiles of a disc cam.
 The work is mounted on a face plate and fed against an end-mill cutter. The movement of table is controlled
by the master cam.

Profile milling machine

 Profiling machines are used for duplicating the template attached to the machine.
 The movement of the cutter is regulated by a guide pin which is held against template and follows the
profile of a template.

MILLING CUTTERS
1. Plain milling cutters
2. Side milling cutter
3. Metal slitting saw
4. End-milling cutter
5. Angle milling cutters

Plain milling cutters

 The plain milling cutters also known as cylindrical cutter has straight or helical teeth only on the periphery.
 Plain milling cutters are used for producing flat surfaces parallel to the cutter axis.

Side milling cutter

 Side milling cutter is similar to plain milling cutter, but has teeth on both side faces as well as the periphery.
 It is used for slotting, straddle milling and face milling.

Metal slitting saw

 Metal slitting saw is similar to plain milling Cutter, but has very smaller width.

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End-milling cutter
 End milling cutter has teeth on the end face and periphery.
 It is used to machine both horizontal and vertical surfaces.

Angle milling cutters

 The angle milling cutters are used for cutting of chamfers. dovetails, V-notches, helical flutes and serrations

Operations on milling machine

1. Plain or slab milling

2. Face milling
3. Straddle milling
4. Gang milling
5. Angular milling
6. Form milling
7. Profile milling
8. End milling
9. Saw milling
10. Key-way milling
11. Gear cutting
12. Flute-milling
13. Cam milling

Plain or slab milling

 The plain or slab milling is used for machining horizontal surface.
 In this operation, axis of cutter is parallel to the surface being machined and the work is
fed against the rotating cutter.

Plain peripheral slab milling operation

Up Milling or Conventional milling Down milling or Climb milling

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Up milling

 up milling is the traditional way to mill and is called conventional milling.

 In this case, the rotation of the Cutter is in opposite to the direction of the feed.
 In up-milling the cutting force acts upwards, hence there is a tendency to lift the work piece off the table.

Down milling

 down-milling is also called as climb milling.

 In this case the rotation of the cutter is in the same direction of the feed
 In down milling the cutting force acts downwards and is absorbed by work table. It facilitates taking the
heavy cuts without the tendency to life the work piece off the table.

Face milling
 Face milling is used for machining flat surfaces which is perpendicular to axis of the milling
cutter.
 For face milling the cutter is mounted on stub arbor. The depth of cut is adjusted by cross-
feed.

Straddle milling
 Straddle milling is used for machining two or more vertical/parallel surfaces
simultaneously by mounting required number of cutters on to the arbor. In this
operation, cutters are separated by Spacing collars.
 Parallel slots of equal depth can be milled by using straddle milling cutters.

Gang milling
 It is the operation of machining several horizontal surfaces simultaneously by feeding
the work against the cutters.
 In gang milling two or more cutters are mounted adjacently on to the arbor.

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Angular milling
 It is the operation of machining surfaces at an angle(other than 90) to the cutter axis,
 It can be achieved by
 using angular cutter in horizontal milling machine as
 In vertical milling machine the cutter axis is tilted tomachine angular surfaces

Form milling
 It is the operation of machining different contours by using form cutter with a
profile coinciding the shape of contour.

Profile milling
 It is the operation of machining complex shapes with the help of
template on a tracer controlled machine.
 The end mill cutter is mostly used for profile machining. The
cutter reproduce the outline of a template on the work piece.

End milling
 End milling is the operation of machining horizontal or vertical surfaces by using end
mill.
 The operation is usually performed on vertical milling machine.

Saw milling
 Saw milling or slitting is the process of machining narrow slots or grooves on a work
piece by using saw milling cutter.
 It is also used for cutting off (parting-off) operation.

Key-way milling
 The operations of cutting keyways and slotting can be performed on milling machine with
specially designed cutters.

Flute-milling
 Flute milling is the operation of cutting grooves or flutes around the cylindrical work pieces.

Cam milling
 It is the operation of cutting cam profile on milling machine by using dividing head and a vertical milling
attachment.

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Gear cutting
 The gear cutting operation is performed on a milling machine to produce spur gears and
helical gears.

INDEXING
 Indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of workpiece into any number of equal divisions by using
special attachment known as dividing head or indexing head.
 It involves the rotation or work through a required angle between two successive cuts so as to divide the
circumference into equally spaced divisions

Methods of indexing
1) Direct indexing
2) Simple indexing
3) Compound indexing
4) Differential indexing
5) Angular indexing

Simple or plain indexing

 Rotation of the crank turns worm meshing with worm wheel, 40

turns of the crank are required to rotate one complete revolution of
job Thus the one turn of the crank rotates the workpiece 1/40 of a
revolution

Rule for simple indexing

 The crank movement to get number of divisions can be obtained by the formula Index crank movement=
40/N Where, N = number of divisions required
 Set the dividing head to mill a gear with 19 teeth

GRINDING MACHINE
Introduction
 Grinding is a metal cutting operation like any other process of machining removing metal in comparatively
smaller volume.
 The cutting tool used is an abrasive wheel having many numbers of cutting edges.
 The machine on which grinding the operation is performed is called a grinding machine.
 Grinding is done to obtain very high dimensional accuracy and better appearance. The accuracy of grinding
process is 0.000025mm. The amount of material removed from the work is very less.
Types of grinding machines
20 | P a g e
According to the accuracy of the work to be done on a grinding machine, they are classified as

1. Rough grinding machines

2. Precision grinding machines
Rough grinding machines
The rough grinding machines are used to remove stock with no reference to the accuracy of results.

Excess metal present on the cast parts and welded joints are removed by rough grinders. The main types of rough
grinders are:

1. Hand grinding machine

2. Bench grinding machine
3. Floor stands grinding machine
4. Flexible shaft grinding machine
5. Swing frame grinding machine
6. Abrasive belt grinding machine
Precision grinding machines
Precision grinders are used to finish parts to very accurate dimensions. The main types of precision grinders are:

1. Cylindrical grinding machines

2. Internal grinding machines
3. Surface grinding machines
4. Tool and cutter grinding machines
5. Special grinding machines

Cylindrical grinding machine

Cylindrical grinders are generally used to grind external surfaces like cylinders, taper cylinders, faces and shoulders
of work. There are two types of cylindrical grinding machines and they are

1. External cylindrical grinding machines

2. Internal cylindrical grinding machines

Cylindrical Grinding Machine

Base
The base is made of cast iron and rests on the floor. It supports the parts mounted on. The top of the base is
accurately machined and provides guideways for the table to slide on. The base contains the table driving
mechanisms.

Tables
The tables are mounted on top of the base. There are two tables namely lower table and upper table. The lower
table slides on the guideways on the bed. It can be moved by hand or by power within required limits.

The upper table can be swiveled upto ±10o and clamped in position. Adjustable dogs are clamped in longitudinal
slots at the side of the lower table. They are set up to reverse the table at the end of the stroke.

Headstock

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The headstock is situated at the left side of upper table. It supports the workpiece by means of a centre and drives it
by means of a dog. It may hold and drive the workpiece in a chuck. It houses the mechanism meant for driving the
work. The headstock of a universal grinding machine can be swiveled to any required angle.

Tailstock
The tailstock is situated at the right side of the table. It can be adjusted and clamped in various positions to
accommodate different lengths of workpieces.

Wheelhead
The wheelhead may be moved at right angles to the table ways. It is operated by hand or by power to feed the
wheel to the work.The wheelhead carries a grinding wheel. Its driving motor is mounted on a slide at the top and
rear of the base. The grinding wheel rotates at about 1500 to 2000 r.p.m.

External Cylindrical Grinding Machine

This machine is used to produce external cylindrical surface. The surfaces may be straight, tapered, steps or profiled.
The workpiece is mounted on centres and rotated by a devise known as a drive dog or centre driver. Broadly there
are three different types of cylindrical grinding machine as follows:

1. Plain centre type cylindrical grinder

2. Universal cylindrical surface grinder

3. Centreless cylindrical surface grinder

Plain centre type cylindrical grinder

The machine is similar to a centre lathe in many
respects. The workpiece is held between head stock
and tailstock centres. A disc type grinding wheel
performs the grinding action with its peripheral
surface. Both traverse and plunge grinding can be
carried out in this machine as shown in Figure

What are the characteristic features of a universal cylindrical grinder?

Characteristic features of a universal cylindrical grinder not possessed by plain cylindrical grinder are:

22 | P a g e
  Swivelling wheel head
 Swivelling wheel head slide
 Swivelling head stock

CENTRE LESS GRINDING

Centre less grinding is an alternative process for grinding external and internal cylindrical surfaces. In this method
the work piece is not held between centres. This results in a reduction in work handling time; hence, centre less
grinding is often used for high-production work.

External Centre Less Grinding

The setup for external centre less grinding
(Figure.1) consists of two wheels: the
grinding wheel and a regulating wheel.
The work parts, which may be many
individual short pieces or long rods (e.g., 3
to 4m long), are supported by a rest blade
and fed through between the two wheels
The grinding wheel does the cutting, rotating at surface speeds of 1200 to 1800 m/min. The regulating wheel rotates
at much lower speeds and is inclined at a slight angle I to control through feed of the work

Methods of Centerless Grinding

 Through-feed
 Infeed
 Endfeed

In through-feed centreless grinding, the regulating wheel revolving at a much lower surface speed than
grinding wheel controls the rotation and longitudinal motion of the workpiece. The regulating wheel is kept slightly
inclined to the axis of the grinding wheel and the work piece is fed longitudinally

Parts with variable diameter can be ground by Centreless in feed

grinding as shown in Figure. The operation is similar to plunge grinding with cylindrical grinder. End feed grinding
shown in Figure is used for work piece with tapered surface.

INTERNAL GRINDING MACHINES

 This machine is used to produce internal cylindrical surface.
 The surface may be straight, tapered, grooved or profiled.

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  Tapered holes can be ground with the use of internal grinders that can swivel on the horizontal.
 Broadly there are three different types of internal grinding machine as follows:
1. Chucking type internal grinder
2. Planetary internal grinder
3. Centreless internal grinder
4.
Chucking type internal grinder
 The workpiece is usually mounted in a chuck.
 A magnetic face plate can also be used.
 A small grinding wheel performs the necessary
grinding with its peripheral surface.
 Both transverse and plunge grinding can be carried out
in this machine as shown in Figure

Planetary internal grinder

 Planetary internal grinder is used where the work piece is of irregular shape and
cannot be rotated conveniently as shown in Figure. In this machine the work piece
does not rotate. Instead, the grinding wheel orbits the axis of the hole in the work
piece.

Centreless internal grinder

 This machine is used for grinding cylindrical and tapered holes in
cylindrical parts (e.g. cylindrical liners, various bushings etc... The
workpiece is rotated between supporting roll, pressure roll and
regulating wheel and is ground by the grinding wheel as illustrated in
Figure

Advantages of Centreless Grinding

1. The workpiece is supported throughout the entire length by work rest. So small diameter workpiece with
long .Lengths can be ground without any deflection.
2. The size of the workpiece can be controlled easily by the regulating wheel.
3. The process is continuous, So suitable for mass production,
4. Work holding devices like chuck, dogs, mandrels, centres, etc, are not needed,
5. Less skilled worker is sufficient.

Disadvantages of Centreless Grinding

1. In centreless grinding, grinding the outside diameter of a hollow workpiece is not done with reference to the
inside diameter. So these two diameters may not be concentric,
2. Workpieces with steps and multiple diameters cannot be ground easily.
Surface grinding machines
 Surface grinding is normally used to grind plain flat surfaces.
24 | P a g e
  It is performed using moreover the periphery of the grinding wheel or the flat face of the wheel. Because the
work is normally held in a horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is performed by rotating the wheel
about a horizontal axis, and face grinding is performed by rotating the wheel about a vertical axis.
 In either case, the relative motion of the work part is achieved by reciprocating the work past the wheel or
by rotating it. These possible combinations of wheel orientations and work part motions provide the four
types of surface grinding machines illustrated in Figure.
 There are four different types of surface grinders. They are:

1. Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table type

2. Horizontal spindle and rotary table type
3. Vertical spindle and reciprocating table type
4. Vertical spindle and rotary table type

Horizontal spindle surface grinding machine

 The majority of surface grinders are of horizontal spindle type.
 In the horizontal type of the machine, grinding is performed by the abrasives on the
periphery of the wheel. Though the area of contact between the wheel and the work
is small, the speed is uniform over the grinding surface and the surface finish is good.
 The grinding wheel is mounted on a horizontal spindle and the table is reciprocated
to perform grinding operation.

Vertical spindle surface grinding machine

 The face or sides of the wheel are used for grinding in the vertical type
surface grinders.
 The area of contact is large and stock can be removed quickly. But a criss-
cross pattern of grinding scratches is left on the work surface.
 Considering the quality of surface finish obtained, the horizontal spindle type
machines are widely used

Tool and Cutter Grinding Machines

 Tool and cutter grinders are used mainly to sharpen the cutting edges of various tools and cutters.
 The can also do surface, cylindrical and internal grinding to finish jigs, fixtures, dies and gauges Tool grinding
may be divided into two subgroups: tool manufacturing and tool resharpening.
 There are many types of tool and cutter grinding machine to meet these requirements.
 Simple single point tools are occasionally sharpened by hand on bench or pedestal grinder.
 However, tools and cutters with complex geometry like milling cutter, drills, reamers and hobs require
sophisticated grinding machine commonly known as universal tool and cutter grinder.
 Present trend is to use tool and cutter grinder equipped with CNC to grind tool angles, concentricity, cutting
edges and dimensional size with high precision.

Base
 The base of the machine gives rigidity and stability to the machine. It is bolted rigidly to the floor of the shop
by bolts and nuts.
 It supports all the other parts of the machine. It is box type and houses all the mechanisms for the saddle
movements.
Saddle

25 | P a g e
  The saddle is mounted directly on the top of the base and slides over it. The column is mounted on the
saddle. It can be moved up and down and swivelled to either side.
Table
 The table resets and moves on a top base, which is mounted over the saddle.
 The table has two layers. The worktable is mounted on the sub table which has ‘T’ slots for mounting the
work and attachments used on the machine. The worktable can be swiveled while grinding tapers.
Headstock and Tailstock
 The headstock and tailstock are
mounted on either side of the
table. The workpieces are
positioned between centres and
driven exactly as in a cylindrical
grinder.
Wheelhead
 The wheelhead is mounted on a
column on the back of the
machine. It can be swiveled and
positioned in the base for
different set-up. A straight wheel
and a cup wheel are mounted on
either sides of the wheelhead

Factors affecting selection of grinding wheel

 The Material Being Ground.

 The Severity of the Operation.
 Required Finish and Form Accuracy.
 Area of Contact.
 Wheel Speed.
 Coolant Use.
 Machine/Spindle Horse Power.

Purpose of Grinding
1. To bring the component to size,
2. To obtain required surface finish,
3. To machine very hard materials.

Grinding Wheel
 A grinding wheel may be regarded as a multi-point cutting tool. Grinding wheels are composed of abrasive
grains held together with a suitable bond.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
 In grinding process the work piece is brought into contact with revolving grinding wheel. Each abrasive
grain will acts as an individual cutting tool and removes the metal in the form of small chips.
ADVANTAGES
1. The surface finish obtained is superior to that of any other machine tool,

26 | P a g e
 2. Hardened components can be machined by grinding, which would be difficulty or even impossible for
other machine tools.
3. Grinding requires very little pressure permitting its use on light and delicate parts.
LIMITATIONS

1. Work surface gets overheated.

2. Wheel chatter and vibrations result inaccuracies, and duplicate Pieces do not have the same dimensions.
3. Grinding is not suitable as a machining process where high metal removal is required.
4.
ABRASIVES
 An abrasive is a small, non metallic hard particle having sharp edges and an irregular shape,
 They are capable of removing small amounts of materials from a surface in the form of small chips

Characteristics of abrasives
Must be harder than material being ground

Must be strong enough to withstand grinding pressure

Must be heat resistant so that it retains sharp cutting edges at grinding temperature

Must be capable to break when the cutting edge is dull, so that new sharp edge is exposed to work piece.

ABRASIVES
NATURAL ABRASIVES ARTIFICIAL ABRASIVES.

Natural abrasives
1. Sand stone ( solid quartz )
2. Emery
3. Corundum
4. Diamond

Artificial abrasives
1. Silicon carbide
2. Aluminium Oxide
3. Boron carbide
4. Cubic boron nitride
5. Manufactured diamond

SiC and AL2O3 are most widely used for grinding Wheels

Bonds in grading wheels.

1. Vitrified bond
2. Silicate bond
3. Shellac bond
4. Resinoid bond
5. Rubber bond
6. Oxychloride bond

27 | P a g e
Vitrified bond
 Vitrified bond is used in about 75% of the wheels manufactured. In vitrified bond, clay or feldspar is the
bonding agent.
 Vitrified bond has high strength, porosity and does not easily clog. it is not affected by water, acid, oils or
ordinary conditions. A high rate of metal removal is possible with this bond. Vitrified bond is denoted by V.
Silicate bond
1. sensitive to Shock. It is not strong as vitrified bond and therefore release the abrasive grains more readily,
2. It is affected by moisture and alkaline solution.
3. It is suitable grinding where the heat generation is minimum, and mainly the making large wheels.
4. A silicate bond is denoted by S.

Shellac bond
1. Shellac wheels are easy to manufacture and are capable of producing high finishes.
2. They produce less temperature (120-150°C) than vitrified bond.
3. Shellac wheels possess high elasticity and considerable strength In shellac bond, also called as elastic bond.
4. It is denoted by E.

Resinoid bond
1. Resinoid wheels are more flexible and can run at high speeds (2900 m/min) than vitrified bond wheels.
2. They cut cool, and removes stock rapidly.
3. Resinoid wheels are likely to be softened prolonged exposure to water or water based cutting fluids.
4. They are used for cutting off metal bars and tubes and for the work needing a very high surface finish.
5. A resinoid bonded wheel is denoted as B.

Rubber bond
1. Rubber bonded wheels are strongest of all and is also tough.
2. It is suitable for making extremely thin wheels for cutting off operations.
3. They produce high surface finish and can be used for finishing ball bearing races.
4. They generate more heat and are affected by alkaline solutions When subjected to heat, the bond softens
and release the grains.
5. Therefore, cutting fluids are normally be used with this bond.
6. A rubber bonded wheel is designated by R.

Oxychloride bond
1. Oxychloride bonded wheels are less brittle than vitrified bond and produce low temperature than any other
bond, (except silicate bond) during grinding.
2. They are affected by acidic solutions and sudden temperature changes.
3. The strength of the bond decreases with time, as the cutting fluids affect the bond, the wheel is normally
employed for dry grinding.
4. An oxychloride bonded Wheel is designated by O.

GRIT
1. Grit refers to the size of abrasive grains.
2. The usual sizes range from 10 to 120, number 10 being very coarse (i.e. large grains) and 120 being fine (i.e.
small grains).
3. Factors determines grain size
4. Type of finishing desired : Fine grains are used smooth and accurate finish.
5. The material being machined: Coarse grains are generally
28 | P a g e
 6. intended for soft material, while fine grains for hard materials
7. The amount of material to be removed : Coarse grains are used where large amount of materials to be
removed and surface finish is not important.

Coarse Medium Fine Very Fine

8 30 70 220
10 36 80 240
12 46 100 280
14 54 120 320
16 60 150 400
20 180 500
24 600
Grain Size or Grit

GRADE
1. This indicates the degree of hardness of a wheel, and hardness varies according to the tenacity with
which the bond holds abrasive grains together.
2. It does not represent the hardness of the abrasive material itself.

Grade

SOFT GRADE HARD GRADE

Grains released rapidly during the grinding operation securely wheel that retains the grains more

Grades
Soft Medium Hard
A I Q
B J R
C K P
D L T
E M U
F N V
G O W
H P X
Z

Factors determines grade

 Hardness of work material: A hard grade is intended for soft material and soft grade for hard material.
 Area of contact: For larger area of content between work piece and grinding wheel, soft wheels arc used,
29 | P a g e
 smaller area of contact require harder wheels.
 Wheel and work speed: Harder wheels are used for low wheel speeds, and soft wheel are recommended for
higher wheel speed

Structure
 The structure indicates the abrasive grain spacing in
the grinding wheel.

Structure

OPEN MEDIUM DENSE

 A grinding wheel with an open structure has more voids than one with a dense structure.
 The structure is denoted by numbers ranging from 0 to 15; lower number indicates a dense structure and
higher number an open structure.

Wheel Maintenance
Loading
 When the porous structure of the wheel become clogged with the material being cut, the wheel is said to
be loaded.
 Results in the abrasive grains not protruding for enough to cut properly.
 Loading occurs when soft materials are being ground or if the wheel is too hard for a particular job.
Glazing
 Wheel is said to be glazed when the abrasive grain become dull and the bond may not release the
blunt grains quickly.
 Glazing arises because the wheel is too hard or its speed is too high in relation to the work speed.
Truing
 Truing a wheel is necessary to ensure that it will be concentric with the spindle.
 It involves removing any high spots on the wheel, there by wheel runs concentrically with the spindle.
 After mounting, the wheel should be trued before use.
 A properly trued wheel will produce perfect round or flat work.
Dressing
 Dressing is the term used to denote sharpening operation of
grinding wheel.
 The purpose of dressing is to remove dulled abrasive grains and to
improve the cutting action of a grinding wheel. This is done by wheel
dresser

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31 | P a g e
 CUTTING FLUIDS AND LUBRICANTS
Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically for metalworking processes, such as machining
and stamping. There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include oils, oilwater emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols
(mists), and air or other gases. Cutting fluids are made from petroleum distillates, animal fats, plant oils, water and
air, or other raw ingredients. Depending on context and on which type of cutting fluid is being considered, it may be
referred to as cutting fluid, cutting oil, cutting compound, coolant, or lubricant

Most metalworking and machining processes can benefit from the use of cutting fluid, depending on workpiece
material. Common exceptions to this are cast iron and brass, which may be machined dry (though this is not true of
all brasses, and any machining of brass will likely benefit from the presence of a cutting fluid).

TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS

1. Oils
2. Emulsions
3. Semisynthetics
4. Synthetics

Oils (also called straight oils)

 (also called straight oils), including mineral, animal, vegetable, compounded, and synthetic oils, typically are
used for low-speed operations where temperature rise is not significant.

Emulsions (also called soluble oils)

 A mixture of oil and water and additives, generally are used for high-speed operations because the
temperature rise is significant. The presence of water makes emulsions highly effective coolants. The
presence of oil reduces or eliminates the tendency of water to cause oxidation.

Semisynthetics
 are chemical emulsions containing little mineral oil, diluted in water, and with additives that reduce the size
of oil particles, making them more effective.

Synthetics
 Are chemicals with additives, diluted in water, and containing no oil. Because of the complex interactions
among the cutting fluid, the workpiece materials, temperature, time, and cutting-process variables, the
application of fluids cannot be generalized.

Fluids And Coolants Required In turning, drilling, shaping, sawing & broaching

32 | P a g e
  Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant designed specifically for metal working processes, such as
machining and stamping.
 There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include oils, oilwater emulsions, pastes, gels, aerosols (mists),
and air or other gases. There are a number of different coolant medias used when turning: Emulsion, a mix
of water and oil (5-10% oil in the water) is the most common coolant media. Oil, in some machines oil is
used instead of emulsion.
 Compressed air used for chip evacuation but does not take away heat in a good way.
 soluble oil or low-viscosity mineral oil may be used in machining cast iron to prevent excessive metal dust.
 When a cutting fluid is needed for machining magnesium, low or nonacid mineral seal or lard oils are
recommended

SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUID

 Cutting and grinding fluids provide lubricating and cooling effects which are ab essential to the economical
production of precisely machined and ground parts.
 These parts, produced at high rates and low unit cost, are absolutely critical to the reliable, high-tech
lifestyle we take for granted
 The type and degree of lubrication and the degree of cooling required for various removal operations vary
according to the

1. The type of operation

2. The rigidity of the part and its fixturing
3. The type of metal and its hardness and microstructure
4. The tool material and its geometry, and the speed, feed, and depth of cut selection

 With the possible exceptions of ceramic turning and carbide and ceramic milling can frequently be
accomplished satisfactorily and economically without cutting fluids all metal working operations require
fluids of one kind or another to produce precision economically

 Lubrication from the fluid aids in generating the desired workpiece shape, s and surface integrity while
increasing tool and wheel life. Lubrication reduces tool wear b cutting forces are decreased as friction at the
face and flank of the cutting tool or abrasive is reduced. Lubrication also increases shear angles and, thereby,
reduces work harden The important f workpiece distortion ahead of the tools. surface cutting process

 The cooling provided by cutting and grinding fluids extends tool life primarily by pr tools from exceeding
their critical temperature range while in the cut. Beyond the temperature, tools will soften and wear rapidly
with the concurrent loss of finish and size the potential for catastrophic tool failure. Cooling provided by the
fluid also helps keep thermally stable aiding in control of part size.

Methods Of Cutting-fluid Application

1. Flooding
2. Mist
3. High-pressure systems
4. Through the cutting tool system

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Flooding
 This is the most common method (shown in Fig.
5.1, indicating good and flooding practices).
Flow rates typically range from 10 L/min for
single-point tools to 2251 per cutter for
multipletooth cutters, as in milling. In some
operations, such as drilling and fluid pressures in
the range from 700 to 14,000 kPa are used to flush away the chips prod to prevent interfering with the
operation.
Mist
 This type of cooling supplies fluid to inaccessible areas, in a manner similar to using an aerosol can, and
provides better visibility of the workpiece being machined (compared with flood cooling). It is effective
particularly with water-based fluids at air pressures ranging from 70 to 600 kPa. However, it has limited
cooling capacity. Mist application requires venting to prevent the inhalation of airborne fluid particles by the
machine operator and others nearby.

High-pressure systems
 With the increasing speed and power of modern computer controlled machine tools, heat generation in
machining has become a significant factor. Particularly effective is the use of high-pressure refrigerated
coolant systems to increase the rate of heat removal from the cutting zone. High pressures also are used in
delivering the cutting fluid via specially designed nozzles that aim a powerful jet of fluid to the zone,
particularly into the clearance or reliefface of the tool. The pressures employed, which are usually in the
range from 5.5 to 35 MPa, act as a chip breaker in situations where the chips produced would otherwise be
long and continuous, interfering with the cutting operation. In order to avoid damage to the workpiece
surface by impact from any particles present in the high-pressure jet, contaminant size in the coolant should
not exceed 20 um. Proper and continuous filtering of the fluid also is essential to maintain quality.

Through the cutting tool system

 The severity of various machining operations have been described in terms of the difficulty of supplying
fluids into the cutting zone and flushing away the chips. For a more effective application, narrow passages
can be produced in cutting tools

Classification Of Lubrications

1. Solid Lubricants
2. Gas Lubricants
3. Liquid Lubricant

Solid Lubricants
 Solid lubricant is generally applied at the cutting zone in the form of fine powder mixed with mineral oil, and
paste. Improved machining performance in terms of cutting force, specific cutting energy, and surface finish
has been achieved in turning, milling, drilling, and grinding compared to wet and dry machining. Graphite,
calcium fluoride, molybdenum disulphide, and boric acid

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Gas Lubricants
 Gaseous lubricants. Gaseous lubricants belong to the simplest, lowest viscosity lubricants known and include
air, nitrogen, oxygen, and helium. They are applied in aerodynamic and aerostatic bearings

Liquid Lubricant
 Liquid lubricants are primarily composed of a base oil (90–95%) and additives (5–10%). Base oil primarily
consists of hydrocarbons, which provide the physical properties of lubricants, while additives provide
chemical and tribological characteristics.

Properties of Lubricants

1. A high boiling point and low freezing point (in order to stay liquid within a wide range of temperature)
2. A high viscosity index
3. Thermal stability
4. Hydraulic stability
5. Demulsibility
6. Corrosion prevention
7. A high resistance to oxidation

Application of Lubricants

1. Reduces the loss of energy in the form of heat.

2. Increases the efficiency of the machine.
3. Prevents interlocking or inter joint welding at the surface asperities.
4. Increases the smooth motion of moving parts.
5. Reduces surface deformation, wear, and tear.
6. Reduces the expansion of metal by local frictional heat.
7. Protects material from corrosion

NC & CNC Machines

Introduction

 Numerical control is a form of programmable automation in which the processing equipment(machine tool)
is controlled by a set of instructions called as program (which contains numbers, letters, and symbols).
 The numbers, letters, and symbols are coded in an suitable format which form a programofinstructions for a
particularwork part orjob.
 When the job changes, the programofinstructions also changed.
 The capability of changing programs makes NC suitable for low and medium volume production.

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Basic components of NC

1. Program of Instructions
2. Machine Control Unit
3. Processing Equipment

Program of Instructions

 The program of instructions is the detailed step by step commands that direct the machine tool.
 Commands refer to position of spindle w. r. t. worktable on which the part is fixture
 More advanced instructions include selection of spindle speeds, cutting tools etc.
 The common medium used for coding of program is 1- inche wide punched tape. Punched cards, magnetic
tape cassettes and floppy diskettes are also used also.

Machine Control Unit(MCU)

 MCU consists of the electronics control and hardware that read and interpret program of instruction and
convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool or other processing equipment.
 The elements of MCU consists of a tape reader, data buffer, signal input/output channels, feedback channels
and sequence control,
 The tape reader has an electromechanical device used to read and wind the tape.
 The data buffer then interprets the program of
instructions and also stores the instructions in
logical blocks of information.
 From here signals are sent to through the signal
output channels which are connected to the
servomotor and other controls in the machine
tools.
 Feedback signals are provided for ensuring proper
execution of the given instructions
 The sequence control coordinates the activities of
the other elements of the control unit Processing
Equipment.

Machine Tool
 The machine tool consists of worktable and spindle to hold tools, motors and controls necessary to drive

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 them.

NC Procedure
 Process planning
 Part programming
 Tape preparation
 Tape verification
 Production

Process Planning

 The engineering drawing of the work part must be interpreted in terms of the manufacturing processes to be
used. It consists of preparation of route sheet.

Part Programming
 A part programmer plans for the portions of the job to be accomplished by NC
 The part programmers are responsible for planning the sequence of operations to be performed by NC
 There are two ways to program for NC
1. Manual part programming
2. Computer-assisted part programming

Manual part programming

 In this, the machining instructions are prepared on a form called a part program manuscript. The manuscript
is a listing of the relative cutter/ work piece positions which must be followed to machine the part.

Computer assisted part programming

 In this computational work required in manual part programming is transferred to thecomputer. This is used
for complex work piece geometries and jobs with many machining steps . It also saves part programming
time

Tape Preparation

 A punched tape is prepared from the part programmer’s NC process plan.

 In manual part programming, the punched tape is prepared from the part program manuscript or a
typewriter like device equipped with tape punching capability
 In Computer assisted part programming, the computer interprets the list of part programming instructions,
performs the necessary calculations to covert this into detailed set of machine tool commands, and then
controls a tape punched device to prepare tape for specific NCmachine.

Production

 This involves ordering the raw workparts, specifying and preparing the tooling and any special fixturing that
may be required.
 The Operator’s function is to load the workpart in the machine and establish the starting position of the
cutting tool relative to the workpiece.
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  The NC system then takes over and machines the part according to the instructions on tape.

Classification of NC Systems
 Classification NC systems based on Motion Control
 There are three types of motion control used in Numerical control
1. Point to point
2. Straight cut
3. Contouring

Point to point NC

 Point to point (PTP) is also called positioning system.

 In PTP, the objective of the machine control unit is to
move the cutting tool to a predefined location
 The speed or path by which this movements is
accomplished is not important in point to point NC
 Once the tool reaches the desired location , the
machining operation is performed at that position
 Example of this system is NC drill press.
 Positioning system are the simplest machine tool control systems.
 This system is least expensive of the three types.

Straight-cut NC

 Straight cut control systems are capable of moving the

cutting tool parallel to one of the major axis at a controlled
rate suitable for machining.
 It is appropriate for performing milling operations on work
pieces of rectangular shape.
 Angular cut would not be possible.
 An NC tool capable of straight cur movements is also
capable of point to point movements

Contouring NC (Continuous path NC )

 Contouring is most complex, the most flexible and most
expensive type of machine tool control.
 It is capable of performing both PTP and straight cut operations
 In addition, it can control more than one axis movement of the
machine tool.
 The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate
desired geometry of the machine tool.
 Turing and milling are common examples
 In order to machine a curved path in a NC system the direction of feed rate is to be changed continuously to
follow desired path.

Applications of NC Machines
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  Milling
 Drilling and related processes
 Boring
 Turning
 Grinding
 Sawing Other applications
 Press working machine tools
 Welding machines
 Inspection machines
 Automatic drafting
 Assembly machines
 Tube bending
 Flame cutting
 Plasma arc cutting
 Laser beam processes
 Cloth cutting
 Automatic riveting

NC machines are suitable for

 Parts are processed frequently and in small lot sizes

 The part geometry is complex
 Many operations must be performed on the part in its processing
 Much metal needs to be removed 5. Engineering design changes are likely
 Close tolerance must be held on the part
 It is an expensive part where mistakes in processing would be costly
 The parts require 100 % inspection.

Advantages of NC over conventional systems

 Flexibility with accuracy, repeatability, reduced scrap, high production rates, good quality
 Reduced tooling costs
 Easy machine adjustments
 More operations per setup, reduced leadtime, accommodate design change, reduced inventory
 Rapid programming and program recall, less paperwork
 Faster prototype production
 Less-skilled operator , multi-work possible
 Reduced fix turing

Limitations of NC Machines

 Relatively high initial cost of equipment

 Need for part programming
 Special maintenance requirements
 More costly breakdowns
 Finding and/or training NC personnel

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 Numerical control programming
Steps in NC/CNC programming procedure
 Interpret part drawing
 Define zero point
 Define x-, y-, z-axes
 Determine machining requirements Determine required operations & sequence
 Determine tooling requirements Determine feeds, speeds, depth(s) of cut
 Complete part program
 Complete post processor
 Store part program (e.g., punch tape, disk file)
 Verify completed program: "check it out;" is it accurate?

Classification of NC Machines based on Feed Back System

Open-loop NC System

 An open-loop NC system is one that does not use feedback signals to indicate the table position to the
controller unit. Open-loop NC systems typically make use of stepping motors. The stepping motor is a
motor that is driven and controlled by an electrical pulse train generated by the MCU (or other digital
device). Each pulse drives the stepping motor by a fraction of one revolution, called the step angle. By
controlling the number and rate of pulses to the motor, the position of the table is controlled without
the need for feedback sensors. One of the disadvantages of the stepping motor as the drive unit for an
NC system is the possible loss of one or more pulses when the motor is operating under load. This
results in a loss in accuracy of the table position. Accordingly, stepping motors are used on NC systems in
which the load is relatively small. Point-to-point drilling and most of the non machining applications of
NC are cases where stepping motors can be used to good advantage

Closed Loop System

 A closed loop system uses position sensors attached to the machine tool table to measure its position
relative to the input value for the axis. Any difference between the input value and the measured value
is used to drive the system toward a zero difference.The function of the feedback loop in a numerical
control system is to assure that the table and work part have been properly located with respect to the
tool. Closed-loop NC systems generally use dc servomotors or hydraulic actuators. Various feedback
sensor devices are used in NC.

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COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL
 Today, NC means computer numerical control. Computer numerical control CNC is defined as an NC
system whose MCU is based on a dedicated microcomputer rather than on a hard-wired controller.

Features of CNC
1. Storage of more than one part program
2. Various forms of program input
3. Program editing at the machine tool
4. Using programming subroutines and macros.
5. Interpolation.
6. Positioning features for setup
7. Cutter length and size compensation
8. Acceleration and deceleration calculations
9. Communication interface
10. Diagnostics

Block Diagram of CNC Machine

Main Parts of CNC Machine

 The main parts of the CNC machine are
Input Devices: These are the devices which are used to input the part program in the CNC machine. There are
three commonly used input devices and these are punch tape reader, magnetic tape reader and computer via serial
data communication.

Machine Control Unit (MCU): It is the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the controlling action of the CNC
machine.

 MCU consists of the following components and subsystems:

1. Central processing unit
2. Memory
3. I/O interface
4. Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed
5. Sequence controls for other machine tool functions
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  These subsystems are interconnected by means of a system bus.

Central Processing Unit

 Manages the other components in the MCU based on software contained in memory. The CPU can be
divided into three sections:
1. Control section
2. Arithmetic-logic unit
3. Immediate access memory
Memory
 Consists of main memory and secondary memory. Main memory (Primary storage) consists of ROM
(read-only memory) and RAM (Random access memory) devices.
 Operating system software and machine interface programs are generally stored in ROM.
 Numerical control part programs are stored in RAM devices. Current programs in RAM can be erased
and replaced by new programs as jobs are changed..
 High-capacity secondary memory (also called auxiliary storage or secondary storage) devices are used to
store large programs and data files, which are transferred to main memory as needed.

Input/Output Interface
 Provides communication between the various components of the CNC system, other computer systems, and
the machine operator.

Controls for Machine Tool Axes and Spindle Speed

 These are hardware components that control the position and velocity (feed rate) of each machine axis as
well as the rotational speed of the machine tool spindle.

Sequence Controls for other Machine Tool Functions

 In addition to control of table position, feed rate, and spindle speed, several additional functions are
accomplished under part program control. These auxiliary functions are generally ON/OFF (binary)
actuations and interlocks.

The various functions performed by the MCU are

 It reads the coded instructions fed into it.
 It decodes the coded instruction.
 It implements interpolation ( linear, circular and helical ) to generate axis motion commands.
 It feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis mechanisms.
 It receives the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
 It implements the auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and tool change.

Machine Tool: A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a spindle to control of the position and speed. The
machine table is controlled in X and Y axis direction and the spindle is controlled in the Z axis direction.

Driving System: The driving system of a CNC machine consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors and ball lead
screw. The MCU feeds the signals (i.e. of position and speed) of each axis to the amplifier circuits. The control signals

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are than augmented (increased) to actuate the drive motors. And the actuated drive motors rotate the ball lead
screw to position the machine table.

Feedback System: This system consists of transducers that acts like sensors. It is also called as measuring system.
It contains position and speed transducers that continuously monitor the position and speed of the cutting tool
located at any instant. The MCU receives the signals from these transducers and it uses the difference between the
reference signals and feedback signals to generate the control signals for correcting the position and speed errors.

Display Unit: A monitor is used to display the programs, commands and other useful data of CNC machine.

How CNC Machine Works?

 First the part program is inserted into the MCU of the CNC.
 In MCU all the data process takes place and according to the program prepared, it prepares all the motion
commands and sends it to the driving system.
 The drive system works as the motion commands are send by MCU. Drive system controls the motion and
velocity of the machine tool.
 Feedback system, records the position and velocity measurement of the machine tool and sends a feedback
signal to the MCU.
 In MCU, the feedback signals are compared with the reference signals and if there are errors, it corrects it
and sends new signals to the machine tool for the right operation to happen
 A display unit is used to see all the commands, programs and other important data. It acts as the eye of the
machine

Advantages of CNC machines

 It can produce jobs with highest accuracy and precision than any other manual machine.
 It can be run for 24 hours of a day.
 The parts produced by it have same accuracy. There is no variation in the parts manufactured by a CNC
machine.
 Highly skilled operator is not required to operate a CNC machine. A semi-skilled operator can also operate
accurately and more precisely.
 Operators can easily make changes and improvements and reduces the delay time.
 It has the capability to produce complex design with high accuracy in minimum possible time.
 The modern design software, allows the designer to simulate the manufacturer of his/her idea.
 And this removes the need of making a prototype or model and saves time and money.
 Fewer workers are required to operate a CNC machine and saves labour cost.

Disadvantages of CNC machines

 Despite of having so many advantages, a CNC machine has some disadvantages too. And these are:
 The cost of the CNC machine is very high as compared with manually operated machine.
 The parts of CNC machines are expensive.
 The maintenance cost in the case of CNC is quite high.
 It does not eliminate the need of costly tools.

Applications of CNC
 Almost every manufacturing industry uses CNC machines. With increase in the competitive environment and
demands, the demand of CNC usage has increased to a greater extent. The machine tools that comes with
the CNC are lathe, mills, shaper, welding etc. The industries that are using CNC machines are automotive
industry, metal removing industries, industries of fabricating metals, electrical discharge machining
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 industries, wood industries etc.

Differentiate between NC and CNC machines

SL. NC Machine CNC Machine

No
1 Here NC stands for Numerical Control
2 It is defined as the machine which is controlled by
the set of instructions in the form of numbers,
letters and symbols. The set of instructions is called
as program.
3 In NC machine the programs are fed into the punch
cards
4 Modification in the program is difficult
5 High skilled operator is required.
6 Cost of the machine is less.
7 Maintenance cost is less
8 The programs in the NC machine cannot be stored.
9 It offers less flexibility and computational capability
10 The accuracy is less as compared with the CNC.
11 It requires more time for the execution of the job.
12 It is not possible to run it continuously.
CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control.
It is defined as the machine which is used to control
the motions of the workpiece and tool with the help
of prepared program in computer. The program is
written in alphanumeric data.
In CNC machine the programs are fed directly into the
computer by a small key board similar to our
traditional keyboard.
Modification in the program is very easy.
Modification in the program is very easy.
Cost of the CNC machine is high.
Maintenance cost is high.
In CNC machines, the programs can be stored in the
computer and can be used again and again.
It offers additional flexibility and computational
capability.
It has high accuracy
It takes very less time in the execution of the job.
It can be run continuously for 24 hours of a day

Economic of NC
 There are a number of reasons why NC systems are being adopted so widely by the metalworking industry. It
has been estimated that 75% of manufacturing is carried out in lost sizes of 50 or less. As indicated above,
these small lot sizes are the typical applications for NC. Following are the advantages of numerical control
when it is utilized in these small production quantities
Reduced nonproduction time
 It accomplishes this decrease in non productive time by means of fewer setups, less setup time, reduced
workpiece handling time, automatic tool changes on some machines, and so on.
Reduced fixturing

 NC requires simpler fixtures because the positioning is done by the NC program rather than the fixture or jig.
Reduced lead time
 Jobs can be set up more quickly with NC.
Greater manufacturing flexibility
 NC adapts better to changes in jobs, production schedules, and so on.
Easier to accommodate engineering design changes on the workpiece
Improved accuracy and reduced human error
 NC is ideal for complicated parts where the chances of human mistakes are high.

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G-Code Commands

Group Code Functions

01 G00 Rapid positioning
01 G01 Linear interpolation
01 G02 Circular interpolation clockwise (CW)
01 G03 Circular interpolation counterclockwise (CCW)
06 G20* Inch input (in)
06 G21* Metric input (mm)
G24 Radius programming (**)
00 G28 Return to reference point
00 G29 Return from reference point
G32 Thread cutting (**)
07 G40 Cutter compensation cancel
07 G41 Cutter compensation left
07 G42 Cutter compensation right
08 G43 Tool length compensation positive (+) direction
08 G44 Tool length compensation minus (-) direction
08 G49 Tool length compensation cancel
G84 Canned turning cycle (**)
03 G90 Absolute programming
03 G91 Incremental programming

(*) – on some machines and controls, these may be G70 (inch) and G71 (metric)

(**)- refers only to CNC lathes an turning centres

Miscellaneous Commands

Code Functions
M00 Program stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle start ( forward CW)
M04 Spindle start (reverse CCW)
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Chuck – clamping (**)
M11 Chuck –unclamping (**)
M12 Tailstock spindle out (**)
M13 Tailstock spindle in (**)
M17 Tool post rotation normal (**)
M18 Tool post rotation reverse (**)
M30 End of tape and rewind
M98 Transfer to subprogram
M99 End of subprogram

(**) – refers only to CNC lathes and turning centres.

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Automated work assembly transfer lines

 In assembly lines, the parts to be assembled

have to be moved over the assembling machine
tool (Fig. 4.5.8). This is done using indexing
mechanism. The part on the table is indexed to
be in line with the assembly unit. Once the
assembly is done the table is indexed to get the
next part in line with the assembly.
CNC tool changers

 In the CNC tool changing mechanism the tool magazine

has to be indexed to bring the desired tool in line with the
tool changing arm (Fig. 4.5.9). The tool changing arm picks
the cutting tool from the spindle. Then it is indexed to
reach the tool magazine. The tool is placed in the
magazine. Then the magazine is indexed to bring the next
cutting tool to be picked by the changing arm. Again the
tool changing arm indexes to reach the spindle.

Material inspection station

 Here a rotary index table is used to convey the parts for inspection operation. This index device conveys the
parts in a rotary motion and stops intermittently for a fixed period of time for inspection. A cam mechanism
is used to index the table

Drives and Mechanisms

Tool magazines and transfer systems

 Machining centers are used to carry out multiple operations like drilling, milling, boring etc. in one set up on
multiple faces of the workpiece. These operations require a number of different tools. Tool changing
operation is time consuming which reduces the machine utilization. Hence the tools should be automatically
changed to reduce the idle time. This can be achieved by using automatic tool changer (ATC) facility. It helps
the workpiece to be machined in one setup which increases the machine utilization and productivity. Large
numbers of tools can be stored in tool magazines. Tool magazines are specified by their storage capacity,
tool change procedure and shape. The storage capacity ranges from 12 to 200. Some of the magazines are
discussed as follows.

Tool turret

 It is the simplest form of tool magazine. Figure 4.6.1 the schematic of a turret with a capacity to hold twelve
tools. It consists of a tool storage without any tool changer. The turret is indexed In the required position for
desired machining operation. Advantage of the turret is that the tool can easily be identified, but the time
consumed for tool change is more unless the tool is in the adjecent slot.
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Tool magazines

 Tool magazines are generally employed in CNC drilling and milling machines. Compared to tool turrets the
tool magazines can hold more number of tools therefore proper management of tools is essential.
Duplication of the tools is possible and a new tool of same type may be selected when a particular tool is
wom off. The power required to move the tools in a tool magazine is more in comparison with that required
in tool turrets. The following are some of the tool magazines used in automation
1. Disc or drum type
2. Chain type
3. Disk or drum type

Disc type magazine

 The disc type tool magazine rotates to get the desired tool in
position with the tool change arm (Fig. 4.6.2). Larger the diameter
of the disc/drum more the number of tools it can hold. It has
pockets where tool can be inserted. In case of drum type magazine
which can store large amount of tools, the pockets are on the
surface along the length. It carries about 12 to 50 tools. If the
number of tools are less the disc is mounted on top of the spindle
to minimize the travel of tool between the spindle and the disc. If
the tools are more then, the disc is wall mounted or mounted on
the machining center column. If the disc is column mounted then,
it needs an additional linear motion to move it to the loading
station for tool change.

Chain type magazine

 When the number of tools is more than 50, chain type of

magazines are used (Fig. 4.6.3). The magazine is mounted
overhead or as a separate column. In chain magazines the
tools are identified either by their location in the tool holder
or by means of some coding on the tool holder. These types
of magazines can be duplicated. There can be two chain
magazines: one is active for machining and the second
magazine is used when the duplicate tool is needed since the
active tool is worn out.
Rack type magazine

 Rack magazines are cost-efficient alternative to usual tool

magazine systems (Fig. 4.6.4). Set-up time can be optimized
by utilizing the racks' capacity of up to 50 tools. The high
storage capacity of up to 400 tools permits a large production
capacity of varying work pieces without tool changes. They
can also be used to store work pieces.

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Set-up time can be optimized by utilizing the racks storage capacity of up to 400 tools permits a large production
capacity of varying pieces without tool changes. They can also be used to store work pieces

Automatic tool changing

The tools from the magazines and spindle are exchanged by a tool changer arm (Fig. 4.6.5). The tool change activity
requires the following motions:

 The spindle stops at the correct orientation for the tool change
arm to pick the tool from the spindle.
 Tool change arm moves to the spindle. e. Tool change arm
picks the tool from the spindle.
 Tool change arm indexes to reach the tool magazine.
 Tool magazine indexes so that the tool from the spindle can be
placed.
 The tool is placed in the tool magazine. g. The tool magazine
indexes to bring the required tool to the tool change position.
 Tool change arm picks the tool from the tool magazine.
 Tool change arm indexes to reach the spindle. is placed in the spindle.
 Tool change arm moves back to its parking position.

Advantages of automatic tool changer

 Increase in operator safety by changing tools automatically

 Changes the tools in seconds for maintenance and repair
 Increases flexibility
 Heavy and large multi-tools can easily be handled
 Decreases total production time

Cranes
 Cranes are material handling equipments designed for lifting and moving heavy loads.
 Some of the important types of cranes are bridge cranes, gantry cranes and jib cranes,
 These are discussed as follows.

Bridge crane
1. It consists of one or two horizontal beams supported between fixed rails on either end as shown in Fig. 4.6.6.
2. The hoist moves along the length of the bridge, and the bridge moves along the rails.
3. The x- and y-axes movements are provided by the above said movements and the boist provides motion in
the z-axis direction.
4. In the bridge crane, vertical lifting is due to the hoist and horizontal movement of the material is due to the
rail system.
5. They are generally used in heavy machinery fabrication, steel mills, and power-generating stations

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