Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory

Chapter 5: Propeller theory The theory is based on the concept of the ideal actuator disc or pure energy supplier.
This is an infinitely thin disc of area S that offers no resistance to air passing through it.
5.1 Froude’s momentum theory of propulsion The air receives energy in the form of pressure from the disc, the energy being added
5.2 Airscrew coefficients uniformly over the entire disc area. It is assumed that the velocity of the air through the
5.2.1 Thrust coefficient disc is constant over the whole area and that all of the energy supplied is transferred to
5.2.2 Torque coefficient the air.
5.2.3 Efficiency
5.2.4 Power coefficient
5.2.5 Activity factor
5.3 Airscrew pitch
5.3.1 Geometric pitch
5.3.2 Effect of geometric pitch on airscrew performance
5.3.3 Experimental mean pitch
5.4 Blade-element theory
5.5.1 Vortex system of an airscrew
5.5.2 Performance of a blade element
5.5 The momentum theory applied to the helicopter rotor
Figure 5.1: Ideal actuator disk and flow in the slipstream; the density,  , is
5.5.1 Actuator disc in hovering flight
5.5.2 Vertical climbing flight constant in this example.
5.5.3 Slow, powered descending flight We consider the system shown in Fig. 5.1, which represents an actuator disc at rest in
a fluid that, a long way ahead of the disc, is moving uniformly with speed V and has
5.5.4 Translational helicopter flight
5.6 Hovercraft pressure p0 . The outer curved lines represent the streamlines that separate the fluid that
Examples passes through the disc from the fluid that does not. As the fluid between these
Problems streamlines approaches the disc, it accelerates to speedV0 , its pressure decreasing to p1 .
At the disc, the pressure increases to p2 , but continuity prohibits a sudden change in speed.
Learning objectives Behind the disc, the air expands and accelerates until, well behind the disc, its pressure
 Learn how to apply one-dimensional control-volume analysis or simple momentum returns to p0 , when its speed isVS . The flow between the bounding streamlines behind the
theory to examine the performance of propulsion devices. disc is known as the slipstream.
 Learn that propulsive force is obtained by increasing the momentum of the working The rate of mass flowing through the disk per unit time is
gas in the direction opposite to that of the force. m  SV0 (5.1)
 Learn about propellers, turbojets, and helicopters operating in the Earth’s atmosphere. The increase in the horizontal component of (or rearward) momentum of this mass
 Learn from blade-element theory how propulsion devices using rotating lifting flow is:
surfaces perform. m (VS V )  SV0(VS V ) (5.2)
 Learn more about control volume analysis by examining hovercraft. This is the thrust on the disc. Hence
T  SV0(VS V ) (5.3)
The forward propulsive force, or thrust, in aeronautics is invariably obtained by
increasing the rearward momentum of a quantity of gas. Aircraft propulsion systems may The thrust can also be calculated from the pressures on the two sides of the disc as
be divided into two classes: T  S (p2  p1 ) (5.4)
 Class 1: The gas worked on is wholly or principally atmospheric air. The flow is divided into two regions, 1 and 2, and Bernoulli’s equation may be
 Class 2: The gas does not contain atmospheric air in any appreciable quantity. applied within each. Since the fluid receives energy at the disc, Bernoulli’s equation does
Class 1 includes turbojets, ramjets, and all systems using airscrews or helicopter rotors. It not apply through the disc. Thus
also includes ornithopters (and birds, flying insects, etc.). The only class 2 system 1 1
currently in use in aviation is the rocket motor. p0  V 2  p1  V0 2 (5.5)
2 2
5.1 Froude’s momentum theory of propulsion and
Froude’s theory applies to propulsive systems of class 1. In this class, work is done 1 1
on air from the atmosphere and its energy is increased. This increase is used to increase p2  V 2  p0  VS 2 (5.6)
2 0 2
the rearward momentum of the air, the reaction to which appears as a thrust on the engine From Eqs. (5.5) and (5.6)
or airscrew.
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory

1 1 1 1 In practice, the function of the ideal actuator disc is carried out by the airscrew or jet
p 2  V02  p1  V0 2  p0  VS 2  p0  V 2 engine, which violates some or all of the assumptions made. Each departure from the
2 2 2 2
That is, ideal leads to a reduction in efficiency; thus the efficiency of a practical propulsive
1 system is always less than the Froude efficiency as calculated for an ideal disc of the
p 2  p1  (VS 2 V 2 ) (5.7) same area producing the same thrust under the same conditions.
2
Substituting this into Eq. (5.4) and equating the result to Eq. (5.3) (i.e., equating the two Equation (5.12) may be treated to give different expression for efficiency, each of
expressions for the thrust), we get which has its own merit and use. Thus
1 V 2
S (VS 2 V 2 )  SV0(VS V ) i   (5.12a)
2 1 [1  (VS / V )]
(V  V )
Dividing this by S (VS V ) and rearranging terms, we get 2 S
V
1 
V0  (V  V ) (5.8) V0
2 S
This shows that the velocity through the disc is the arithmetic mean of the velocities (5.12b)
well upstream and in the fully developed slipstream. Furthermore, if the velocity through 1

the disc V0 is written as 1a
(5.12c)
V0  V (1  a ) (5.9)
Also, since useful power is equal to TV and the efficiency isV / V0 , the power supplied
It follows from Eq. (5.8) that
is
VS  V  2V0  2V (1  a )
TV
Whence P  TV0 (5.13)
V / V0
VS  V (1  2a ) (5.10)
Of particular interest is Eq. (5.12a), which shows that, for a given flight speedV ,
The quantity a is the inflow factor. efficiency decreases with increasingVS . Now the thrust is obtained by accelerating a mass
1 2
A unit mass of the fluid upstream of the disc has kinetic energy of V and of air. Consider two extreme cases. In the first, a large mass of air is affected-that is, the
2
VS
pressure energy appropriate to pressure p0 , whereas the same mass well behind the disc disc diameter is large. Then the required increase in air speed is small, so differs little
V
1 2 from unity and efficiency is relatively high. In the second case, a small-diameter disc
has, after passing through the disc, kinetic energy of V and pressure energy
2 S affects a small mass of air, requiring a large increase in speed to give the same thrust.
appropriate to pressure p0 . Thus the unit mass of the fluid receives an energy increase of VS
Thus is large, leading to low efficiency. Therefore, to achieve a given thrust at a
1 2 V
(V V 2 ) on passing. The rate of increase in fluid energy in the system, dE / dt , is
2 S high efficiency, it is necessary to use the largest practicable actuator disc,
given by In fact, an airscrew affects a relatively large mass of air and therefore has high
dE 1 1 propulsive efficiency. A simple turbo-jet or ram-jet, on the other hand, is closer to the
 SV0 (VS2 V 2 )  SV0(VS2 V 2 ) (5.11) second extreme considered previously and so has poor propulsive efficiency.
dt 2 2
This rate of increase is, in fact, the power supplied to the actuator disc. However, at high forward speeds, compressibility marked by reduces the efficiency
If we now imagine that the disc is moving from right to left at speed V into initially of a practical airscrew; the advantage then shifts to the jet engine. It was to improve the
stationary fluid, we see that useful work is done at the rate TV. Thus the efficiency of the propulsive efficiency of the turbo-jet engine that the bypass or turbo-fan type of engine
disc as a propulsive system is was introduced. In this engine type, only part of the air taken is fully compressed and
TV passed through the combustion chambers and turbines. The remainder is slightly
i  compressed and ducted around the combustion chambers and then exhausted at a
1
SV0 (VS2 V 2 ) relatively low speed, producing thrust at fairly high propulsive efficiency.
2
The air passed through the combustion chambers is ejected at high speed, producing
Substituting for T from Eq. (5.3) gives
thrust at a comparatively low efficiency. Overall propulsive efficiency is thus slightly
SV0(VS V )V V greater than that of a simple turbo-jet engine giving the same thrust. The turbo-prop
i   (5.12)
1 2 2 1 engine is, in effect, an extreme form of bypass engine in which nearly all of the thrust is
SV0(VS V ) (V  V )
2 2 S obtained at high efficiency.
This is the ideal propulsive efficiency, or the Froude efficiency of the propulsive Another very useful equation in Froude’s theory may be obtained by expressing Eq.
system. (5.3) in a different form. Since
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory

V0  V (1  a ) and VS  V (1  2a ) Equation (5.16) may be thus written as

T  SV0(VS V )  SV (1  a )[V (1  2a )  V ] (5.14) T  C n 2D 4h(Re, M , J ) (5.17)
5.2 Airscrew coefficients The constant C and the function h(Re, M , J ) are usually collected together and
The performance of an airscrew may be determined by model tests. As is the case denoted kT , the thrust coefficient. Finally, we have
with all such tests, it is necessary to find some way of relating them to full-scale T  kT n 2D 4 (5.18)
performance. Dimensional analysis is used for this purpose, which leads to a number of
coefficients, analogous to the lift and drag coefficients of a body. These coefficients also where kT is a dimensionless quantity dependent on airscrew design; it is also
serve as a convenient way of presenting airscrew performance data, which may be dependent on Re , M , and J . This dependence may be found experimentally or by
calculated by blade-element theory (Section 5.4) for use in aircraft design. theoretical means-for example, the blade-element theory, the lifting-line/lifting-surface
5.2.1 Thrust coefficient theory, or other advanced computational methodology.
Consider an airscrew of diameter D revolving at n revolutions per second, driven by 5.2.2 Torque coefficient
a torque Q and giving a thrustT . The characteristics of the fluid are defined by its Torque Q is a force multiplied by a length, and it follows that a rational expression for
density  , its kinematic viscosity  , and its modulus of bulk elasticity K . The forward Q is
speed of the airscrew isV . We assume that kQ n 2D 5 (5.19)
T  h(D, n, , , K ,V )
(5.15) where kQ is the torque coefficient, which, like kT , depends on airscrew design and on
 CDan bc  d K eV f
Re , M , and J .
Then, putting this in dimensional form, we get 5.2.3 Efficiency
[MLT 2 ]  [(L )a (T )b (ML3 )c (LT
2 1 d
) (ML1T 2 )e (LT 1 )f ] The power supplied to an airscrew is Pin , where
Separating this into the three fundamental equations, we get
(M ) 1  c  e
. Pin  2nQ .
(L) 1  a - 3c  2d - e  f whereas the useful power output is Pout , where
(T ) 2  b  d  2e  f Pout  TV
Solving these three equations for a, b, and c in terms of d, e, and f, we get Therefore, the airscrew efficiency  is given by
a  4  2e  2d  f
TV kT n 2D 4V
b  2  d  2e  f   (5.20)
2nQ kQ n 2D 5 2n
c  1 e
1 kT V 1 kT
Substituting these in Eq. (5.15), we get   J
2 kQ nD 2 kQ
5.2.4 Power coefficient
T  CD 42e 2d  f n 2d 2e f 1e  d K eV f The power required to drive an airscrew is
 d e f P  2nQ  2n(kQ n 2D 5 )  2kQ n 3D 5 (5.21)
    K   V   (5.16)
 
 C n 2D 4 f  2   2 2  
 D n   D n   nD  
  The power coefficient C p is then defined by
 
Consider the three factors within the square brackets. P  C p n 3D 5 (5.22)
  / D 2n : The product Dn is a multiple of the rotational component of the blade tip that is,
speed; thus the complete factor is of the form  / (length  velocity ) and is therefore P
Cp  (5.22a)
of the form of the reciprocal of a Reynolds number. Ensuring equality of Reynolds n 3D 5
numbers as between model and full scales takes care of this term. By comparing Eqs. (5.21) and (5.22), we see that
 K / D 2n 2 : K /   a 2 , where a is the speed of sound in the fluid. As just noted, C p  2kQ (5.22b)
Dn is related to blade-tip speed and therefore the complete factor is related to Then, from Eq. (5.20), the efficiency of the airscrew is
 k 
speed of sound / velocity  -that is, to the tip Mach number. Care in matching the tip
2

  J  T  (5.23)
Mach number in model test and full-scale flight allows for this factor. C p 
 V / nD : V is the forward speed of the airscrew; V / n is therefore the distance
advanced per revolution. V / nD is this advance per revolution expressed as a
multiple of the airscrew diameter and is known as the advance ratio, denoted J .
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory

5.2.5 Activity factor the advance per revolution is infinite. Thus the pitch can take any value and so is useless
The activity factor is a measure of the power-absorbing capacity of the airscrew, as a term to describe the airscrew. To overcome this difficulty, two more definite
which, for optimum performance, must be accurately matched to the power produced by measures of airscrew pitch are acceptable.
the engine. 5.3.1 Geometric pitch
Consider an airscrew of diameter D rotating at n with zero forward speed. Consider Consider the blade section shown in Fig. 5.3, at radius r from the airscrew axis. The
in particular an element of the blade at radius r ; the chord of the element is c . The broken line is the zero-lift line of the section, or the direction relative to the section of the
airscrew generally produces a thrust, and therefore there is flow of finite speed through undisturbed stream when the section gives no lift. Then the geometric pitch of the
the disc. We ignore this inflow, however, so the motion and forces on the element are as element is 2r tan  -the pitch of a screw of radius r and helix angle (90  ) degrees.
shown in Fig. 5.2. This is frequently constant for all sections of a given airscrew. In some cases, however, it
Q 1 varies from blade section to blade section. In such cases, the geometric pitch of each
 C D (2rn )2cr
r 2 section at 70% of the airscrew radius is taken and is called the geometric
The torque associated with the element is thus mean pitch.
Q  22C Dn 2(cr 3 )r

Figure 5.2: Relationship between thrust, torque, and rotation speed.

We further assume that C D is constant for all blade sections, although this is not
normally true since much of the blade is stalled. However, within the accuracy required Figure 5.3: Location of zero-lift angle with respect to the plane of rotation.
by the activity factor, this assumption is acceptable. The total torque required to drive an The geometric pitch depends solely on blade geometry. It is thus a definite length for
airscrew with B blades is then a given airscrew and does not depend on the precise conditions of operation at any instant,
tip although many airscrews are mechanically variable in pitch.
Q  22C DBn 2  cr 3dr 5.3.2 Effect of geometric pitch on airscrew performance
root Consider two airscrews differing only in the helix angles of the blades, and let the
Thus the power absorbed by the airscrew under static conditions is approximately blade sections at, say, 70% radius be as drawn in Fig. 5.5. The blade in part (a) of the
tip
figure has a fine pitch, whereas the blade in part (b) has a coarse pitch. When the aircraft
P  2nQ  4 3C DBn 3  cr 3dr is at rest, say at the start of the takeoff run, the air velocity relative to the blade section is
root
the resultant VR of the velocity due to rotation 2nr and the inflow velocity Vin .
In a practical airscrew, the blade roots are usually shielded by a spinner, and the
lower limit of the integral, by convention, changes from zero (the root) to 0.1D . Thus The blade section of the fine-pitch airscrew is working at a reasonable incidence, so
0.5 D the lift L is large and the drag  D is small. Thus the thrust T is large and the
P  4  3C D Bn 3  cr 3dr torque Q is small, and so the airscrew is efficient. The section of the coarse-pitch
0.1 D airscrew, on the other hand, is stalled and therefore gives little lift and much drag. Thus
Defining the activity factor (AF) as the thrust is small and the torque is large, and so the airscrew is inefficient. At high flight
0.5 D
10 5 speeds, the situation is much changed, as shown in Figs. 5.4(c) and 5.4(d).
AF 
D5  cr 3dr
0.1 D

leads to
5
D 
P  4  3C D Bn 3    (AF)
 10 
Further work on the airscrew coefficients is most conveniently carried out through
examples.
5.3 Airscrew pitch
By analogy with screw threads, the pitch of an airscrew is the advance per revolution.
This definition, as it stands, is of little use for airscrews. Consider two extreme cases. If
the airscrew is turning at, say, 2000 rpm while the aircraft is stationary, the advance per
revolution is zero. If, on the other hand, the aircraft is gliding with the engine stopped,
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory
Figure 5.4: Effect of geometric pitch on airscrew performance
Here the section of the coarse-pitch airscrew is efficient, whereas the fine-pitch
airscrew gives a negative thrust, a situation that might cause a steep dive. Thus an
airscrew with a pitch suitable for low-speed flight and takeoff is liable to perform poorly
at high forward speeds and vice versa. This is the one factor that limited aircraft
performance in the early days of powered flight.
A great advance was achieved by the development of the two-pitch airscrew, in
which each blade may be rotated bodily and set in either of two positions at will. One
position gives a fine pitch for takeoff and climb; the other gives a coarse pitch for
cruising and high-speed flight. Figure 5.5 shows typical variations of efficiency  with
J for (a) a fine-pitch and (b) a coarse-pitch airscrew.
Figure 5.5: Efficiency for a two-pitch airscrew
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Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory
For low advance ratios, corresponding to takeoff and low-speed flight, the fine pitch
is obviously better; for higher speeds, the coarse pitch is preferable. If the pitch is varied
at will between these two values, the overall performance attainable is as given by the
hatched line in Fig. 5.6, which is clearly better than that attainable from either pitch
separately.
Subsequent research led to the development of the constant-speed airscrew in which
the blade pitch is infinitely variable between predetermined limits. A mechanism in the
airscrew hub varies the pitch to keep the engine speed constant, permitting the engine to
work at its most efficient speed. The pitch variations also result in the airscrew working
close to its maximum efficiency at all times.
Figure 5.6 shows the variation in efficiency with J for a number of possible settings.
Since the blade pitch may take any value between the curves drawn, airscrew efficiency
varies with J, as shown by the dashed curve, which is the envelope of all separate η, J
curves. The requirement that the airscrew always work at its optimum efficiency, while
absorbing the power produced by the engine at the predetermined constant speed, calls
for very skillful design in matching the airscrew with the engine.
Figure 5.6: Efficiency for a constant-speed airscrew
The constant-speed airscrew, in turn, led to the innovations of feathering and reverse
thrust. In feathering, the geometric pitch is made so large that the blade sections are
almost parallel to the direction of flight. This reduces drag and prevents the airscrew from
turning the engine (“wind milling”) in the event of engine failure. For reverse thrust, the
geometric pitch is made negative, enabling the airscrew to give a negative thrust to
supplement the brakes during the landing ground run and to assist in maneuvering the
aircraft on the ground.
5.3.3 Experimental mean pitch
The experimental mean pitch is defined as the advance per revolution when the
airscrew is producing zero net thrust. It is thus a suitable parameter for experimental
measurement on an existing airscrew. Like geometric pitch, experimental mean pitch has
a definite value for any given airscrew, provided that the conditions of test approximate
reasonably well to practical flight conditions.
5.4 Blade-element theory
Blade-element theory permits direct calculation of the performance of an airscrew
and its design to achieve a given performance.
5.4.1 Vortex system of an airscrew
An airscrew blade is a form of lifting airfoil and as such may be replaced by a
hypothetical bound vortex. In addition, a trailing vortex is shed from the tip of each blade.
Since the tip traces out a helix as the airscrew advances and rotates, the trailing vortex is
itself helical. Thus a two-bladed airscrew may be replaced by the vortex system of Fig.
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory
5.7. Photographs taken of aircraft taking off in humid air show very clearly the helical
trailing vortices behind the airscrew.
Rotational interference
The slipstream behind an airscrew rotates, in the same sense as the blades rotate,
about the airscrew axis. This rotation is due in part to circulation around the blades (the
hypothetical bound vortex) and in part to the helical trailing vortices.
Consider three planes:
 plane (1) immediately ahead of the airscrew blades;
 plane (2) the plane of the airscrew blades; and
 plane (3) immediately behind the blades.
Ahead of the airscrew, in plane (1), the angular velocity of the flow is zero. Thus in
this plane the effects of the bound and trailing vortices exactly cancel each other. In plane
(2), the angular velocity of the flow is due entirely to the trailing vortices since the bound
vortices cannot produce an angular velocity in their own plane. In plane (3), the angular
velocity due to the bound vortices is equal in magnitude and opposite in sense to that in
plane (1), and the effects of the trailing and bound vortices are now additive.
Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory
for a and b to be constant over the disc. The total velocity of the flow relative to the
blade isVR , as shown in Fig. 5.8.
If the line CC ' represents the zero-lift line of the blade section, then  is, by
definition, the geometric helix angle of the element, related to the geometric pitch, and 
is the absolute angle of incidence of the section. The element therefore experiences lift
and drags forces, respectively perpendicular and parallel to the relative velocityVR ,
appropriate to the absolute incidence  . The values of C L and C D are those for a
two-dimensional airfoil of the appropriate section at absolute incidence  , since
three-dimensional effects have been allowed for in the rotational interference term b .
This lift and drag may be resolved into components of thrust and “torque-force,” as in Fig.
5.8. Here  L is the lift and  D is the drag on the element. R is the resultant
aerodynamic force, making the angle  with the lift vector. R is resolved into
components of thrust T and torque force Q / r , where Q is the torque required to
rotate the element about the airscrew axis. Then
D C D
tan    (5.24)
L CL
VR  V (1  a )cos ec  r (1  b )sec  (5.25)
T   R cos     (5.26)

Figure 5.7: Simplified vortex system for a two-bladed airscrew.

Let the angular velocity of the airscrew blades be  , the angular velocity of the flow
in the plane of the blades be b , and the angular velocity induced by the bound vortices
in planes ahead of and behind the disc be ±  . This assumes that these planes are
equidistant from the airscrew disc. It also assumes that the distance between these planes
is small so that the effect of the trailing vortices at the three planes is practically constant.
Then, ahead of the airscrew (plane 1), Figure 5.8: General blade element
(b   )  0
Q
That is,  R sin(   ) (5.27)
b r
V (1  a)
Behind the airscrew (plane 3), if  is the angular velocity of the flow, tan   (5.28)
  (b   )  2b r (1  b)
Thus the angular velocity of the flow behind the airscrew is twice the angular The efficiency of the element η1 is the ratio of useful power out to power in:
velocity in the airscrew plane. Note the similarity between this result and that for axial V T V cos(   )
1   (5.29)
velocity in the simple momentum theory. Q r sin(   )
5.4.2 Performance of a blade element Now, from the triangle of velocities and Eq. (5.28),
Consider an element of length r and chord c at radius r of an airscrew blade. V 1 b
This element has a speed in the plane of rotation of r . The flow is itself rotating in the  tan 
r 1 a
same plane and sense at b , and thus the speed of the element relative to the air in this
Whence, by Eq. (5.29),
plane is r (1  b ) . If the airscrew is advancing at a speed ofV , the velocity through the
disc isV (1  a ) , a being the inflow at radius r . Note that, in this theory, it is not necessary
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 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory

1b tan  q  C L sin(   ) (5.36)

1  (5.30)
1  a tan(   ) which leads to
Let the solidity of the annulus σ be defined as the ratio of the total area of blade in the dQ
 r 2q VR2 total (5.37a)
annulus to the total area of annulus. Then dr
Bc r Bc 1
  (5.31)  Bcr VR2q total (5.37b)
2r r 2r 2
where B is the number of blades. 1
Now  cr VR2q per blade (5.37c)
2
1 The quantities dT / dr and dQ / dr are known as thrust grading and torque
 L  Bc r V 2C (5.32a)
2 R L grading, respectively. Consider now the axial momentum of the flow through the annulus.
1 Thrust T is equal to the product of the rate of mass flow through the element and the
 D  Bcr VR2C D (5.32b)
2 change in the axial velocity, T  m V . Now
From Fig. 5.8, m =area of annulus  velocity through annulus  density
T   L cos    D sin   (2r r )[V (1  a )]
1  2r rV (1  a )
 Ber VR2(C L cos   C D sin )
2 V  VS V  V (1  2a ) V  2aV
Therefore, Whence
dT 1 T  2r rV 2 2a(1  a )
 Bc VR2 (C L cos   C D sin )
dr 2 (5.33) Giving
1 2
 2r  VR (C L cos   C D sin ) dT
2  4 rV 2a(1  a ) (5.38)
Bearing in mind Eq. (5.24), Eq. (5.33) may be written as dr
Equating Eqs. (5.38) and (5.35a) and also using Eq. (5.25) leads to
dT
 r VR2C L (cos   tan  sin  ) 4rV 2a(1  a )  r t V 2(1  a )2 cos ec 2
dr
 r VR2C L sec (cos  cos   sin  sin  )
Whence
a 1
Now, for moderate incidences of the blade section, tan  is small, about 0.02. That   cos ec 2 (5.39)
1 a 4
is, L / D  50 , and therefore sec   1 . In this case the previous equation may be written In the same way, by considering the angular momentum,
as
Q  m r 2
dT
 r VR2C L cos(   ) Where  is the change in angular velocity of the air on passing through the airscrew.
dr Then
Let
Q  (2r r ) V (1  a ) (2b)r 2 (5.40)
t  C L cos(   ) (5.34)  
Whence
Then
dQ
dT  4 r 3Vb(1  a ) (5.41)
 r t VR2 for the aircrew (5.35a) dr
dr
Substituting for VR , as given in Eq. (5.25), this becomes
1
 Bc VR2t for the aircrew (5.35b) dQ
2  r 2 V (1  a )cos ec  r (1  b )sec   q
1 dr
 c VR2t per blade (5.35c) Equating the expressions for dQ / dr , we get
2
Similarly, b 1 1
 q cos ec sec   q cos ec 2 (5.42)
Q 1 b 4 2
 L sin   D cos 
r The local efficiency of the blade at element 1 is found as follows:
whence, using Eq. (5.32a,b), dT
Q 1 Useful power output  V T  V r
 2r 2 VR2(C L sin   C D cos ) dr
dr 2
Let
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 13 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 14
 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory

dQ W  AV0 (VS V )  AVV (5.44)

Power input  2n Q  2n r 0 S
dr Since V  0 . VS is the slipstream velocity and V0 is the velocity at the disc. The
Therefore
general momentum theory shows that
V dT / dr
1  1
2n dQ / dr V0  (V  V ) (E.q (5.8))
2 S
1 1
V 2t  VS
V 2r  2 R in this case
 (5.43) 2
2n 2r 2 1
V 2q or
2 R VS  2V0
V t
 which, substituted in Eq. (5.44), gives
2nr q
W  2AV02 (5.46)
which is an alternative to Eq. (5.30).
With these expressions, we can evaluate dT / dr and dQ / dr at several radii of an that is,
airscrew blade given blade geometry and section characteristics, forward and rotational V0  W / 2A (5.47)
speeds, and air density. Then, by plotting dT / dr and dQ / dr against radius r and Defining the effective disc loading lde as
measuring the areas under the curves, we can estimate total thrust and torque for each
W
blade and for the entire airscrew. In the design of a blade, this is the usual first step. With lde  (5.48)
A
both thrust and torque grading known, the blades, deflection, and twist under load can be
where  is the relative density of the atmosphere,
calculated. This furnishes new values of  along the blade that we use to repeat the
process until we reach our desired accuracy. W W 1 1
  l
A further point to note is that portions of the blade toward the tip may attain 2A A 2  20 de
appreciable Mach numbers-large enough for the effects of compressibility to become 0 being sea-level standard density. Then
important. The principal effect of compressibility in this connection is its effect on the
lift-curve slope of the airfoil section. Provided that the Mach number of the relative flow V0  lde / 20 (5.49)
does not exceed about 0.75, the effect on the lift-curve slope may be approximated by the The power supplied is equal to the rate of increase of kinetic energy of the air:
Prandtl-Glauert correction, which states that, if the lift-curve slope at zero Mach number 1
P AV0(VS2 V 2 )
(i.e., in incompressible flow) is a 0 , the lift-curve slope at a subsonic Mach number M is 2
aM , where 1
P V V 2A  2AV03 (5.50)
2 0 S
a0
aM  Substituting for V0 from Eq. (5.47) leads to
1M2 3/2
 W  W3
If the Mach number does not exceed about 0.75, as stated, the effect of P  2A    (5.51a)
compressibility on section drag is very small. If the Mach number of any part of the blade  2A  2A
exceeds the value just given, although the exact value depends on the profile and
lde
thickness-to-chord ratio of the blade section, that part of the blade loses lift and its drag W (5.51b)
rises sharply, leading to a very marked loss in overall efficiency and increased noise. 20
5.5 The momentum theory applied to the helicopter rotor This is the power that must be supplied to the ideal actuator disc. A real rotor
In most, but not all, states of helicopter flight, the effect of the rotor may be requires considerably greater power.
approximated by replacing it with an ideal actuator disc to which the simple momentum
theory applies. More specifically, momentum theory may be used for
translational-forward, sideways, or rearward-flight, climb, and slow descent under power
and hovering.
5.5.1 Actuator disc in hovering flight
In steady hovering flight, the speed of the oncoming stream well ahead of (i.e.,
above) the disc is zero, while the thrust equals the helicopter weight, ignoring any
down-ward force by down flow from the rotor acting on the fuselage or other part of the
craft. If the weight is W and the rotor area is A, and using the normal notation of the
momentum theory, with  as the air density,
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 15 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 16
 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory

W
vv  (5.52a)
2AU
1
V 2AC D C
vh  2  DV2 (5.54a)
2AU 4U
Then, from Eq. (5.53),
2
U  V 2  2Vvh  vh2  vv2
Substituting for vv and vh then multiplying by U 2 gives
2
1 1  W 
U 4 U 2V 2  C DUV 3  C D2V 4   
2 16  2A 
Figure 5.9: Actuator disc in hovering flight
5.5.2 Vertical climbing flight Introducing the effective disc loading lde from Eq. (5.48) leads to
The problem of vertical climbing flight is identical to the problem in Section 5.1. The 2
1 1  l 
thrust is equal to the helicopter weight plus the air resistance of the fuselage or other parts U 4 U 2V 2  C DUV 3  C D2V 4   de  (5.57)
2 16  20 
of the craft to the vertical motion, with the oncoming stream speed V equal to the rate of
climb of the helicopter. which is a quartic equation for U in terms of given quantities. Since, from Eq. (5.56),
5.5.3 Slow, powered descending flight then
In this case, the air approaches the rotor from below and its momentum decreases on 1 1
passing through the disc. The associated loss of its kinetic energy appears as a power
P
2

AU (U 12 V 2 )  AU 4Vvh  4vh2  4vv2
2

input to the ideal actuator, which therefore acts as a windmill. A real rotor, however, must  2
1 1 V4 1  l  
be driven by the engine unless the rate of descent is high. This case, for the ideal actuator  2A  C DV 3  C D2   de   (5.58)
disc, may be treated by the methods of Section 5.1 with the appropriate changes in sign: 4 16 U U  20  
 
V positive,VS  V0  V , p1  p2 , and thrust T  W . which, with the value of U calculated from Eq. (5.57) and the given quantities, may be
5.5.4 Translational helicopter flight used to calculate the power required.
We assume that the effect of the actuator disc in approximating the rotor is to add
incremental velocities vv and vh vertically and horizontally, respectively, at the disc.
We further assume, in accordance with the simple axial momentum theory of Section 5.1,
that, in the slipstream well behind the disc, these incremental velocities increase to 2vv
and 2vh , respectively. The resultant speed through the disc is denoted U ; the resultant
speed in the fully developed slipstream, U 1 . Then, by considering vertical momentum,
W  AU (2vv )  2AUvv (5.52)
Also, from the vector addition of velocities,
U 2  (V  vh )2  (vv )2 (5.53)
where V is the speed of horizontal flight. By consideration of horizontal momentum,
1
V 2AC D  2AUvh (5.54)
2
where C D is the drag coefficient of the fuselage, based on the rotor area A.
Power input equals rate of increase of kinetic energy:
1 Figure 5.10: Helicopter translational flight
P AU (U 12 V 2 ) (5.55) 5.6 Hovercraft
2
and, from the vector addition of velocities, In conventional winged aircraft, lift, associated with circulation around the wings, is
U 12  (V  2vh )2  (2vv )2
used to balance the weight. For helicopters, the “wings” rotate but the lift generation is
(5.56)
the same. A radically different principle is used for hovercraft. In machines of this type, a
The most useful solution of Eqs. (5.52) through (5.56) is obtained by eliminating U 1 , vh , more or less static region of air, at slightly more than atmospheric pressure, is formed and
and vv as follows. Rearranging (5.52) and (5.54), we get
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 17 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 18
 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory
maintained below the craft. The difference between the pressure of the air on the lower V 2t
side and the atmospheric pressure on the upper side produces a force that provides lift. ( pC  p0 )  (1  cos ) (5.73)
h
The trapped mass of air under the craft is formed by the effect of an annular jet of air, The lift LC due to the cushion of air on a circular body of radius r is then
directed inward and downward from near the periphery of the underside. The downward
ejection of the annular jet produces an upward reaction on the craft, lifting it. In steady r 2V 2t
LC  r 2( pC  p0 )  (1  cos  ) (5.74)
hovering, the weight is balanced by the jet thrust and the force due to the cushion of air h
below. The difference between a hovercraft and a normal jet-lift machine lies in the air The direct lift due to the downward ejection of the jet is
cushion effect, which amplifies the vertical force available, permitting the direct jet thrust Lj  Vt 2rV sin   2r V 2t sin  (5.75)
to be only a small fraction of the craft’s weight. The cushion effect requires that the and thus the total lift is
craft’s hovering height/diameter ratio be small (e.g., 1/50), and this severely limits the  
r
attainable altitude. L  r V 2t 2 sin   (1  cos ) (5.76)
 h 
Consider the simplified system of Fig. 5.9, which shows a hovercraft with a circular  
planform of radius r, hovering a height h above a flat, rigid horizontal surface. An annular If the craft is remote from any horizontal surface, such as the ground or sea, so that
jet of radius r, thickness t, velocity V, and density  is ejected at an angle  to the the air cushion has negligible effect, the lift derives only from the direct jet thrust, with
horizontal surface. It is directed inward but, in a steady equilibrium state, must turn to the maximum value Ljo  2rpV 2t when   90o . Thus the lift amplification factor
flow outward as shown. L / Lio is
If it did not, there would be a continuous increase in mass within the region C, which
is impossible. Note that such an increase of mass occurs for a short time immediately L r
 sin   (1  cos ) (5.77)
after starting, while the air cushion builds up. The curvature of the path of the air jet Ljo 2h
shows that it possesses a centripetal acceleration, which is produced by a difference Differentiation with respect to  shows that this has a maximum value when
between the pressure pC within the air cushion and the atmospheric pressure p0 . 2h
tan   (5.78)
r
Since machines of this type operate under conditions such that h is very small
compared to r, it follows that maximum amplification is achieved when  is close to
zero-that is, the jet is directed radially inward. Then, with the approximations
sin   0, cos   1 ,
L h
 (5.79)
Ljo r
and
r r 2r 2V 2t
L Ljo  2r V 2t  (5.80)
h h h
Note that the direct jet lift is now negligible.
Figure 5.9: Simplified hovercraft system. The power supplied is equal to the kinetic energy contained in the jet per unit time, which
Consider a short peripheral length s of the annular jet and assume is
1. That the pressure is constant over the depth h of the air cushion. 1
2. That the speed V of the annular jet is unchanged throughout the motion. 2r VtV 2  r V 3t (5.81)
2
Then the rate of mass flow within the element of peripheral length s is Vt s kg.s 1  . Denoting this P, combining Eqs. (5.80) and (5.81), and setting lift L equal to weight W,
 
This mass has an initial momentum parallel to the rigid surface (or ground) of we get
Vt sV cos   V 2t cos s inward. P Vh

After turning to flow radially outward, the air has a momentum parallel to the W 2r
as the minimum power necessary for sustentation, while, if   0 , then
ground of Vt sV  V 2r s . Therefore, the rate of change in momentum parallel to the
P Vh
ground is V 2t(1  cos )s . This is due to the pressure difference (pC  p0 ) and must, 
W r (1  cos  )
indeed, be equal to the force exerted on the jet by this pressure difference, parallel to the ignoring a term involving sin  . Thus, if V is small and if h is small compared to r, it
ground, which is (pC  p0 )h s . Thus becomes possible to lift the craft with comparatively low power.
(pC  p0 )h s  V 2t (1  cos  )s The foregoing analysis for hovering flight involves a number of simplifying
or assumptions. The first is that of a level, rigid surface below the machine. This is
Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 19 Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 20
 Lecture notes: Chapter 5 Propeller theory
reasonably accurate for operation over land but is not justified over water, when a
depression is formed in the water below the craft. Remember that the weight of the craft
is reacted by a pressure distributed over the surface below it, which leads to deformation
of a non-rigid surface.
Another assumption is that the pressure pC is constant throughout the air cushion.
In fact, mixing between the annular jet and the air cushion produces eddies, which cause
non-uniformity of the pressure within the cushion. The mixing referred to, together with
friction between the air jet and the ground (or water) leads to a loss of kinetic energy and
speed in the air jet, whereas it is assumed that the speed of the jet remains constant
throughout the motion. These effects produce only small corrections to the results of the
previous analysis.
If the power available is greater than necessary to sustain the craft at the selected
height h, the excess may be used either to raise the machine to a greater height or to
propel it forward.

Dr. Tran Tien Anh@HCMUT 21