Book 1 Module 15

CATEGORY B1.1 B1.3

THE JET ENGINE 1
PRINCIPLES LAWS DEFINITIONS
& GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS

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Licence By Post © Copyright B1.1 B1.3 EASA 66 15.1 to 15.7 ISSUE 08 1213
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AUTHORITY

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.

For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With special thanks to:

ROLLS ROYCE plc

ALLIED SIGNAL AEROSPACE

for permission to reproduce drawings.

CONTENTS

Page

Basic principles 1
The working cycle of the gas turbine 8
Definitions 12
Comparing the methods of propulsion 14
Thrust variations in flight 18
Trust forces in a typical jet engine 19
Engine power ratings 20
Air intakes 21
Compressors 28
Centrifugal compressors 29
Axial flow compressors 31
Axial flow compressor blades 35
Compressor developments 38
Ducted fans 40
Fan balancing 41
Combustion systems 44
Turbines 48
Nozzle guide vanes 49
The turbine disc 49
Turbine blades 49
Exhaust systems 54
Jet engine configuration 55
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

This book is written for the category B licensed engineer and applies to the
B1.1 (jet engined fixed wing aircraft) and B1.3 (jet engined helicopter) licences.

The syllabus is the same for both so that means that the rotorcraft person will
have to learn subjects that are not found on helicopters. It also means that if a
licensed helicopter person want to change and get a fixed wing licence then
he/she need not take the jet engine module exam again.

The helicopter/fixed wing person should have a thorough understanding the

jet engine to include the basic theory, laws, construction, operation and
maintenance.

Some topics such as burners, air bleed control, fuel systems, exhaust systems
etc are dealt with in more detail in later books in this series.

The complete LBP set of books cover the EASA Part 66 syllabus 15.1 to 15.22.

There are 9 books in this module 15 set.

There is no need to commit to memory details of any inventors/scientists.

These have been included for interest only.

As a general point, aircraft engines must meet the following EASA

specifications (Certification Specifications) before they can be certified for use:

* CS E - Engines.
* CS 34 - Aircraft engine emissions and fuel venting.
* CS 36 - Aircraft noise.
* CS APU - APUs.
* CS P - Propellers.
* CS 23 - Utility, aerobatic and commuter aircraft. Deals
with propeller clearances prop to airframe and
prop to ground.
* CS 25 - Large aircraft. As for CS 23.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES

To the casual observer, looking at a gas turbine engine and seeing very little
evidence of moving parts let alone visible means of drive, one could be excused
the thought, ‘how does it work?’ To understand the principle of jet propulsion,
it is first necessary to be aware of the laws of physics applicable to ‘masses
and gasses’.

Masses and Gases

Sir Isaac Newton (1642 to 1727) is deemed responsible for researching into the
forces acting on masses, and he produced a set of laws which replicated their
behaviour mathematically - known as Newton’s Laws of Motion.

QUESTION There are 3 of Newton’s Laws that you should remember. Can you
describe any of them? (15 mins)

ANSWER: A tricky question this one – and so early on in the book as well.

1st Law. An object will stay in a state of rest or uniform motion

unless acted on by an external force. Not particularly relevant to
jet engines – but the next two are.

2nd Law. This states that the force produced on an object is

proportional to the mass times the acceleration and can be written
as:

F α ma (α means ‘is proportional to’)

Using SI units it can be written as F = ma

Where F = force in Newton’s

m = mass in kgs
a = acceleration in m/s2

NOTE: To give you some idea of the actual values. If you held a
small apple in your hand it would produce a downward force of 1
Newton (1N) approximately. 1kg equals 2.2lbs – or about 10 small
apples. So the Newton is not very big.

3rd Law. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

(Every school boy’s – or school girl’s – favourite).

Now how to do these laws help us with the jet engine?

-1-
The action of the jet engine causes the air in front of it to be drawn into the
intake by the compressor and accelerated rearwards via the exhaust. This
rearward acceleration is produced by the burning of fuel in the combustion
chambers. Thus we have acceleration ‘a’ in Newton’s second law. The air leaves
the exhaust a great deal faster than it enters the intake.

Air has mass (1.2kg for each cubic metre at sea level) so we also have ‘m’ in
the equation F = ma. Thus we have force – but it is in the ‘wrong’ direction – it
is backwards.

Newton’s 3rd Law comes into play here – for every action (the backwards force)
there is an equal and opposite reaction (a forwards force acting on the engine).
So the rearwards force reacts on the engine (and airframe) to push them
forward and we have forward thrust.

Fig. 1 THRUST

QUESTION When the aircraft is stationary the air velocity in front of the jet
engine is zero – or nearly so. Can you see that a problem arises as
the forward speed of the aircraft increases? Can you describe
what it is? (10 mins)

ANSWER With an increase in forward speed of the aircraft the velocity of the
air in front of the jet engine gets greater, this means that the
acceleration between v (into the intake) and V (at the exhaust) is
less and the effectiveness of the engine decreases – except for a
phenomenon know as Ram Effect – at the intake which will be
looked at later.

Gas turbine engines invariably look very much like a combination of different
sized ducts. To understand how gasses behave when flowing through ducts it
is essential to think about the mass flow of the air in terms of lbs/sec or
kg/sec.

-2-
Consider an open-ended tube or duct through which flows a constant stream
of gas. The mass flow rate through the duct will be a constant value at any
point (this assumes the gas is travelling with a fixed density and velocity and is
incompressible).

The mass flow per second (mass flow rate) of the gas flowing through the duct
will depend on its density (mass per unit volume in kg/m3) and its volume
(cubic metres – m3).

The volume flow of gas = the cross sectional area of the duct (m2) x the
distance travelled (d) divided by the time (t) (d/t). But the distance travelled per
second = the velocity (v).

Therefore : THE MASS FLOW = DENSITY x AREA x VELOCITY

= ρ x A x v

where ρ = density in kg/m3 (pronounced ‘rho’)

A = cross sectional area of duct in m2
v = velocity in m/s

This is known as the Continuity Equation and is true for any steady flow
system in a duct regardless of cross-sectional area.

If an incompressible fluid flows through a duct (see figure 2), consisting of a

parallel section which changes shape to a divergent section, then as the fluid
enters the divergent duct it will take up the new shape and the initial volume
will now occupy less length. Therefore, in a given time, less distance is
travelled and the velocity has reduced. So if the mass flow is to remain
constant, as it must, an increase in duct area, (divergent duct) causes a
decrease in flow velocity, and a decrease in duct area (convergent duct) causes
an increase in flow velocity.

Of course, in a gas turbine engine the medium used is air, which is travelling
slower than the speed of sound (subsonic) and is therefore considered as
incompressible. This means that there is a relationship between the pressure
and the velocity of the gas flowing through the ducts in a gas turbine engine.

This relationship is stated in Bernoulli’s theorem (Daniel Bernoulli 1813 to

1878 Swiss mathematician). The theorem states that:

The total energy per unit mass of liquid or gas is constant for an
incompressible fluid moving inside a duct, and that the total energy consists of
Pressure Energy, Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy (provided there are no
losses).

As an equation is it written as: P + ρgh + ½ρV2 = C

-3-
 Where P = Pressure energy in Pa (Pascals).
ρ = Density in kg/m3 (air 1.2 kg/m2 at sea level).
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2).
h = Height from some datum in m.
V = Velocity in m/s.
C = A constant.

The first term is the pressure energy (P) or Ram Pressure. The second term is
the positional or potential energy (ρgh) and the third term is the kinetic energy
(½ρV2) or dynamic pressure energy.

Fig. 2 LIQUID/GAS FLOW THROUGH A DUCT

Pressure Energy

In a gas or liquid flow the pressure energy is called the static pressure and
would be the pressure experienced by a body submerged in the fluid flow and
moving with it at the same velocity (figure 3).

Kinetic Energy

Called Dynamic Pressure Energy and is created by the extra pressure caused
by the movement of the fluid flow coming to rest on the front face of an object
and is proportional to [½ density x velocity2 (½ρv2) (figure 3)].

Consider a horizontal duct which is filled with an incompressible fluid and

pressurised from one end by an external forced. The other end of the duct
sealed by a valve, which can be opened or closed. A pressure gauge is fitted to
indicate static pressure (Ps).

With the valve closed, static pressure energy and total energy are the same.
When the valve is opened the static pressure will drop and the dynamic
pressure will rise so that the total energy level will not change. Therefore an
increase in velocity results in a dynamic pressure increase and a static
pressure decrease with the total energy level remaining unchanged.

-4-
 Fig. 3 ENERGIES IN A GAS STREAM

Total Energy

This energy can be measured as a ram pressure and is usually called the total
head or Pitot pressure (PT) (Henri Pitot, French physicist 1695 – 1771). It is
measured by placing a ram tube (Pitot tube) in the fluid flow which is parallel
to the flow and the open end facing into the flow. A gauge connected to this
tube will show total head or Pitot pressure regardless of the rate of flow. Where
there is no fluid flow the static pressure (PS) and the total head pressure (PT)
will be the same. When there is fluid flow static pressure (PS) drops, dynamic
pressure rises with the total head pressure (PT) remaining the same (figure 4).

With reference to figure 5. Air entering the parallel section consists of air at
pressure P1 and velocity V1. As the air enters the divergent duct it will spread
out to occupy the increased area and will slow down to V2 (continuity
equation). The static pressure (PS) will increase to P2 (Bernoulli) and the
density will rise.

With jet pipes it is usual to have a short convergent duct called a propelling
nozzle to increase the velocity of the gas flow – to increase the thrust.

Fig. 4 PITOT & STATIC PRESSURES

-5-
 Fig. 5 FLUID FLOW

All of the above refers to gas or liquid flow where the medium is considered
incompressible (ie the velocity is subsonic for gases).

Probably the first laws concerned with gases are those of Boyle and Charles
(Robert Boyle British chemist 1627 to 1691. Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles
French physicist 1746 to 1823). They relate to the temperature and pressure
of a gas and temperature and volume respectively.

Boyle’s Law states that: If the temperature remains constant, the volume of a
given mass of gas varies inversely to its pressure. In other words considering a
mass of gas in a cylinder and piston arrangement, if the piston is pushed in to
halve the gas volume then its pressure will double.

P x V = a constant

Where P = pressure (Pa)

V = Volume (m3)

Charles Law states that: The volume of a given mass of gas increases by
1/273rd of its volume at 0°C for a rise of 1°C with the pressure kept constant.

These two laws are combined to give what is called the Ideal Gas Law. This law
can be written as:

P x V = R x T

Where P = Pressure (absolute pressure, which means gauge

pressure plus atmospheric pressure (14.7psi at sea
level).
V = Volume
R = Gas Constant
T = Temperature (absolute temperature in degrees K
[Kelvin])

-6-
The Convergent/Divergent Duct (figure 6)

For most aircraft jet engines the exhaust duct of the engine is a propelling
nozzle which is a short convergent duct which causes an increase in the gas
velocity. For rocket engines where supersonic flows are encountered a Con-Di
duct is used.

When gas flows faster than the speed of sound (supersonic velocity) through a
convergent duct, a shock wave forms at the entry area of the duct. This area is
now considered to be in a choked condition. The shock wave thus formed, will
provide a restriction to any subsequent increase in gas flow velocity and the
following will apply:

Pressure will increase.

Velocity will decrease.
Temperature will increase.

It can be seen that the flow behaves opposite to that experienced at subsonic
velocities where there is a pressure decrease, a velocity increase and a
temperature decrease.

Fig. 6 CONVERGENT – DIVERGENT NOZZLE

The change in velocity causes a reaction, which is felt on the walls of the
divergent part of the nozzle. This creates an increase in thrust, which is known
as Pressure Thrust.

-7-
 THE WORKING CYCLE OF A GAS TURBINE

As we have already seen the jet engine works by drawing air in at the front
using a compressor, adding fuel which is burnt, this accelerates the air
rearwards and produces thrust. As the air accelerates rearwards so some
energy is extracted by a turbine to drive the compressor and other devices
such as generators, hydraulic pumps etc. To produce more thrust, more fuel is
added which increases the gas stream velocity and hence increases the thrust.

By reference to figure 7 it can be seen that air is drawn from the atmosphere
(ambient air) into a compressor. The compressor raises the pressure of the air
(A to B) on the Pressure Volume graph. As the pressure of the air is increased
so the volume is decreased and the temperature is increased (adiabatic
compression*).

The air passes into the combustion chamber and is heated further by burning
fuel with a proportion of the air. From the graph (B to C) it is seen that
combustion takes place at (nearly) constant pressure. There is in fact about a
3% lose but it is considered as constant pressure. This thermodynamic cycle is
known as a Constant Pressure Cycle. Also known as the Brayton Cycle or
Open Cycle.

In the combustion chamber the air expands rearwards as the volume of the
gas increases and the gas kinetic energy increases. The gas flow passes to the
turbine section to drive the turbine(s). At the turbine/s energy is extracted to
drive the compressor (and accessories) and the gas pressure decreases and the
temperature drops (adiabatic expansion*).

The gas passes to the exhaust unit via the propelling nozzle which forms a
convergent duct and the velocity of the gas increases. The reaction to the high
velocity jet produces thrust (C to D).

This cycle is very similar to a four stroke piston engine, the difference being
that in a gas turbine engine combustion occurs at a constant pressure and is
continuous, whereas in a piston engine combustion occurs at a constant
volume and is intermittent.

Study figure 7 and note the thrust distribution throughout the engine (values
are for this engine, other engines will be different) as well as the pressure and
temperature variations of the gas from inlet to exhaust.

* An adiabatic compression/expansion is a process where there is no heat

given out or received by a system. For example; take a piston and cylinder
arrangement. Push the piston quickly into the cylinder and the air in the
cylinder will get warm due to the compression. This is an adiabatic
compression. Push the piston slowly into the cylinder and any heat generated
will have time to conduct away through the walls of the cylinder and it does
not get warm. This is called an isothermal compression – heat is given off by
the system.

-8-
 Fig. 7 WORKING CYCLE OF A GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Figure 8 shows the details of the gas flow through a high by-pass engine, in
this case the three spool RB211 (more of this later). Note the general similarity
of the properties of the gas flow of the conventional jet engine to the hot stream
flow of the Fan Engine. Note how the pressure and temperature rises steadily
across each compressor with a rapid rise in temperature at the burner. Note
the rapid changes in velocity across the turbines. Note the three separate
spools of the fan-jet, each running at an rpm independent of the others.

-9-
Fan engines are more efficient than conventional jet engines with about 80% of
the thrust being obtained from the fan (more of this later).

Fig. 8 HIGH BY-PASS RATIO ENGINE

- 10 -
Thrust

Jet reaction is an internal phenomenon and is not, as sometimes assumed, the

result of the jet efflux impinging upon the atmosphere (provided a continuous
supply of air could be put in the intake of a jet engine it would work perfectly
well in space). The jet engine is designed to accelerate a stream of air from a
low (or nearly stationary) velocity to a high velocity and thus obtain thrust
from the reaction.

There are many ways of increasing the velocity of the air, but in all cases the
resultant reaction is the propulsive thrust exerted on the engine. The thrust
obtained is proportional to the mass of air passing through the engine and to
the velocity increase of that mass – ie the momentum. Momentum = mass x
velocity. Thus, the same amount of propulsive thrust can be obtained by
either:

* Accelerating a large mass through a small increase in velocity.

* Accelerating a small mass through a large increase in velocity.

A jet engine produces thrust in a similar manner to a propeller. The propeller

gives a large mass of air a small acceleration while the turbine engine gives a
greater acceleration to a smaller mass of air.

The thrust obtained from a jet engine is expressed as an equation:

T = m(V0 – Vi)

Where T = Thrust (may be expressed as lbs force or Newtons (N).

m = Mass air flow (lb or kg).
V0 = Velocity of the gases at the nozzle outlet (m/s).
Vi = Velocity of the air at the intake (m/s).

From this expression it can be seen that the amount of thrust obtained
depends on the mass flow passing through the engine and the difference
between the inlet and outlet velocities.

Any rise in mass flow, or a wider difference in velocity, will give a greater
reactive thrust.

The mass flow through a stationary engine is governed by the speed of rotation
of the engine. The higher the rpm the greater the mass flow. The velocity
difference (V0 –Vi) will vary with the heat energy input and will be limited by
the maximum temperature the engine components can withstand.

When the engine is moving forward the thrust will decrease because, although
the outlet velocity V0 remains the same, the intake velocity Vi rises, so
reducing the velocity difference.

- 11 -
This drop in thrust continues as the speed of the aircraft increases until Ram
Effect starts to make it-self felt. This will cause an increase in the mass flow
rate.

In a jet engine the compressor can be considered an ‘air pump’ and at any
specified rpm throughout the range of operation the volume of air being
moved, ie the mass flow, will be a definite amount. The mass of this amount of
air will be affected by its density (mass per unit volume). Factors which can
affect the density are as follows:

1. Compressor Air Inlet Temperature – An increased temperature

reduces air density (ρ).
2. Compressor Air Inlet Pressure – An increased pressure increases
air density.
3. Humidity – An increased humidity reduces air density. This is a
small factor as compared to the temperature and pressure
changes.
4. Ram Pressure – An increased ram pressure increases air density.
Ram is due to the aircraft forward speed. With forward speed the
air tends to ‘ram’ itself into the intake. Air temperature and air
pressure increase as ram increases, but the increase in pressure
has a considerably greater effect on increasing air density than
the temperature increase has in reducing it.

As altitude increases, thrust decreases due to decreasing air density. The

overall efficiency, however, increases slightly because the air entering the
engine is colder (denser) and the power absorbed by the compressor is
correspondingly reduced.

DEFINITIONS

The following definitions should be committed to memory.

Engine Thrust. In simple terms it is the product of the change in velocity of the
gas stream and the total mass of the air taken in.

Thrust = Mass x (Velocity out – Velocity in) = N

Thrust Horse Power (thp). The thrust in lbs of a turbo jet engine is relatively
simple to work out, but to make comparisons with other types of power units,
such as turbo props, which are rated in shaft horsepower (shp), needs a
conversion factor. To convert thrust (a force) to horsepower (work) needs a
conversion formula. The airspeed needs to be taken into consideration, so it is
derived from the actual thrust of the engine at a specific airspeed:

thp = FV
550 ft/sec

- 12 -
 Where F = thrust of engine in lbs
V = aircraft’s speed in ft/sec

Since 1 horsepower is equal to 550 ft lbs/sec and 550 ft/sec is equal to 325
knots, then 1 lb of thrust equals 1 thp at 325 knots (kts).

Example: An engine produces 5,000 lbs of thrust at 550 kts. Find the thp.

thp = 5000lbs x 550kts

325kts

= 8461 lbs

Shaft Horse Power (shp). For turbo-prop engines power is calculated by taking
Brake Horse Power (bhp) or Shaft Horse Power (shp) and multiplying by the
propeller efficiency plus an allowance for residual thrust in the exhaust.

As the power from a turbo prop engine is dependent on the Torque produced
in the shaft then the power equation is worked out as:

Power = 2πNT

Where π = 3.142
N = rpm
T = torque

To work out the horse power from the above the equation is:

2πNT
33000

Equivalent Shaft Horse Power (eshp). For a turbo prop engine there will
normally be some residual thrust in the jet efflux and provided it is directed
backwards it will help in propelling the aircraft forward. It may only account
for up to 10% of the total thrust but when added to the thrust produced by the
propeller the ehsp is arrived at. This means:

eshp = shp + residual jet thrust (jt)

To calculate accurately the propulsive force available the efficiency (η) of the
propeller must be taken into account and this percentage multiplied by the
shp: eshp = (shp × η) + jt

Net Thrust (Tn). Is the effective thrust of a jet engine which is equal to the
change in momentum of all the masses (air, gas and fuel etc) passing through
the engine, plus the extra aerodynamic thrust generated in the nozzle with the
engine operating with the nozzle in the choked condition.

- 13 -
Gross Thrust. Is that developed by the jet engine in ideal conditions not
allowing for any losses. Losses are due to intake momentum drag, propeller
slipstream drag (turbo-prop engines), inlet shock loses, duct losses, jet pipe
losses, torque effects and any other losses.

Momentum Drag. Drag due to change in the momentum of that part of the air
entering the intake laterally. That is any side-ways movement of the air as it
enters the intake (there is always some).

Flat Rated Thrust. There are two definitions for this, the first one is associated
with throttle settings at low altitudes and the second one is associated with
throttle settings at low temperatures. In each case the engine is throttled or
otherwise restricted in power output.

In the first case the engine set to a particular throttle setting and then is able
to produce a constant and predicable power output at all flight levels up to a
given altitude. In the second case the engine is able to produce a constant and
predicable power output at all temperatures up to a given limit.

COMPARING THE METHODS OF PROPULSION

The Propeller

The energy required to drive a propeller comes from an engine. The engine
burns fuel and converts this chemical energy to mechanical energy. The engine
may be a jet engine or a piston engine. At low aircraft speeds the propeller is
able to convert this energy into propulsive thrust very efficiently, but as the
aircraft speed increases its ability to do this falls and its efficiency drops
(figure 9).

The combined effect of the drag law (drag is related to the squire of speed) and
poor high-speed performance of the propeller creates the situation that if, for
example, the aircraft’s speed is doubled, then the thrust required to overcome
the drag would have to increase four-fold.

With a four-fold increase in thrust the mechanical energy required to drive the
propeller would need to increase eight-fold. This is a massive power
requirement which, as aircraft got faster (during the 1930s/40s) meant that
engine size could no longer cope.

The propeller efficiency is at its maximum at just over 300mph with the
practical top speed of a propeller driven aircraft being in the region of 400mph
(644 km/hr).

- 14 -
The Jet Engine

The jet engine heats the air passing through it by burning fuel to increase the
energy and momentum of the air stream, thus converting the chemical energy
of the fuel into mechanical work on the aircraft.

As the aircraft’s speed is increased (beyond a certain point), the mass of air
entering the engine will increase because of the ram effect. Thrust will increase
with an increase in mass airflow and so the performance of the jet engine
actually improves with increasing airspeed.

Aircraft speeds at below about 400mph can best be achieved, as far as

efficiency is concerned, using the propeller, but for speeds above this it is more
practical to use the jet engine.

The Open Rotor Engine

Yet to be fitted to current aircraft but is in the development stage for future
use.

Sometimes called the Un-ducted Fan (UDF) engine and is not unlike a ultra
high bypass jet engine with the fan casing removed (figure 9). The advantage of
the engine is its increase in fuel efficiency (about 30% fuel saving). It has
several disadvantages:

* Noise. Currently it can be much noisier than current engines to

include a different noise frequency. To help reduce noise front and
rear blades may be of different lengths; they maybe curved (swept)
and the number of blades reduced (increased gap lengths). The
blades maybe also be cropped to help reduce noise levels.
* Blade mechanical separation. Current jet engine front fans have to
meet specifications that ensure that any blades that come
detached during flight do not penetrate the cabin and any other
critical parts of the airframe (fuel tanks for example).
* Use in existing aircraft. Because of its radically different design it
cannot replace the conventional jet engine in existing aircraft. The
airframe will have to be specifically designed for open rotor engine.

The engine may consist of a single open rotor or double contra-rotating rotors.

Engines may be “pusher” (blades at the rear) or “puller” (blades at the front).

- 15 -
 Fig. 9 A PUSHER OPEN ROTOR ENGINE

Propulsive Efficiency

Propulsive efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the power available

to do useful work in propelling a body, to the power supplied, ie:

POWER OUT
POWER IN expressed as a percentage

Fig. 9 GRAPH OF PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY

- 16 -
Propulsive efficiency can be simplified as the ratio of exhaust gas velocity to air
inlet velocity. This is to say, when the difference between the two is very large,
the propulsive efficiency is low (there is a high wastage rate of Kinetic Energy).

When the air inlet velocity (speed of the aircraft) is nearly the same as the
exhaust gas velocity, the propulsive efficiency is high (little wastage of Kinetic
Energy).

The propulsive efficiency of a jet engine is given by the equation:

PE = 2VA
VA + VJ

Where PE = Propulsive efficiency

VA = Velocity of the aircraft
VJ = Velocity of the jet efflux

A propeller driven aircraft using a given power setting will have a varying
efficiency depending on forward speed, it is also limited by altitude and
propeller tip speed. A jet engine, for a given thrust increases its efficiency with
an increase in speed. The efficiency is shown graphically in figure 9.

This figure shows that the propeller driven aircraft has a maximum speed of
about 600mph, and up to about 500mph has a higher efficiency than the jet
engine, with its peak in efficiency at about 350mph.

The jet engine has poor efficiency at low speeds, but the efficiency picks up as
the speed increases and does not fall off with an increase in altitude as is the
case with the propeller.

So as the drag of an aircraft decreases with altitude (as does lift), the same
speed can be maintained with less thrust and hence less fuel requirement.

Thermal Efficiency

This is the ratio of the net work produced by an engine to the value of the fuel
energy input. It is established by calculation.

Overall Efficiency

The overall efficiency of an engine and is calculated by multiplying the

Propulsive Efficiency (PE) by the Thermal Efficiency (TE). For example, if an
engine had a PE of 70% and a TE of 40% then the Overall Efficiency would be:

70% × 40% = 70 × 40 = 2800 = 28 = 28%

100 100 10000 100

- 17 -
In general PE increases as the aircraft airspeed approaches the exhaust gas
velocity and TE reduces as airspeed rises due to increasing drag. Overall
Efficiency increases with increased airspeed because of the sharper rise in PE.

Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) (symbol ‘c’)

Sometimes called the Engine Mans Efficiency. It is a measure of the efficiency

an engine. It compares the amount of fuel consumed to the thrust produced
per unit time.

For jet engines it can be expressed as pounds of fuel consumed per hour per
pound of net thrust produced in standard atmospheric conditions (ISA –
International Standard Atmosphere) (SFC = lb/hr fuel consumption per lb
thrust).

The SI unit for jet engines is milligrammes per Newton second (mg/Ns) with
the imperial unit being lb/h/lb (lbs of fuel used per hour per lb of thrust
produced). For turbo prop/turbo shaft engines the unit is lb/h/hp with the SI
unit being micrograms per joule (µg/J). Note that hp could read shp.

Initially, as speed increases so SFC falls (which is good), but as speed

continues to increase further then it will start to rise.

In simple terms SFC = FUEL BURNT so the lower it is the better.

THRUST PRODUCED

Engine Compression Ratio

This is the ratio between compressor outlet pressure and compressor inlet
pressure. For centrifugal compressors this is usually about 5:1 but may be as
high as 10:1. Axial compressors it start at about 8:1 and go as high as 30:1 (or
higher). The higher the ratio the better. Efficiencies are in the range of 80%.

THRUST VARIATIONS IN FLIGHT

Temperature

With a decrease in temperature the density increases (greater mass) and the
thrust increases (with all other parameters remaining constant). This means
that, for example, in very hot countries, if taking off with a particularly heavy
aircraft it is often done at night when the temperature is lower.

- 18 -
Altitude

With an increase in altitude the temperature drops as does the pressure and
density (module 8), but pressure and density drop quicker than the
temperature in general terms so with an increase in altitude the thrust
decreases (all other parameters remaining constant).

Airspeed

As the speed increases above about 200kts so ram effect starts to take effect
and the more ram effect the better. Intakes designed to promote Ram Recovery
causes the local intake pressure to be above ambient.

THRUST FORCES IN A TYPICAL JET ENGINE

Using an axial flow engine as an example, we will now consider the thrust
forces from inlet to exhaust (from air intake to propelling nozzle). Bear in mind
the purpose of the convergent and divergent ducts in the engine, the forces
are, in effect, the gas load resulting from the pressure and momentum changes
of the gas stream acting on the various parts of the engine. Some forces act
forward (good) and others at rearwards (bad). The amount that the forward
forces exceed the rearward forces is known as the rated thrust of the engine.

Air is induced into the engine and compressed (figure 10). The pressure rise
produces a large reactive force in the forward direction. The air passes through
a diffuser which converts kinetic energy to pressure energy – a small reactive
force is produced in the forward direction.

Fig. 10 THRUST FORCES IN A GAS TURBINE ENGINE

- 19 -
The air then passes into the combustion chamber, where fuel is burnt, and the
air expands. This produces a large forward force on the combustion chamber
head and walls. When the expanding gases leave the combustion chambers
they pass through the nozzle guide vanes and are accelerated and deflected
onto the turbine blades.

Because of the acceleration, deflection and subsequent straightening of the gas

flow to enter the jet pipe, a considerable amount of drag is created.

The nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades are subjected to large rearward
forces. As the gas flow passes through the exhaust system a small forward
force may act on the exhaust cone, but in general only rearward forces are
produced due to the drag of the gas flow at the propelling nozzle. During the
passage of air through the engine, changes occur in the velocity and pressure.

Where conversion from kinetic energy to pressure energy occurs the duct is
divergent in shape – as in the compressor diffuser. Conversely, where it is
required to convert the energy stored in the combustion gases into velocity, a
convergent duct or nozzle, similar to that in the turbine, is used.

When the conversion is to velocity energy, drag loads are produced (rearward
forces). Where the conversion is to pressure energy forward forces are
produced.

ENGINE POWER RATINGS

Certain terms are used called ‘Ratings’ to designate various engine settings
under various operating conditions. Some or all of these are specified in
manufacturer’s manuals, manufacturer’s literature, log books, type
certification data sheets etc.

Jet engines are thrust rated in terms of EPR (engine pressure ratio – in basic
terms a ratio between intake and exhaust pressure [more later]) or fan speed.
Turbo-shaft and turbo-prop engines are rated in terms of SHP.

The manufacturer must demonstrate to the CAA or the civil aviation authority
in the country of manufacture that the engine performs to the designated
thrust ratings for the specified time before engine certification clearance. These
ratings will be found on the Type Certification Data Sheets.

Flat Rating

This is where the engine is (normally) down rated (throttled or otherwise

restricted) at a set altitude so that it can give predictable power at all flight
levels up to a given limit (eg 40,000lb at 60°F). Above this temperature,
sometimes known as the Kick Point of Corner Point the engine will exceed its
egt limit and the engine will work temperature limited.

- 20 -
Flat rating can also apply when the engine is restricted in a cold climate to give
predictable power up to a certain temperature in more warmer climes (eg Flat
Rated to 29°C).

Take-off Dry Thrust/SHP Rating

Rating for maximum power available without water injection at take-off. Is

time limited and engine trimmed to this rating.

Take-off Wet Thrust/SHP Rating

Similar to above but used for take-off when water injection is selected.

Maximum Continuous Thrust/SHP Rating

Has no time limit and used only in emergency situations at the discretion of
the pilot. For example, if there is a one engine out situation on a multi engined
aircraft during cruise.

Maximum Climb Thrust/SHP Rating

Used for normal climb to cruise altitude or to other altitude and not time
limited.
Maybe the same as Maximum Continuous Rating.

Maximum Cruise Thrust/SHP Rating

Used for cruise without time limit at the discretion of the pilot.

Idle Speed

Not actually a Power Rating but is the lowest thrust setting for either ground
or flight operations.

AIR INTAKES

The purpose of an air intake is to deliver sufficient air to the compressor at a

velocity and pressure that the compressor can accept. When we consider the
ideal velocity of air passing through a compressor is in the region of 0.4M. At
sea level *Mach 0.4 is equal to about 0.4 x 762mph = 305mph (0.4 x 1226
km/hr = 490 km/hr).

- 21 -
When the aircraft flies faster than this the velocity of the air passing through
the intake has to be reduced to M = 0.4. This means that the shape of the
intake for aircraft flying slower than the speed of sound is normally a divergent
duct (figure 11).

*Named after Ernst Mach Austrian physicist 1838-1916.

For aircraft flying faster than the speed of sound the intake is designed to
produce shock waves to reduce the airspeed to 0.4M.

Fig. 11 TYPICAL SUBSONIC AIR INTAKE

The type of intake used will depend on the engine location and speed range of
the aircraft. Engine locations may be external or internal to the airframe.

External engines are usually podded and may be attached to the underside of
the wing with a pylon, such as the A320, B747, A380 etc. In some cases they
may be attached on the top side of the wing, on a short pylon, such as on the
Antonov AN-72 and later blended wing aircraft (figure 13). This may help
reduce the noise footprint on take-off, give the engine intakes clearance above
the water on seaplanes and give a high thrust line for aerodynamic reasons.

Engines placed above the wing at the trailing edge will also help the airflow to
speed-up over the wing helping in the production of lift.

Wing mounted podded engines are usually spaced out along the wing to
provide bending relief to the wing main spar. Effectively bending relief means
putting the weight where the lift is, so the centre of lift of the wing, when
viewed from the front, is about one third to half way along the single span so
the engines are spaced out along this length.

Engines may be attached to the fuselage such as the Gulfstream, Boeing 727
and the VC10. They may be attached to the fin such as the DC10 (MD11).

- 22 -
Fig. 12 ENGINE & INTAKE LOCATION

Fig. 13 BLENDED WING AIRCRAFT

- 23 -
Internal engines may be buried in the wing – such as the Comet (Nimrod) with
the intakes forming part of the leading edge of the wing. They may be buried
in the fuselage – such as the Tri-Star where engine number 2 is fitted inside
the rear of the fuselage aft of the rear toilets with the intake on top of the
fuselage just forward of the fin (figure 12).

Most helicopter engines are fitted above the cabin/cockpit and their intakes
face forward above the cabin (there may be one or more engines). Their
exhausts may be directed out sideways but if directed backwards will assist
with forward flight. There is very little thrust from the jet efflux as most of the
power is extracted to drive the rotors.

Podded engines have an advantage in that they are easier to service and
replace. Buried engines have access problems and are difficult to replace.

Intakes that are long or placed close to the fuselage have a problem with the
boundary layer air entering the intake.

QUESTION What is meant by Boundary Layer air (module 8)? (2 mins)

ANSWER It is a thin layer of sluggish, slow moving, low energy air close to
the aircraft skin which gets thicker as it moves further rearwards.
(1mm to a few cms deep).

Because the boundary layer has such low energy levels, and if the intake is a
long one or the intake is close to the fuselage (rear engine of the Tristar and
DC10 for example) then this layer must be prevented from entering the intake
as it will reduce the efficiency of the engine.

This means that engines placed close to the fuselage have their intakes
designed so they are away from the fuselage (from several inches to 2 or 3ft)
and in some aircraft the intake has a boundary layer bleed to duct the
boundary layer away from the engine to atmosphere.

Air intake design has a considerable influence on the efficiency of a gas

turbine engine and to a lesser extent it can affect the noise levels generated.

Once through the airframe mounted intake (made of aluminium alloy or

composite material – with anti-icing provision [more later and transducers
such as P1 probes, TAT probes etc [again more later]) the air now enters the
compressor of the engine via the intake casing, which is normally part of the
engine.

- 24 -
The most common type of air intake casing is a simple annular type, or Pitot
type, (figure 11) which ducts the air onto the first set of blades of an axial flow
compressor (or centrifugal compressor). It will be the diameter of the
compressor casing and may have hollow struts to support the compressor
front bearing. A starter fairing and nose cone may be fitted on older types of
engine. An anti-icing spinner may be fitted to the later type of gas turbine.

Provisions may also be made on the engine intake casing for the mounting of
airflow control devices to control the angle of the airflow at various operating
conditions.

On the older types of engines fitted with a centrifugal compressor a bifurcated

intake may be fitted, and for a two-sided compressor, a double entry casing
will be used.

Three types of air intake casing are shown in figure 14. The first is a bifurcated
intake where the engine is buried in the fuselage of a small aircraft (fighter)
and the intakes are positioned either side of the fuselage. The middle picture
shows a double entry intake for a centrifugal compressor. The air enters the
airframe intake, which is of normal circular construction and is allowed to
pass into the engine from either the front or rear intakes to be compressed by
a two sided centrifugal compressor.

The right hand drawing shows a more common intake, with the air passing
down a circular airframe intake into the axial compressor.

Engine intake casings may be made of cast aluminium alloy, rolled aluminium
alloy (rare) or cast magnesium alloy.

Fig. 14 TYPES OF ENGINE AIR INTAKE

- 25 -
Some Intake Definitions

Intake Momentum Drag. Drag due to change in momentum of air entering the
intake laterally. Increases with increase in forward speed. Sometimes called
Ram Drag.

Ram Ratio. The ratio of the Total Pressure at the intake entrance to the Static
Pressure at the compressor entrance.

Ram Recovery. Converting as much intake air velocity as possible to pressure

at the face of the compressor. If all the ram pressure is converted it is called
Total Pressure Recovery.

Ram Compression. This is the increase of pressure within the intake at high
speed. This causes a drag force which has to be accepted. Ram compression
improves engine performance and is dependent on:

* Intake design.
* Aircraft speed.
* The boundary layer related to intake air.
* Turbulence due to any projections in the intake (supports,
instrument sensing probes etc).
* Turbulence caused by propellers and spinner (on turbo-prop
engines).

Supersonic Intakes

Circular intakes perform well for aircraft operating up to supersonic speeds.

Above these speeds, however, shock waves will begin to form at the intake
entry point and engine performance can be drastically reduced.

At speeds up to about 1.4M the shock waves do not really have any effect on
the pressure recovery in the intake, as down stream of the normal shock wave,
the flow is always subsonic.

As the speed of the aircraft enters the higher supersonic regions however, the
subsonic Mach number behind the shock wave increases. At these higher
speeds the pressure recovery behind the shock waves drops off and methods
have to be employed to restore the performance of the intake.

For supersonic flight a variable geometry intake is used to produce the correct
shock waves at the different airspeeds (figure 15) so reducing the air velocity
behind them. At speeds below the speed of sound the intake is configured so
that it is more divergent with the throat area increased.

Because of this the intakes tend to be more ‘square’ in design to allow for the
mechanical moving parts to control the development of the shock-waves.

- 26 -
The variable geometry intake is designed to supply the engine with the correct
quantity of air at all times (there is usually too much at high speed for the
engine to cope with) and to reduce the air velocity to a subsonic value at the
compressor inlet so the compressor blades remain free of shock waves.

To carry out these functions the intake usually has controllable movable
ramps, ducts, auxiliary doors and subsonic diffusers. Figure 15 shows a
system based on Concorde (not in service now, but the only civil supersonic
airliner to be flown commercially).

In supersonic flight the ramp assembly is lowered to focus the pattern of shock
waves formed on the intake lip to obtain subsonic flow at the throat. Further
compression and reduction of air velocity is obtained in the subsonic diffuser.
Changes in engine airflow demand caused by changing ambient conditions are
met by spilling quantities of excess air over the intake lip. This ensures
maximum intake efficiency and good engine/airflow matching.

With rapid throttling or with engine shutdown in flight, the ramp is lowered as
far as possible and the auxiliary door opened to ‘dump’ excess air. This
reduces instability and drag.

During take-off and subsonic flight the engine requires maximum mass
airflow, so the ramp is fully raised and flaps within the auxiliary door open to
supplement the main airflow of the engine.

blank

- 27 -
 Fig. 15 VARIABLE GEOMETRY SUPERSONIC INTAKE

COMPRESSORS

Compressors on a jet engine may be:

* Centrifugal (single or double).

* Axial (single spool or multi spool).
* Mixed (centrifugal and axial compressors arranged serially within
the engine).

They provide high-pressure air for the engine power requirements as well as
providing high-pressure air for other services such as cabin air conditioning,
pneumatic systems, anti-icing hot air and engine starting.

Most engines will have either a centrifugal type compressor or an axial flow
compressor, but some engines will have both. Most of the larger jet engines
have two or more axial flow compressors each on a separate co-axial shaft.

- 28 -
Compressor Pressure Ratio (CPR)

CPR is the ratio between the pressure at the inlet to the pressure at the outlet
of the compressor. The higher the ratio the better.

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

The centrifugal compressor shown in figure 16 consists of an impeller driven

by the turbine and a stationary diffuser. The impeller is positioned inside a
casing with the minimum of clearance between the fixed and moving parts.
This ensures greater efficiency by not allowing gas leakage. It is normally
manufactured from a light alloy forging with radially disposed vanes forming
divergent ducts. This type of construction is relatively cheap to produce, strong
and resistant to damage from FOD (Foreign Object Damage).

The impeller is rotated at high speed by the turbine and centrifugal action
causes air to be drawn in at the eye (centre) of the impeller and the rotating
vanes accelerate the air radially outwards, to be thrown off at the tip of the
impeller into the diffuser. As the air moves radially outwards in the impeller
the pressure drops at the eye of the impeller – the faster the impeller rotates
the lower the pressure at the eye. The low pressure at the eye induces a
continuous flow of air into the intake and into the impeller.

The air accelerates across the impeller from eye to tip and is passed into the
diffuser. The air velocity has increased in moving outwards and its pressure
has also increased by virtue of it passing through a divergent duct.

The diffuser vanes are a set of divergent ducts so the pressure of the air
flowing through the diffuser increases and the velocity drops, to a value similar
to that existing at the eye of the impeller.

The pressure of the air entering the compressor has thus increased through
both the impeller and the diffuser whilst the velocity has increased through
the impeller but dropped through the diffuser (kinetic energy converted into
pressure energy).

Initially these had a CPR of about 4:1 but can now be as high as 10:1.

The choice of the impeller is determined by the engine design requirements. A

single entry ducting helps to minimise surging at high altitudes, as it makes
better use of the ram effect than the double entry ducting. However, if a single
entry impeller has to cope with the same mass airflow as a double entry
impeller then it must have a large frontal diameter, with a consequent lower
rpm for the same impeller tip speed.

- 29 -
 Fig. 16 CENTRIFUGAL IMPELLER & DIFFUSER

It follows, therefore, that the turbine must be a larger diameter to obtain the
required turbine blade speed. This increases the overall frontal area of a single
sided impeller compared to a double sided impeller engine for the same thrust.

Figure 17 illustrates a single and double entry impeller. It also shows a

shrouded type which prevents air loss from between the vanes and the sides of
the casing, leading to greater efficiency and higher pressure ratios, but greater
weight.

Figure 18 shows an example of a later type of centrifugal compressor. The

impeller vanes are curved into an ‘S’ shape. This gives the air a greater
pressure increase due to the overall increase in the length of the passageways.

Often there are additional shorter vanes fitted to the outer edge of the impeller
to provide greater stability for the airflow on its way to the diffuser.

Fig. 17 TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL IMPELLERS

The pressure ratio for this type of compressor can be up to 8:1.

- 30 -
 Fig. 18 SECTION OF AN ‘S’ TYPE CENTRIFUGAL IMPELLER

THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

This is made up of rows of aerofoil shaped rotating compressor blades (rotors)

interspaced with aerofoil shaped fixed stator blades (stators), one row of
stators, one row or rotors etc. The rotating blades are attached to a drum
called a spool.

The spool is driven by the turbine. The rotating rotors accelerate the air
rearwards, inducing a continuous flow of air into the engine intake. The airflow
emerges from each rotor stage with an increase in velocity, due to the rotating
action of the blades and a rise in pressure and temperature caused by the air
flowing through the divergent passage formed between the adjacent blades.

The airflow then passes through the divergent passages formed by the stator
blades which convert some of the kinetic energy into pressure energy and
directs the airflow onto the next set of rotors at the correct angle. The airflow
emerges from each stage at approximately the same velocity as it entered, but
with an increase in pressure and temperature.

To increase the overall compression ratio of the engine up to three separate

spools may be fitted each driven by its own turbine. Figure 19 shows the
compressors of a twin spool engine. Note the stators, rotors, accessory gear
box and the twin spools.

To present the airflow onto the first stage rotor blades at the correct angle,
inlet guide vanes (igvs) (sometimes called intake guide vanes) are normally
fitted in the air intake casing. The last row of stator blades are normally of a
wider chord than the earlier ones and serve to straighten the airflow before
entering the combustion system.

- 31 -
 Fig. 19 LP & HP AXIAL COMPRESSORS

If the blades on all the stages were of equal length, the pressure rise through
the compressor would cause a reduction in the axial velocity of the mass
airflow. In order to maintain the overall axial velocity more or less constant,
the passage-way between the stator casing and the compressor rotor forms a
convergent duct in the direction of the airflow, with long blades at the low
pressure end (front) and progressively shorter ones towards the high-pressure
end (rear).

Fig. 20 COMPRESSOR UNDER TEST

As the pressure rise through each set of rotors and stators is relatively small
(1.1:1 to 1.2:1), it follows then that many stages are required to give a good
overall pressure rise.

- 32 -
An early stage may increase the pressure by only 3psi but because each stage
increases the pressure of its predecessor the later stages of a large compressor
may give a pressures up to 80psi. Compression ratios for axial flow
compressors normally start at about 8:1 and can go as high as 30:1.

One of the major problems associated with the compressor is that it can only
be efficient at one set of values of engine rpm, pressure ratio and mass airflow.
If the compressor is operated outside of these values the flow of air around the
compressor rotor blades and stator blades breaks down, which inevitably leads
to an unstable and often turbulent airflow. At this point, the compressor can
be considered to be in a state of ‘stall’ and/or ‘surge’.

To establish a set of rpm, pressure ratio and mass airflow values, it is

necessary for the manufacturers of compressors to establish the ‘surge’ and
‘stall’ characteristics of a compressor or ‘stage’ of a compressor by using a test
bed. This is illustrated in figure 20 and the results obtained shown in the
graph (figure 21).

Fig. 21 GRAPH OF MASS FLOW AGAINST PRESSURE RATIO

The compressor (or a stage of a compressor) under test is fitted into an air
duct and is driven by a variable speed electric motor. An air valve is fitted to
control back-pressure on the compressor.

With the valve open the compressor has nothing to work against and will
simply move air at an increased velocity from the intake to the outlet.

- 33 -
If, however, the valve is moved towards the closed position the pressure at the
compressor outlet will rise and the mass flow will be reduced. If the valve is
slowly moved to the closed position, the pressure ratio will get higher but the
mass flow will reduce to a point where the relative airflow onto the compressor
rotors is such so as to cause the aerofoil compressor blades to stall.

At this point, the pressure at the compressor outlet reduces, the mass airflow
reduces and the compressor is in a state of stall. If left operating in this
condition, even for a short time, the airflow will cease and momentarily
reverse, accompanied by a load bang and (usually) damaging vibrations. At
this point the compressor has surged and severe damage will usually result.

To fully test the compressor it is run at varying speeds and the point at which
stall and/or surge occurs is plotted on a graph. The points on the graph are
joined and this gives the compressor stall/surge line.

The compressor is now only allowed to run at the rpms, pressure ratios and
mass flows at some point to the right of the surge line (figure 21). This can be
described as the operating or working line.

Fig. 22 COMPRESSOR OPERATING AT DIFFERENT RPMS

As previously stated, a compressor is only efficient at a specific rpm, pressure

ratio and mass flow. Unfortunately the engine has to be started and run up to
its ideal operating range and another set of problems, therefore, occurs.

Figure 22 gives an example of the problems encountered by a compressor

rotating at a different set of values from its most efficient. The right hand
drawing shows a compressor designed to run at 8,000rpm. At this rpm it will
take in 100 cubic metres of air per second and will compress it at a pressure
ration of 10:1. This will produce a volume of 10 cubic metres of air per second
to be passed through the compressor exit annulus.

If, however, the compressor is run at half its design speed ie, 4,000rpm, it will
take half the amount of air (50 cubic metres per second).

- 34 -
But the pressure ratio will only by 4:1, hence the amount of air trying to pass
through the compressor exit annulus is 12.5 cubic metres per second. This, of
course, is too much for the exit annulus which was designed to pass 10 cubic
metres per second. This excess of air has to be bled off the compressor by
using some sort of bleed valve.

Other methods of controlling the airflow will be looked at in later books in this
series.

To increase the power and economy of the engine, the compressor ratio must
be as high as possible. This can be done by adding extra stages to a single
spool compressor (but this adds to the stall and surge problems mentioned
previously), or by splitting the compressor into two or three separate spools -
low pressure compressor, intermediate compressor and high pressure
compressor, each driven by its own turbine.

When extra spools are added the number of compressor stages in each spool is
normally reduced and extra turbine stages are added to drive the spools at
different speeds, through independent co-axial shafts. Multi spool engines are
more efficient than single spools engines, but more expensive.

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR BLADES

Both the rotor and stator blades are of aerofoil section and are attached in
such a way as to form divergent passage-ways between adjacent blades of the
same row (see figures 7, 8, 19, 23, 24, 25 and 27).

Fig. 23 STATORS & ROTORS

- 35 -
Stator blades may be assembled in groups of between three and twenty or
more, as well as individually attached to the compressor casing, usually
attached in circumferential grooves and then locked with plates or screws
(figures 23, 24 and 27).

The blades may be fixed at the casing (outer) end only or may be fixed at both
ends, called shrouded blades. Shrouded blades (each blade is attached to its
neighbour at both ends of the blade (figures 23 and 26). This helps reduce
vibration caused by airflow variations. This vibration is more common with the
longer blades (earlier stages of the compressor).

Fig. 24 STATOR BLADES

The stator blades are twisted from root to tip (called ‘stagger’) to vary the angle
of incidence so as to provide a uniform axial air velocity along their length.

The blades may be at a fixed angle or may be moveable to form Variable Stator
blades. The inlet guide vanes in figure 22 are variable angle blades which are
automatically controlled (usually by fuel pressure).

Note the labyrinth air seals in figure 22 and the main shaft bearings.

The rotor blades also have stagger (for the same reason) and the blades may
have localised extra camber at the tip and root to help reduce the effect of the
slow boundary layer which occurs on the outer and inner walls of the
compressor. This extra camber is sometimes called ‘end bend’.

The blades may be fixed to the drum by pins, the fir tree method or by the
dovetail method (figure 25). When a pin is used it is locked into position by
locking rings.

With the fir tree method there is a slight taper on the fir tree so the blade can
only slide into the female part of the tree so far, it is then locked in using
locking plates and screws.

- 36 -
 Fig. 25 COMPRESSOR BLADE STAGGER

Fig. 26 SECURING COMPRESSOR BLADES TO DRUM

With the dovetail method the male dovetail is slotted into the grove and moved
circumferentially until it butts against the next blade. It is then locked in
using a locking blade and screw. In the new generation of smaller gas turbine
engines the blades may be machined (from a casting) integral with the drum or
disc, producing a compressor disc complete with blades sometimes called a
‘blisk’.

The blades are fabricated from metals with a high strength/weight ratio such
as nickel based alloys or titanium alloys.

Early engines had the first few stages made from aluminium alloy, however,
expansion rates of the blades and casings necessitated large tip clearances
and hence reduced inefficiency.

- 37 -
Compressor casings are made of Al alloy or magnesium alloy castings where
temperatures are not high, but where this is a problem steel and nickel alloys
are used.

Axial flow compressors are more expensive and less robust than centrifugal
compressors but are more efficient.

Figure 27 shows how the rotors and stators are assembled together. Note that
the stators are shrouded and secured to the compressor casing and the rotors
are secured to the rotating compressor assembly.

Fig. 27 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR ASSEMBLY

COMPRESSOR DEVELOPMENTS

In early jet engines the centrifugal compressor was the only reliable means of
providing compressed air for the engine. Its CPR was poor but with the
development of the axial flow compressor higher CPRs where possible.

During the development of the axial compressor the designers became aware of
the problems mentioned in the previous paragraphs and the era of the multi-
spool engine had arrived. These still utilise the axial compressor, but allowed
them to operate at their optimum rpm’s preventing the instability of the 12th to
15th stages of the most powerful units around at the time.

- 38 -
In the multi-spool engines the LP compressor is now virtually a ‘ducted fan’
(accelerating a large mass with a small increase in velocity). The other spool/s
being used purely to generate a high energy gas stream to enable the LP
turbine to drive the fan.

Designers of current engines, especially smaller engines, have realised the

advantages of both centrifugal and axial flow compressors and have combined
them both into very efficient and economically gas generators. Figure 28 shows
the axial and centrifugal compressors of the Astazou engine (a smaller power
unit installed in some helicopters and light aircraft).

Fig. 28 THE AXIAL & CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

OF THE ASTAZOU ENGINE

The power unit has a simple axial compressor disc (note it is cast as one unit
with the blades being part of the disc) supplying air to the eye of the
centrifugal compressor. The compressed air then flows from the centrifugal
compressor through a conventional diffuser to the combustion system.

The ducted fan engine shown in figure 29 shows a two-stage supercharger

(effectively an axial compressor) providing air to a 7 stage axial compressor
and a centrifugal compressor. The engine also has an epicyclic gear train
between the LP turbine and the LP fan (not common). This reduces the speed
of the fan to an acceptable level whilst the turbine rotates at its best rpm. Note
also the reverse flow combustion system which reduces the overall length of
the engine.

- 39 -
 Fig. 29 ALLIED SIGNAL FAN ENGINE WITH MIXED
COMPRESSORS & REDUCTION GEARING

DUCTED FANS

These use blades rotating within a fan case and are similar in design to a
single stage or rotors on an axial flow compressor. They are significantly bigger
both in span and chord length and may be made of composite material,
honeycomb core with titanium skin or aluminium alloy.

Because of their length they are often made integral with a mid span support
called a snubber, clapper or shroud. This is a small aerofoil section at right
angles to the blade, on both sides, and designed to touch the snubber of the
blades on either side. It provides a measure of stability and support (figure 30).

Fig. 30 FAN BLADES

- 40 -
Most fan blades have a high Aspect Ratio (blade length compared to chord
length). This means that they are long. Some engines have shorter blades with
a long chord length (low aspect ratio) such as the GE90 engine. The
advantages of low aspect ratio fan blades are:

* Improved performance/weight ratio (no mid span shroud).

* Lighter containment ring required. +
* Greater resistance to FOD damage.
* Less blades per full set – easier to maintain.
* Easier to replace as not interference between shrouds.
* No reliability problems associated with mid span shroud
overlapping. ++

+ The ring around the fan is designed to contain a fan blade

should it become detached, for any reason, when the engine
is running. Detachment may be caused by bird strike for
example, although the engine must have passed the bird
strike tests during certification.
++ Because of fan blade flexing mid span shrouds may bend
slightly and overlap the shroud on the next blade – leading
to reduced efficiency an imbalance/vibration.

Figure 31 shows the fan assembly of the CFM56 engine. Note that it has a
front and rear spinner and blades fitted with mid span shrouds. The blades
are fitted to a disc which is bolted to the booster rotor. Thus rotor and fan
rotate at the same speed. The booster is similar to the supercharger as fitted to
the Allied Signal engine above.

BALANCING

All rotating assemblies are designed to be in balance so as to reduce vibration,

wear (particularly on bearings), noise and discomfort to the passengers. For
major assemblies such as propellers, compressors and turbines (LP, IP and
HP), and fans, this balancing involves the assembly being both statically and
dynamically balanced+.

+ Static balancing is balancing diametrically (across the diameter – adding/

removing masses 180° opposite the heavy/light spot) and dynamic balancing
is balancing axially (along the axis of rotation – placing the masses as above
but at certain positions along the axis of the rotating mass). Some assemblies
are only statically balanced. Dynamic balancing automatically includes static
balancing. Note the word static in ‘static balancing’ does not mean that it does
not rotate – assemblies are normally rotated to carry out a static balance
check.

All fan and spool assemblies are balanced at the manufacturer and should
vibration occur in service then this may be due to imbalance in one or more of
the assemblies.

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 Fig. 31 THE FAN ASSEMBLY OF THE CFM56

Spool re-balancing is usually carried out at the manufacturer’s and will

require engine replacement but fan balancing requires regular attention by
maintenance personnel.

Blades are assembled as a set with a computer programme positioning each

blade according to its radial moment weight (or mass). This can be found
marked on the bottom of the dovetail or on the shoulder at the base of the
blade.

Once all the blades are fitted a vibration survey is carried out and, if
necessary, trim balance masses are fitted. These may be:

* Oversize bolts at spinner attachment positions.

* Special trim balance bolts (figure 31) fitted at or near the
spinner attachment.
* Trim balance masses fitted to the fan balance ring below the
blade root.

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 Fig. 32 FAN ATTACHMENT DETAILS BASED ON THE CFM56

Out of balance forces are indicated by their magnitude (in units specified by
the manufacturer) and position or direction from a datum. This may be given
in the form of a phase angle from the datum (usually the number 1 balance
hole).

If a blade has to be replaced because of damage then proceed as per the AMM,
but in general:

1. Use replacement blade with the same radial moment mass

(usually allowed within a specified tolerance).
2. If not available then use replacement blade of different mass
and use formula laid down in the AMM to calculate position and
value of correcting mass to be fitted. In very simple terms the
mass to be added will be at the blade position, if the
replacement blade is lighter. If it is heavier the mass will be
fitted at 180° from the replaced blade (static balancing).
3. If the replacement blade mass is significantly different then also
change the blade at the 180° position with a similarly lighter of
heavier blade.

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 4. Carry out an engine run and note the vibration indication gauge
readings in the flight deck (large aircraft use ECAM or EICAS
cockpit layouts – more later). Check that vibrations are within
normal limits. For some aircraft, specialist test equipment may
have to be fitted prior to the engine run to record vibration levels
etc. Remove this after the run. Clear any fault codes associated
with this defect that may be stored in the aircraft fault
computer.
5. Record all work carried out. Record the serial numbers of all
removed/fitted blades and their radial moment masses. Record
the blade positions and the vibration readings obtained.

After some time in service the vibration level of the fan can increase due to the
dry film lubrication drying out between the van dovetails and their location
grooves. If this happens then, after checking with the AMM, remove each
blade, clean the dovetail and groove (carefully inspect for signs of wear and
damage) replace the dry film lubrication, re-assemble and carry out an engine
run test.

With reference to figure 32. Note the blade fixture in that the dovetail is slid
Into the groove from the front, locked in with a blade retainer (small clip not
shown) with the whole assembly kept in position by the rear cone. Note the
fan disc (titanium alloy) and note the balancing screw locations.

COMBUSTION SYSTEMS

Once sufficient air has been drawn in and compressed it now has to be
expanded by heating and accelerated rearwards at uniform temperature with
no undue pressure rise.

Due to the extremely high temperatures and vibrations experienced by the

flame tubes in a combustion system they are constructed from Nimonic steels
(alloys of nickel and chromium with traces of aluminium, titanium and cobalt).
The air casings surrounding the flame tubes of the combustion systems are
normally made of nickel-plated mild steel.

Figure 33 shows the layout of a typical combustion chamber. It also shows

how the airflow is split up into different streams to carry out different tasks.

Air enters the combustion chamber at a relatively high velocity which is too
high to support combustion. Kerosene will only burn successfully at mixture
ratios of 15:1 (air to kerosene) and at speeds of only a few feet per second. A
relatively slow moving amount of air is therefore separated from the main
airflow to carry out this task. The total airflow (100%) is passed into the
combustion chamber via a diffuser, which initially, reduces the velocity and
provides an additional pressure rise.

- 44 -
The ‘combustion’ or ‘primary’ airflow (20%) is now segregated by the snout of
the chamber and 12% is passed through the swirl vanes to mix directly with
the atomised fuel at a low axial velocity, with the remaining 8% passed
through the flare to stabilise the burning process. A further 20% of the total
flow is allowed to flow into the flame tube through a set of holes to mix with
the primary air and shape the flame to create a ‘secondary’ zone. The
remaining 60% of the air called ‘tertiary’ air, cools the gas prior to entering the
turbine and also provides for the film cooling of the flame tube.

Fig. 33 TYPICAL COMBUSTION CHAMBER

The Combustion Process

Air enters the chamber at about 200 to 550°C (due to the adiabatic
compression process) and at about 500ft/s. It is slowed in the diffuser to
about 80ft/s and then down to just a few feet per second to allow for
combustion. This causes the temperature to rise to about 1700°C, this being
limited by materials for the combustion chambers and turbine blades.

The temperature of combustion is up to 2000°C and too hot to enter the

turbine system. The air not used for combustion (about 60% of the total) is
therefore induced progressively into the flame tube, with about one third being
introduced in the dilution zone to lower the gas temperature and the
remainder being used for cooling the walls of the flame tube. Some walls are
double sided with cooling air passing within the sides also to assist in cooling.

The flame is started by atomised fuel being sprayed from the burner and
ignited by a series of sparks from an igniter (not shown in figure 33).

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Once the flame has established itself the igniter is turned off (except under
some emergency conditions) and the flame is self-sustaining.

In general the combustion efficiency of the chamber is about 100% at sea level
dropping to 98% at altitude. For stability of the combustion process the
air:fuel ratio should be kept within a range where it is not too rich nor too
weak. Outside this range it will mean the flame going out. This range,
sometimes called the stability loop’ is from 45:1 to 130:1 air:fuel ratio.
However, kerosene will only burn efficiently at a ratio of 15:1 so only part of
the air is allowed to enter the combustion chamber (the combustion zone).

There are four basic arrangements of combustion chamber systems:

* The multi-chamber or multi-can system.

* The turbo-annular or canular system.
* The annular system.
* The single chamber system. This is an engine with just one
combustion chamber as in the Allison jet engine and most
APU’s (see later text).

Fig. 34 COMBUSTION CHAMBER ARRANGEMENTS

Most modern engines utilise the annular type of combustion system because it
has the following advantages:

* Shorter in overall length for the same power output.

* Less surface area of flame tube to cool thereby allowing
more air to be used to reduce emissions by oxidising the
carbon monoxide to non-toxic carbon dioxide.
* Easier and cheaper to produce.

Flame propagation (the development of the flame so that all the fuel spray
burns together) in an annular chamber is also problem free. The multi-can
and cannular systems having to rely on a system of interconnecting tubes to
spread the flame around the combustion chamber system.

- 46 -
A recent development in combustion systems is the dual dome annular type as
fitted to the GE90 twin spool engine (figure 35).

At cruise power settings, when conventional single-dome combustion systems

are less efficient, only the outer dome is lit – having been specifically designed
to operate at these settings and during starting and acceleration phases. At
take-off power settings both domes are lit, the design being optimised to keep
nitrogen oxides and smoke emissions to a minimum.

Fig. 35 DUEL DOME COMBUSTION SYSTEM

A popular type of combustion system for small helicopters and APU’s is the
reverse flow type (figure 36), which by reversing the flow through the
combustion chamber, has the effect of shortening the turbine to compressor
shaft thereby making for a shorter and lighter power unit.

Another development is the use of ceramic combustion chambers. The

combustor is made up of cast metal segments, which are sprayed with a
ceramic coating on the inner surface. This has the benefit of more efficient
cooling of the chamber and prevents the distortion and weld failure of
conventional fabricated systems.

Emissions

The pollutants found in the exhaust gases of a jet engine are created in the
combustion chamber. There are four that have to meet legislative requirements
and these are:

* Un-burnt hydrocarbons (un-burnt fuel).

* Smoke (carbon particles).
* Carbon monoxide.
* Oxides of nitrogen.

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 Fig. 36 REVERSE FLOW COMBUSTION SYSTEM

To reduce the amount of hydrocarbons, smoke and carbon monoxide the

combustion process is continued as long as possible down the combustion
chamber by introducing additional air into the dilution zone. The air oxidises
the carbon monoxide and smoke into non-toxic carbon dioxide.

Oxides of nitrogen are formed by the same conditions that suppress all the
other pollutants, so there is a conflict here. The combustion temperature and
length is therefore a compromise between the production of the first three
pollutants and the production of oxides of nitrogen.

TURBINES

The purpose of the turbine assembly is to extract sufficient energy from the
gas stream to drive the compressor and engine gearbox, along with its
ancillaries eg, hydraulic pumps, alternators, fuel pumps etc. On a modern jet
or turbo prop engine a reasonably large amount of gas stream energy is
removed by the turbines which drive these ‘energy consumers’.

To produce the necessary driving torque and to keep the diameter of the
turbine within acceptable limits, and taking into account multi-spool
compressors, it may be necessary to have many ‘stages’ of turbine, that is, one
row of stator vanes followed by one row of rotor blades.

For jet engines used on turbo-prop aircraft and helicopters the requirement is
to remove as much energy as possible from the gas stream flow to power the
propeller/rotor blades. This means that there is often a separate set of turbine
blades to take power directly to the propeller/rotor blades (free power turbine).

For turbo-prop aircraft about 90% of the thrust is obtained from the propeller
with 10% being obtained from the residual thrust of the jet efflux.

- 48 -
The basic components of a turbine assembly are the nozzle guide vanes, the
turbine disc and the turbine blades.

NOZZLE GUIDE VANES

These aerofoil section vanes form a ring of convergent ducts which cause the
gases to impinge on the turbine with a high angular velocity. Their function is
two-fold: to present the gases at the correct angle to the turbine, and to
increase the gas velocity. They are made of heat resisting materials and are
able to withstand temperatures in excess of 800°C. The nozzle guide vanes
(NGVs) are twisted to provide a varying angle of attack in order to maintain an
even pressure and velocity distribution along their length.

Fig. 37 TYPICAL NGV BLADE FIXING

THE TURBINE DISC

The turbine disc is a solid machined forging with an integral shaft. It is used to
attach all the blades to and is made of special material which is able to
withstand temperatures in excess of 800°C. It also withstands tip speeds of
1300ft/sec (369 m/sec) or more, and tensile loads of 15 tons psi (232MPa).

Special machinings around the periphery of the disc receive the root ends of
the turbine blades which are locked into position by various methods. The
most common method of fixing is the fir tree root as illustrated in figures 37
and 38.

Earlier discs were made of austenitic steel, but nickel alloys are now used with
some discs being made of sintered metal (powered metal). Dual alloy discs or
blisks are manufactured with a ring of cast turbine blades bonded to the disc.

TURBINE BLADES

These are of aerofoil section with each blade being twisted to give ‘impulse’ and
‘reaction’ sections.

- 49 -
The sections are blended together, with the impulse section at the root of the
blade and the reaction section at the tip. This design is sometimes known as
‘Vortex’ blading. The blades have Stagger similar to compressor blades. Some
turbines are made up entirely of impulse blades and on some engines the
turbines are reaction blades (more of this in a later book).

On some engines such as APUs the turbine is a Radial Inflow turbine. This
turbine is similar in design to a centrifugal compressor with the hot gasses
flowing from the outside to the inside and out through the eye. Works on the
same principle as the cold air unit (air cycle machine) fitted to the air cycle
cooling system fitted to most aircraft air conditioning and pressurisation
systems.

Fig. 38 TURBINE DISC

The blades of a conventional axial flow turbine are attached to a turbine disc
and as the stresses are considerable this attachment is critical.

Stresses arise from:

* Centrifugal force. As the disc rotates at considerable speed

so these forces set up very high stresses within the blade.
* Bending stresses. Caused by the force of the gas flow
impinging on the blade.
* Heat stress. Temperatures in the region of up to 1000°C are
experienced and this adds to the already difficult working
environment.

- 50 -
The attachment method can be by (figure 39):

* The de Laval bulb method. Used on some of the very early jet
engines.
* The BMW hollow blade method. Not too unlike the de Laval bulb
but the bulb is hollow and held in by retaining pins. Rare.
* The fir tree method. Used on most jet engines. The fir tree fixing
design helps spread the stresses more evenly from the blade to
the disc. The blade is free to move in its tree which allows for
blade expansion due to the heat and allows for tightening of the
blade due to centrifugal action.

Fig. 39 TURBINE BLADE FIXINGS

Blade Material

The blades (and NGVs) are usually made of cast Nimonic alloys which are a
nickel based alloy. Nickel alloys are less prone to corrosion (the hot gasses are
very corrosive) and perform well in the high stress, high temperature
environment. Some of the later blades are being made from reinforced
ceramics which stand up to the heat better.

With conventional castings the grain structure is equi-axed. In other words

each grain crystal is approximately the same length in all directions (x, y and z
axes) and all the crystals lay in a random fashion. To improve the creep and
mechanical properties of the blade, casting techniques have been developed so
as to produce long grains that run from root to tip. These are called Columnar
crystals and are produced by a process known as Directional Solidification.
Another technique is to slow cool the casting so as to develop a single crystal
for the whole blade.

With the use of new materials and new manufacturing techniques such as
hollow air cooled blades, it is now possible to use turbines at working
temperatures of 1200°C or more.

- 51 -
There is normally a small gap at the blade tip to allow for expansion. To reduce
gas leakage across the tip of the blade some turbine systems have blades with
shrouds fitted to their tips. When all of the blades are fitted into the disc, the
segments or shrouds interlock, forming a solid ring around the blade tips.

Impulse Blade Theory

In a pure impulse system the air is accelerated in the nozzle guide vanes to
near the speed of sound (2,500ft/sec at the gas temperature) and directed onto
the turbine blades. This causes the gas to impact on the turbine blades
converting some of the air energy to turbine rotational energy (figure 40).

Fig. 40 IMPULSE BLADING

Reaction Blade Theory

A pressure drop and a velocity increase occurs at the impulse area of the blade
within the convergent passages of the nozzle guide vanes. The resulting
acceleration of the gas through the turbine passages provides a reaction force
which drives the turbine.

Impulse/Reaction Blades

In general, turbine blades use both the impulse and reaction theories with the
reaction values getting progressively higher towards the tip.

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 Fig. 41 IMPULSE/REACTION TURBINE BLADES

Active Blade Tip Clearance Control

For best efficiency the blade tip/casing gap should be kept to a minimum but
with a positive clearance at all times. Because the temperature of the engine
varies considerably from cold to close to 1000°C the gap is likely to vary
considerably.

Many blades have internal drillings (or have hollow blades) through which is
passed cooling air to help reduce their working temperature. The casing also
has a cooling air supply for the same reason.

This air supply, through circular air pipes around the casing, can be varied to
provide a means of controlling the expansion/contraction of the casing thus
allowing a form of active clearance control. Control of the cooling air is
automatic usually via a computer (FADEC) on modern aircraft. On some
aircraft the HP compressor also has an active clearance control system. In
both cases the systems is designed to ‘fail safe’ with the valves moving to the
closed position. This means that there is no cooling air to the casing, it
expands to its maximum and there is no chance of blade tip contact.

Blade Creep

The main factor in determining the life of a turbine blade and/or disc is the
turbine entry temperature (TET). High TET’s in the order of 1127°C are
required for maximum efficiency, however, these temperatures can have
catastrophic effects on a blade and disc.

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 Fig. 42 GRAPH OF BLADE CREEP AGAINST TIME

As well as thermal stresses, the turbine system must also be resistant to the
high centrifugal loadings exerted on the components which give rise to another
phenomenon known as ‘creep’.

Creep is the term given to the continuous extension of the blades under load,
even though this load is less than that which may cause fracture. Blade
extension occurs during the early stages of its life (primary creep) then settles
down to a minimum (secondary creep), and then accelerates during the latter
stages (tertiary creep). Figure 42 shows a typical blade ‘creep’ graph.

EXHAUST SYSTEMS

Once sufficient energy has been extracted by the turbines to drive the
compressor and ancillaries (fan, propeller or rotor blades in some cases), the
remaining gases are passed to atmosphere at such a velocity as to give the
maximum amount of thrust (for a non turbo-prop/helicopter/fan engines).

It should be remembered, however, that in the case of the turbo-prop or turbo-

shaft engine and in some instances the turbo-fan engine, most of the energy
will have already been extracted from the gas stream leaving only a small
amount of gas velocity remaining to contribute to the overall thrust of the
engine.

Figure 43 shows a conventional exhaust system, consisting of an exhaust

casing fitted to the turbine casing, and an outer casing supporting, on tie
bolts, an inner cone (exhaust unit). The tie bolts are faired to reduce
turbulence and straighten the gas flow. The exhaust unit provides a
streamlined exit area at the rear of the turbine disc and also protects it from
the hot gas. It is vented to equalise internal and external pressures.

- 54 -
 Fig. 43 EXHAUST SYSTEM

Its construction is of welded heat resistant steel to resist cracking and

buckling. The outer casing is similarly constructed and will usually be
surrounded by an insulating blanket to protect the airframe and
components/systems from the heat.

The jet pipe joins the rear of the exhaust unit to the propelling nozzle and its
length depends on the location of the engine within the aircraft structure. Its
mountings to the airframe are designed to allow for expansion.

Fittings are provided to allow for thermocouples to measure the jet pipe
temperature.

The Propelling Nozzle

This forms a convergent duct as the exhaust gases finally emerge to the
atmosphere and converts the remaining pressure energy to velocity energy
with gas exit speed close to Mach 1. It is normally attached to the rear of the
jet pipe, but on some engines it will be fitted directly to the exhaust unit.

On engines fitted with reheat such as the Rolls Royce SNECMA Olympus 593
engines fitted to Concorde (now sadly out of service but a good example
anyway), the propelling nozzle area will be variable. The nozzle outlet cross
sectional area is varied by pneumatically powered plates or ‘eyelids’
automatically depending on throttle settings.

- 55 -
When the pilot moves the throttles (thrust levers) forward to the maximum
position the after-burners (reheat) kick in and the eyelids or plates open to
their fullest position.

JET ENGINE CONFIGURATION

The actual design of the jet engine will vary depending on whether it has a
centrifugal compressor, an axial compressor, whether it is a pure jet or
whether the jet engine unit drives a fan, a propeller or a set of rotor blades.

Figure 44 shows the earliest type of jet engine. It has a centrifugal compressor
driving by a single turbine. It has a double air entry intake supplying air to a
double entry centrifugal compressor. The auxiliary gearbox is fitted to the front
of the engine.

Air for the compressor is fed through two grills fitted around the engine intake.
The grills prevented entry of foreign objects larger than about 1” (25mm). (Most
modern jet engines – except for some helicopters – have no provision to stop
entry of foreign objects.)

The air is then thrown out by centrifugal force into the combustion chambers.
On combustion it accelerates rearwards to give up some of its energy to the
turbine to drive the compressor.

Fig. 44 EARLY TURBO JET WITH CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

In the quest for higher specific fuel consumption figures with increased power
outputs the axial flow compressor was developed (figure 45). It produces a
higher compression ratio, and hence increased efficiency.

The auxiliary gearbox (accessory drive) is on the side of the engine driven by
bevel gears from the main shaft.

- 56 -
 Fig. 45 TURBO JET WITH AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

It has a single stage turbine and an 11 stage compressor, although the actual
number of stages depends on the manufacturer.

Figure 46 shows a twin spool jet engine. This was brought about by the need
for greater pressure ratios with increased compressor performance. To obtain
these figures with a single spool engine required a large engine which was slow
to accelerate, suffered airflow disturbance which resulted in surge and stall.

Fig. 46 TWIN SPOOL TURBO JET ENGINE

The compressor is divided into two, or sometimes three – each driven by its
own set of turbines. This allowed them to operate at their own best speed
giving greater flexibility, higher-pressure ratios and greater power outputs.

To increase the specific fuel consumption still further by-pass engines were
developed.

- 57 -
Figure 47 shows a low by-pass ratio twin-spool engine where some of the
compressed air from the Low Pressure (LP) compressor by-passes the main
combustion section of the engine and passes out the rear of the engine as
thrust.

Note the position of the bearings and that the rear LP turbine drives the front
LP compressor.

Fig. 47 TWIN SPOOL ENGINE

Figure 48 shows a high by-pass ratio three-spool engine based on the Rolls
Royce RB211. The fan can be considered as a multi-bladed propeller within a
duct – it is not of course, but the engine does produce a very high specific fuel
consumption. The three spools allows each to operate at the most efficient
speed – it does, of course, increase manufacturer costs. Note that there are
three stages to the LP turbine. This ensures that much of the gas stream
energy is extracted to power the fan – which gives it its great economy and
power.

The by-pass ratio of an engine is defined as the amount of air by-passing the
core to the amount of air going through it, eg:

* Low by-pass ratio up to 4:1

* High by-pass ratio from 4:1 to 8:1
* Ultra high by-pass ratio over 8:1

Some engines have a reduction gearing between the turbine and the fan to
allow the fan to rotate at its optimum speed.

For turbo-prop and helicopter engines a different layout is used. Figure 49

shows a direct drive turbo prop configuration. The (in this case) two-stage
turbine drives the compressor and the propeller. Because the engine rpm
would be too high for the propeller it is driven via a reduction gearbox
(epicyclic gears).

- 58 -
 Fig. 48 THREE SPOOL HIGH BY-PASS RATIO TURBO JET

Fig. 49 DIRECT DRIVE TURBO-PROP ENGINE

In some cases the propeller is driven by a separate set of turbines (a free power
turbine) which extracts most of the energy from the gas stream flow converting
it into shaft power. Again a reduction gearbox is used (figure 50).

blank

- 59 -
 Fig. 50 FREE TURBINE TURBO PROP ENGINE

Figure 51 shows an arrangement used on some helicopters. It consists of a

three-stage turbine driving a single-sided centrifugal compressor and a
reduction gearbox. The output from the reduction gearbox is to the rotor head
gearbox to drive the rotor head and tail rotor. What is unusual about this
engine is that the fuel is injected into the annular combustion chamber by a
rotating slinger ring. This improves atomisation and gives a more even flame
propagation.

Fig. 51 DIRECT TURBO SHAFT ENGINE

”””””””””

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