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IFAC PapersOnLine 52-27 (2019) 92–97

Experimental
Experimental Autonomous Car Model with
Experimental Autonomous
Autonomous Car Car Model
Model with
with
Experimental
safety
safety Autonomous
sensor
sensor in
in Car
Wireless
Wireless Model
Network
Network with
safety
safety sensor
sensor in
in Wireless
Wireless Network
Network
safety sensor ∗∗ in Wireless
∗
Network
∗∗
Frederik Valocky
Frederik Valocky ∗∗ Milos
∗ Milos Orgon
Orgon ∗∗ Ina
∗∗ Ina Fujdiak
Fujdiak ∗∗
∗∗
Frederik
Frederik
Frederik Valocky
Valocky
Valocky ∗ Milos
∗
Milos Orgon
Orgon ∗∗ Ina
Ina Fujdiak
Fujdiak ∗∗
∗∗
∗ Milos Orgon ∗ Ina Fujdiak ∗∗
∗ Frederik Valocky Milos Orgon Ina Fujdiak
∗ Slovak University of Technology, Ilkovicova 3, Bratislava, 81107,
∗
∗ Slovak
∗
Slovak University of Technology, Ilkovicova 3, Bratislava, 81107,
∗ Slovak University
University
∗ SlovakSlovakia
of
of Technology,
Technology,
(e-mail:
University of {valocky,
Technology, Ilkovicova
Ilkovicova 3,
3, Bratislava,
Bratislava,
orgon}@ut.fei.stuba.sk).
Ilkovicova 3, Bratislava, 81107,
81107,
81107,
SlovakSlovakia
Slovakia (e-mail:
University of
(e-mail: {valocky,
Technology,
{valocky, orgon}@ut.fei.stuba.sk).
Ilkovicova 3, Bratislava,
orgon}@ut.fei.stuba.sk). 81107,
∗∗
∗∗ Slovakia
Masaryk
Slovakia
∗∗ Masaryk (e-mail:
University,
(e-mail:
University, {valocky,
Zerotinovo
{valocky,
Zerotinovo orgon}@ut.fei.stuba.sk).
nam. 617/9 Brno 601
orgon}@ut.fei.stuba.sk).
nam. 617/9 Brno 601 77
77 Czech
Czech
∗∗ Slovakia (e-mail: {valocky, orgon}@ut.fei.stuba.sk).
∗∗ Masaryk
∗∗ Masaryk University,
University,
Republic Zerotinovo
Zerotinovo
(e-mail: nam.
nam. 617/9
617/9 Brno
Brno
{417345}@mail.muni.cz) 601
601 77
77 Czech
Czech
∗∗ Masaryk Republic
University, Zerotinovo nam.
Masaryk Republic (e-mail:
University,
Republic Zerotinovo
(e-mail:
(e-mail: nam. 617/9 Brno 601 77 Czech
617/9 Brno
{417345}@mail.muni.cz)
{417345}@mail.muni.cz)
{417345}@mail.muni.cz)
601 77 Czech
Republic (e-mail: {417345}@mail.muni.cz)
Republic (e-mail: {417345}@mail.muni.cz)
Abstract:
Abstract: Autonomous
Autonomous vehicles
vehicles are
are vehicles
vehicles equipped
equipped with
with autonomous
autonomous control
control systems
systems that
that
Abstract:
Abstract:
allow
Abstract:certain Autonomous
Autonomous
aspects
Autonomous of vehicles
vehicles
the
vehicles are
are
control
are vehicles
vehicles
functions
vehicles equipped
equipped
important
equipped with
with
withfor autonomous
autonomous
safe
autonomous traffic control
control
to be
control systems
systems
controlled
systems that
that
by
that
allow
Abstract:
allow certain
certain aspects
Autonomous
aspects of
of the
vehicles
the control
are
control functions
vehicles
functions important
equipped
important withfor
for safe
autonomous
safe traffic
traffic to be
control
to be controlled
systems
controlled by
that
by
allow
the
allow
the certain
vehicle
certain
vehicle aspects
itself.
aspects
itself. At
At of
the
of
the the
same
the
same control
time,
control
time, functions
these
functions
these cars
carsimportant
are
important
are able
able for
to
for
to safe
move
safe
move traffic
from
traffic
from to
point
to
pointbe
be A
Acontrolled
to point
controlled
to point by
B
by
B
allow
the
the certain
vehicle
vehicle
separately in aaaspects
itself.
itself. At
At
defined of
the
the the
same
same
environment control
time,
time,andfunctions
these
these
decidecars
carsimportant
are
are able
able
independently for
to
to safeadapt
move
move
and traffic
from
from to to
point
pointbe A
unknown Acontrolled
to
to point
point
situations by
B
B
the
the vehicle
separately
vehicle initself.
itself. At
defined
At thethe same
environment
sameThese time,
time,and these
decide
these cars are able
independently
cars to
are able to and move
and
move adapt from
fromto to point
unknown
point A to point
situations
A tosituations
point B
B
separately
separately
and a in
in
changing
separately in a
a
a defined
defined environment
environment
environment.
defined environment and
and decide
decide
actions
and decide independently
independently
are autonomous
independently and
cars
and adapt
adapt
capable
adapt to
to unknown
unknown
of performing
unknown situations
with
situations
and
and a
a changing
separately in
changing a environment.
defined environment
environment. These
These actions
and decide
actions are autonomous
independently
are autonomous cars
and
cars capable
adapt
capable to of performing
unknown
of performing with
situations
with
and
and a
minimal
a changing
or no environment.
interference from These
the actions
driver. are
This autonomous
article is aimed cars
at capable
verifying of
the performing
communication with
and a changing
minimal
minimal
minimal
capabilities
or
changing
or
or
no
no
no
with
environment.
interference
environment.
interference
interference
data from
from
from
from
These
safety
the
These
the
the
actions
driver.
actions
driver.
driver.
sensors
are
This
This
This
autonomous
arearticle
article
article
mounted on
is
autonomous
is
is
aimed
aimed
aimed
autonomous
cars
at
cars
at
at
capable
verifying
capable
verifying
verifying
car
of
the
of
the
the
between
performing
communication
performing
communication
communication
aa control
with
with
unit
minimal
capabilities
minimal or
or no
with
no interference
data
interferencefrom from
safety
from the
the driver.
sensors
driver. This article
mounted
This on
article is aimed
autonomous
is aimed at
at verifying
car
verifying the
between
the communication
control
communication unit
capabilities
capabilities
and car.
capabilities with
with
with data
data from
from safety
safety sensors
sensors mounted
mounted on
on autonomous
autonomous car
car between
between a
a control
control unit
unit
and
and
and
car.
capabilities
car.
car. with data from safety sensors mounted on autonomous car between a control unit
data from safety sensors mounted on autonomous car between a control unit
and car.
©
and 2019,
car.IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Autonomous vehicles, Ultrasonic sensor, VANET, IoT, IoV
Keywords:
Keywords: Autonomous
Autonomous vehicles,
vehicles, Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic sensor,
sensor, VANET,
VANET, IoT,
IoT, IoV
IoV
Keywords: Autonomous
Keywords: Autonomous vehicles, vehicles, Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic sensor,
sensor, VANET,
VANET, IoT, IoT, IoVIoV
Keywords: Autonomous vehicles, Ultrasonic sensor, VANET, IoT, IoV
1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION in Mehic
in Mehic
Mehic et et
et al. al. (2016)
al. (2016)
(2016) addressaddress
address aaa problem
problem
problem of of the
of the efficiency
the efficiency
efficiency
1.
1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION in
in Mehic
of Mehic
routes et
in al. (2016)
mobile addressnetworks,
Ad-Hoc a problem
problem of the
their the efficiency
approach to
1. INTRODUCTION in
of
in routes
Mehic et
in
et al.
al. (2016)
mobile
(2016) address
Ad-Hoc
address a
networks,
a problem of
their efficiency
approach
of the efficiency to
Internet of Things (IoT) is already very well known of
of
of routes
routes
quality-link
routes in
in
in mobile
mobile
metrics
mobile Ad-Hoc
Ad-Hoc
is based
Ad-Hoc networks,
networks,
on
networks, their
their
calculation
their approach
approach
of
approachthe to
to
lost
to
Internet
Internet of
of Things
Things (IoT)
(IoT) is
is already
already very
very well
well known
known quality-link
of routes in metrics
quality-link metrics
mobile is based
Ad-Hoc
is based on
networks,
on calculation of
theirpackets.
calculation approach
of the
the lost
to
lost
Internet
and
Internet
and of
investigated
of
investigated Things
Things (IoT)
phenomena
(IoT)
phenomena is
is already
with
already
with very
exponential
very
exponential well
growth
well
growthknown
known in
in quality-link
probabilities
quality-link metrics
of links
metrics is
by
is based
based on
broadcasting
on calculation
probe
calculation of
of the
the lost
lost
Internet
and of
investigated Things (IoT)
phenomena is already
with very
exponential well
growthknown in probabilities
quality-link
probabilities of links
of links by
metrics by broadcasting
is based
broadcasting probe packets.
on calculation
probe packets.
of the lost
and investigated
business, phenomena
researchphenomena
and development with
development exponential
Masek et et al.growth
al. (2016);in probabilities
probabilities of
of links
links by broadcasting probe packets.
and
and investigated
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research
and
phenomena
and
and development
with
withetexponential
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exponential
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et al.
growth
(2016);
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al. (2016);
(2016);
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in From
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of point
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2405-8963 ©networks
2019, IFACKurmis et al.
(International
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2014). Authors
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Peer review under responsibility of International Federation of Automatic Control.
10.1016/j.ifacol.2019.12.739
 Frederik Valocky et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 52-27 (2019) 92–97 93
2. AUTONOMOUS PROTOTYPE MODEL
2.1 Design and implementation of an autonomous vehicle
In order to verify the capability of an autonomous vehicle,
it was necessary to create a miniature autonomous vehicle.
The final prototype of our autonomous car is shown in
Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Prototype of developed autonomous vehicle with
remote control unit.
Among the mechanical part of our prototype, the main
parts are autonomous car tower board and remote con-
troller tower board (Figure 2 - part A), which create
the autonomous intelligence of developed autonomous car.
Autonomous car tower and remote controllers board tower
use motherboard Arduino UNO (Figure 2 - part B, PCB1).
Assembled printed circuit board (PCB) developed for the
board tower of remote controller are shown in Figure 2 -
part C (PCB2) and part D (PCB3). The PCB2 and PCB3
boards do not need to be connected by cables because
they were preconditioned at the factory to connect all the
pins from the motherboard directly to the Arduino Uno
(PCB1) motherboard using the pins placed on the bottom
of the PCBs into the openings on the motherboard. Sub-
sequently, other PCBs already assigned to the operation
or use of the vehicle could be connected to the PCB2 and
PCB3 boards.
Fig. 2. Developed autonomous intelligence towers for au-
tonomous car and remote controller.
The main mechanical components settings was as followed.
The first servomotor used in the vehicle served to ro-
tate the front axle with the wheel drive according to the
position of the control element on the actuator and the
second was switched on continuously to ensure movement
of the ultrasonic sub module. A DC motors are a mag-
net mounted in a coil that converts a direct current to
mechanical energy. The rotational speed of unidirectional
motors can be varied over a wide range using either a
changing supply voltage or current. It is important to
properly connect the polarity of the source. Two sub mod-
ules with Wi-Fi technology from the PCBs nRF24L01+
series were tested in the design of the vehicle and remote
controller. The first type with the built-in PCB3 antenna
was powered by a lower voltage (3V). The second PCB4b
was powered by a higher voltage with an external antenna.
The Wi-Fi transmitter worked in the 2.4 GHz bandwidth.
The frequency range was 2400 to 2525 MHz. One channel
width for the nRF24L01+ board was 1 MHz, providing
125 possible channels with numbers ranging from 0 to 124.
For the nRF24L01+ board, it was recommended by the
manufacturer to use up to 25 channels. For detection, the
HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor PCB was used to measure the
distance. The ultrasonic sensor worked on the principle
of transmitting electromagnetic waves, which, after reflec-
tion, came back and were captured by the receiver. The
HC-SR04 sub module used in the proposed vehicle was
powered with a higher DC voltage of 5 V and a 15 mA
current. A frequency of 40 Hz was used, with the HC-
SR04 sub module transmitting a pulse every 10 s. The
range of sensors ranged from 2 cm to 4 m and the radius
of measurement was 15 degrees. The car is powered by
two 18650 accumulators to provide enough power for the
engines. The controller was powered by a 6LF22 battery by
connecting it to the Arduino UNO motherboard. After the
controller and vehicle were assembled, there was an error
- the connection between the vehicle and the controller
was impossible, and therefore the PCB2 with Wi-Fi sub
module was powered by a lower voltage (3V) - nRF24L01+
replaced by a more powerful PCB with an external antenna
nRF24L01 + (PCB4b) was powered by a higher voltage (5
V). After this change, it was already possible to establish a
connection between the controller and the vehicle. For final
testing the autonomous vehicle was loaded with several
protectors as shown in Figure 3.
Fig. 3. Prototype of developed autonomous vehicle with
loaded protectors.
94 Frederik Valocky et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 52-27 (2019) 92–97
3. EXPERIMENTAL MODEL VALIDATION
3.1 Control by camera
The main part of autonomous driving is executed by
control unit with connected camera located on the roof
of building. Camera is capturing real-time video. Control
unit with connected camera have running script which
locates actual position of autonomous car model. After
control unit catch model position send command for next
movement of car. The schema of autonomous movement
system is shown in Figure.4
Fig. 4. Schema of locating position of autonomous vehicle
and communication for sending control commands.
3.2 Radar validation
From many of capabilities for secondary safety system for
autonomous car model we choose ultrasonic sensor. For
this model is ultrasonic sensor sufficient. For bigger models
must be more then one sensor and also more different type
of sensors. Signal from ultrasonic sensors is shown in The
Radar application. The Radar application was created in
the freely available Processing 3 program by using the
Java programming language. The Radar application was
created in such a way that the data is received from
a autonomous vehicle that must be wirelessly connected
to the vehicle using the nRF24L01+ Wi-Fi module. On
vehicle is located the ultrasonic sensor HC-SR04. The data
from the remote controller is transmitted through the USB
interface, one cable end is in the computer running the
Radar application and the other end is plugged into the
remote controller. When the application is started, a start
screen appears on the computer screen. When the start
screen is running, the computer searches all USB ports
sequentially with COM1, COM2, and COMn, where n
represents any USB port number on which the driver is
connected.
When you find the USB port with connected remote con-
troller, the Radar screen appears. If the error message
”WARNING! Car is not connected” is displayed on the
computer screen, you must check that the vehicle is pow-
ered or not. Whether the vehicle is switched on (switches
on the PCB2 switch to active mode and whether the
connection is active). The indication of power supply is
connected or switching on/off button on the vehicle is
carried out by means of the LEDs on the Arduino UNO
and on the PCB2 is turn on. If the LEDs on the Arduino
UNO motherboard are illuminated and the PCB2 is not,
there is a power failure. When this error was detected,
instead of 18650 batteries that were only connected to
the PCB2, two 9V type batteries were used 6LF22-one for
PCB2 power supply and the other for powering the UNO-
PCB1 motherboard, but the connection was not able to
be set up. In addition to the error message in the Radar
application, a connection error on the controller was also
indicated by the LED located on the LED3- D8, next to
the pins to connect to the Wi-Fi module of exchanged
modules.
When testing the Radar application, it was necessary to
create a place with a moving obstacle and the need for
a precise distance meter to compare the distance val-
ues obtained from the ultrasonic sensor. For comparison,
the BOSCH DLE 70 Professional Laser Distance Meter
(Figure 5) was used as professional reference measuring
device. As a moving obstacle, the carton was used, which
was moved to different distances. To make the measure-
ment even more precise, the PCB2 has been disconnected
from the automotive power supply for the servomotor
controlling the rotation motion of the ultrasonic sensor
and subsequently set to a direct position. Therefore, the
measurement captured by the radar screen photograph,
the points are located at -45◦ to + 45◦ , although they are
within the maximum range of 15◦ , which means that fo-
cusing on the exact center of the obstacle would the points
should be within the range of -7.5◦ to 7.5◦ . However, the
Radar application counts the rotary motion of the sensor
and therefore the points are evaluated in the 90◦ range.
Fig. 5. Prototype of developed autonomous vehicle with
loaded protectors.
To compare the data, measurements were made to detect
a possible error of the radar distance. If the radar did
not show all eleven points for the same distance, the
arithmetic mean was calculated from the existing values.
The measured values are shown in the following table.
Table 1. Comparative Experimental measure-
ment of obstacle distance.
# HC-SR04 [cm] BOSCH DLE 70 [cm]
1 13.0 13.7
2 42.5 44.5
3 57.3 60.5
4 79.1 81.9
5 80.0 83.2
 Frederik Valocky et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 52-27 (2019) 92–97 95
The radar application capable of measuring distance up to
100 cm in radius, but points on a circle determining the
distance are only displayed up to a maximum distance of
79 cm, so that at 80 cm distance the radar points no longer
appear. The average distance deviation was 2.38 cm, which
corresponds to the distance from the sensor on the front
side of the vehicle.
3.3 Vehicle control validation
To control a car in radar mode, it was necessary to create
remote controller and vehicle codes that were then up-
loaded to the motherboards. The header contains the Se-
rial Peripheral Interface (SPI) header, the servo motor and
the RF24 communication modules. First, it was necessary
to create a secure communication channel in which only
the remote controller and the vehicle would communicate.
The aim of such a solution was to exclude the possibility
of unauthorized access by a potential attacker capable
of controlling an autonomous vehicle. This problem has
yet been resolved by a five-character password that may
contain any characters. The password is part of the code so
it cannot be changed after uploading to the motherboard.
The same password must also include the remote controller
code to be able to establish a connection to the vehicle.
The part that creates secure communication is as follows:
Listing 1. Secure communication code example.
1: RF24 radio (9 ,10);
2: // ID of pins CE =9 for standby mode and
3: // CSN =10 for SPI commnuication
4: const byte adresa [6] = " Passw ";
5: // defined communiction address with remote
6: // controller is coresponding
From the part of the code where ports, elements, and
modules are set, a section was selected that opens the read
and write channel. In this way, communication between
the remote controller and the vehicle is finally created.
The other parts of the code are designed to set the other
elements and then write, measure, and store the necessary
data from the Radar application and the servomotors
needed to correctly control the vehicle. Part of the code
opening the communication is as follows:
Listing 2. Session opening code example.
1: radio . begin ();
2: // inicia lizatio n RF24
3: radio . setPALevel ( RF24_PA_LOW );
4: // sets the power of the power amplifier
5: radio . setDataRate ( RF24_1MBPS );
6: // setting the data transfer rate
7: radio . setRetries (0 , 15);
8:
9:
// setting the number to be repeat
radio . openWriti ng Pi pe ( adresa );
10: // command for write
11: radio . openReadi ng Pi pe (1 , adresa );
12: // command for read
13: radio . start Listeni ng ();
14: // monitoring
These two parts of the code are required for both Arduino
boards. For remote controller and also for the vehicle. The
code for the remote controller is much easier because it
only ensures the transmission of information and control
data from the vehicle and the vehicle and the subsequent
transfer to the computer via a USB cable. The code for the
vehicle is more complex because it has to contain much
more control information with informations of the pins to
which the modules are connected (servomotor, DC motors,
ultrasonic sensor). One servomotor must be controllable
by the remote controller, and the other is set to 90◦ radius.
Engines must have a defined speed (speed changes through
the code because they are electromotors). Vehicle code
must also be set to read data from an ultrasonic sensor.
When testing the vehicle’s autonomous control, an obsta-
cle course was created, which had the vehicle unobstructed
to override the obstacle and continue in drive. In the
event of an obstruction impossible, the vehicle also allowed
backward movement and attempted to find a new way. In
the code written for the stand-alone vehicle, the forward
and backward speeds are given. These parameters are
entered in the Vehicle Movement Code when using the
Radar application, but the vehicle is in the autonomous
mode not man-operated, so consider the vehicle’s reaction
time and the distance-based obstruction. For this purpose,
different vehicle distances and speeds have been tested in
order to be able to overcome the obstacle. It was not a
simple task, because while reducing speed and increasing
distance it was theoretically possible to find satisfactory
speed and distance equivalent to autonomous control, but
there was one serious problem. The vehicle, together with
the batteries, has a certain weight and the vehicle’s down-
shifting speed does not need to be moved at the required
speed either. That was a critical point at which it was
necessary to stop the reduction in speed. After longer-
lasting testing, the optimal forward speed was determined
to 140 and the backward speed to 95. The numbers shown
merely represent a speed value in terms of control over
a range of possible values from 0 to 255; values 140 and
95 are actually control information from a given range of
values. The variable speed setting of the engines was then
performed as follows:
Listing 3. Speed settings code example.
1: # define FORWARD LOW
2: // LOW - negative voltage to motors - forward
3: # define BACKWARD HIGH
4: // HIGH - positive voltage to motors - backward
5: const byte motorSpeed = 140;
6: // motor speed (0 -255)
Furthermore, it was necessary to define in the code the
rotation angles of the servomotor through which the direc-
tion of the vehicle changes. These angles depended on the
location of the obstacle. The aim was to allow the vehicle
to adjust the angle that is needed to obviate the obstacle.
It was taken into account that the maximum angle of the
servomotor was 90◦ , so it was decided that the maximum
angle to the left would be 135◦ and 45◦ to the right.
However, in connection with the rotation angle setting,
another problem has emerged. After the conversion, it
was found that the control electronics did not suffice at
a certain speed of the vehicle to determine sufficiently
quickly another obstacle, which was due to an impact on
the obstacle. The vehicle was unable to measure and eval-
uate the distance (or to respond sufficiently to a rapidly
approaching obstacle) when obstructing the obstacle, if the
speed was too high. To circumvent the obstacle or move
96 Frederik Valocky et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 52-27 (2019) 92–97
backwards depending on the distance and the rotation
angle, the following condition was created in the code:
Listing 4. Backward and rotation code example.
1: if ( distance < 20) {
2: // distance in mm which you need to move backward
3: if ( angle < 90)
4: // angle at which it is necessary to engage
5: ctrlCar (90 , BACKWARD , 95);
6: // ctrlCar - command for car controll
7: else
8: ctrlCar (90 , BACKWARD , 95);
9: } Marano, Miroslav Voznak, and Francesco Strangis. Mo-
10: else if ( distance < 50) {
11: // distance in mm which you need to move forward
12: if ( angle < 90)
13: // angle at which it moves forward
14: ctrlCar (135 , FORWARD , motorSpeed );
15: else
16: ctrlCar (45 , FORWARD , motorSpeed );
17: } Peppino Fazio, Mauro Tropea, Floriano De Rango, and
18: else {
19: // no obstacle , goes straight ahead
20: ctrlCar (90 , FORWARD , motorSpeed );
In this context, it is still necessary to explain the ctrlCar
command control function. This command was created to
make writing easier to manage. The ctrlCar command
has three parameters. The first parameter specifies the
position of the servomotor (i.e., wheel positions). This pa-
rameter is an integer. This code represents a 90◦ precision
center - so the vehicle moves straight in the direction of
travel. The second parameter is defined at the beginning
of the code and determines the polarity of the voltage to
which the electric motors are powered, i.e., Whether the
vehicle will move forward or backward - this parameter can
only have two pre-defined options (forward / backward).
The third parameter is an integer that determines speed
of DC motors. The speed has an integer value of 95. When
moving forward, the value of the variable at the beginning
of the code is specified as motorSpeed (value 140). Other
parts of the code provide for reading and reversing data
from electric motors, servomotors, and ultrasonic sensors.
4. CONCLUSION
We summarized our latest results from developing the
prototype for autonomous vehicles. The obtained results
shows that miniature model might be a very promising
way for testing the new technologies in this area. The
most crucial part for future research should be focused
on several topics: (i) precise navigation system, (ii) fast
real-time obstacle detection (in the paper was introduced
slow-speed detection, but more research in fast real-time
detection must be done), (iii) security issue of the 802.11
channel (WiFi or cellular networks will be the future
communication technology for autonomous cars, but these
communication channels often come also with many se-
curity concerns and issues), and (iv) vehicle-to-vehicle
communication model or vehicle-to-operator model.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The paper was partially supported by the Slovak Research
and Development Agency, grant No. APVV-17-0190 and
the Slovak Cultural Educational Grant Agency, grant No.
038STU-4/2018.
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