Research (Study Notes)

I – Introduction
M – Methods (Materials)
R – Results
A – & / and
D – Discussion (Conclusion)
What is Science?
Science is
- a way in which answers related to NATURAL events are proposed
- a way in which people can learn and UNDERSTAND events in the NATURAL WORLD
- based on OBSERVABLE EVENTS
- a study of the NATURAL WORLD
- a method of DISCOVERY and UNDERSTANDING by using a PROBLEM SOLVING
processs called the???
6 Steps to the Scientific Method
1. Make an observation
2. Form a hypothesis
3. Test the hypothesis
4. Collect, Organize and Analyze the Data
5. Draw Conclusions
6. Communicate the results
Step 1: Observation
- Observations based on senses or tools
• Sight, Smell, Touch, etc.
- Observations of natural events usually raise a question
• Why did the water rise when the candle went out?
• Research is usually done to help find out more about the question raised
Step 2: Form a Hypothesis
- Based on your observation a Hypothesis is formed that tries to explain your observation or
answer your question
• A hypothesis tries to predict or determine the outcome of your experiment even before the
experiment is done
• Predictions usually stated in an “If……Then” statement. Ex: If I drop a sock then it will fall
down toward the ground
- HYPOTHESIS MUST BE TESTABLE!
Step 3: Test the Hypothesis
- Controlled Experiments are used to test a hypothesis
• A controlled experiment is an experiment that tests only one factor at a time by
• a control group is compared with an experimental group. Variables are not changed in the
Control Group
• Control groups allows you to see if a changed in a variable creates an observed outcome by
comparing the control group with the exp(experimental) group
• A variable is a factor that changes in a controlled experiment. Variables are changed in the
Exp Group AND SERVE AS THE FACTOR TESTED
Variables
Independent
- The variable being changed in the experiment
Dependent
- The variable that responds to the changed independent variable
- The variable being measured
Step 3: Continued
- Scientist try to design experiments that will clearly show whether a particular VARIABLE
caused an observed outcome
- IF IT CANNOT BE OBSERVED THEN IT CANNOT BE TESTED!!!
• Can we test if a comet impact kill the dinosaurs? Why or Why not?
- Sometimes models are used to represent a real object
• Used when it is difficult to control all of the variables or not possible to test “the real thing”
Step 4: Collect, Organize & Analyze Data
- Data collected from experiments
• Data is defined as recorded observations or measurements (qualitative = description,
quantitative = number data)
• Based on observations
• Utilize tools or senses: sight, smell, temperature change, etc.
- Data is organized in tables, charts and graphs so that it can be more easily analyzed
Step 5: Draw Conclusions
- Scientists decide whether the results of the experiment support a hypothesis
- When the hypothesis is not supported by the tests the scientist must find another explanation
for what they have observed
• NO EXPERIMENT IS A FAILURE: All experiments are observations of real events
Step 6: Communicate the Results
- Results must be communicated in the form of a written paper or presentation
- Communication helps other scientist performing the same experiments to see if the results of
your experiment are the same as their results
• Helps people see if results are repeatable!
Technology
- An application of science to meet the needs of society
- Engineers, inventors and creative people apply scientific knowledge to build new “things” or
tools
- New technology can lead to new scientific discoveries
• Ex: we could not learn about the cells before the inventions of the microscope
Title
- To sum up your work in a single phrase or sentence.
- It need to be clear, specific, and brief.
- Its meaning should be obvious to most readers.
Abstract or Summary
- Summarize the entire report for quick reading.
- It should include your reasons for doing the work, your methods, findings and conclusions
- It need to be both interesting and easy to read
- Recommended after your finished your scientific report
Introduction
- State the research problem or research objectives, establish your hypothesis, provide
justification and state the methods, results and conclusions.
Materials and methods
- Provide an extensive protocol for your experiment which can be repeated by others
Results
- Present your data in a manner that is easy to read and interpret
Discussion
- Discuss the relationships between your results and how they relate to your intial objectives and
hypotheses
- You should also describe the shortcomings and implications of your work
- Provide major conclusions, supported with evidence, and suggest future applications of your
research findings
References
- Acknowledge sources in order to avoid plagiarism and strengthen your arguments with support
from existing literature
Acknowledgement
- Thank who were directly involved in your work
Appendices
- Present additional data that is too extensive to be included within the main body of the text
Differences Between Objective and Subjective
Objective
- Making unbiased, balanced observation based on facts which can be verified
Subjective
- Making assumptions, making interpretations based on personal opinions without any verifiable
facts
- Judgement
- Point of View (POV)
Purpose of Scientific Research
- Concerned with finding answers to questions and gaining knowledge about the universe, or at
least the observable aspect of it
- Aims to investigate and prove unending discoveries; therefore, it builds scientific knowledge
- Possible with the help of variety of research methodologies in order to answer these questions
and acquire this knowledge
Comparison Between Science, Mathematics and Social Science
SCIENCE MATHEMATICS SOCIAL SCIENCE
Matter and its interaction Symbols and definitions Man and Society
Looking for the material Looking for new symbols and Looks for relationship
world procedures between man and society
Science
- Scholarly activity of the material world
- Imperfect, incomplete, limited, observable, creative, predictive and ruthless
- Contributed something NEW and must be published in journals to be called scientist
1. New observations 6. New errors (correction of errors)
2. New devices 7. New synthesis
3. New innovations 8. New species
4. New method 9. New facts
5. New dealing/theory
Not a contribution to Science
- Worked done already
- Observed already
- Reported already
- Removed already
- Studied already
Points to Remember
- Science is expiratory by nature/investigatory approach
- What you generate is different from what you expected
- Teaching science will not make you a scientist
- Continue finding new ideas and published it to be called a SCIENTIST
- Not all body of knowledge is based on Scientific Method. Some are based on theories and
modeling
- Science is based on SCHOLARSHIP which means submitting work for publication
• Why did you do that?
• What did you do?
• How did you do it?
Science Investigatory Project Contents:
Introduction
- General application (avoid definition of term)
- General problem
- Existing solution (disadvantages)
- Existing methods (conventional/disadvantages of the method)
- Offer solutions (advantages)
- Originality (presented so well)
Review of Related Literature and Studies
- Making stories (not copy and paste)
- For justifying why and what you did?
- How is it related to the work I’m working for?
- Include species identification
Methodology
- Discuss existing method
Data Analysis/Results
- Standard deviation/error and comparison with the different concentrations
- Present it in excel for data analysis… example.
Replicate Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
1
2
Conclusion
- Discussion and answer to the problem
- Provide scientific claims
- What is complex in science should be simplified
Recommendation
- Specify what to do next
Abstract
- International requirement
- Emphasize uniqueness and originality of work to be potential
- Avoid common studies like Lead(Pb), Cadmium(Cd), Mercury(Hg) and other heavy metals
Science CAN’T prove anything, solve any problem or answer any question
- Science actually attempts to disprove ideas (hypotheses)
- Science is limited strictly to solving problems about the physical and natural world
- Explanations based on supernatural forces, values or ethics can never be disproved and thus do
not tail under the realm of science
Different scientist may get different solutions to the same problem
- Results can be influenced by the race, gender, nationality, religion, politics or economic
interests of the scientist
- Sampling or measurement bias can result in different solutions to the same problem
Science is concerned with understanding how nature and the physical world work
- Science is a process by which we try to understand how the natural and physical world works
and how it came to be that way
Knowledge of what science is, what I can and cannot do, and how it works, is important for
all people
- People need to be able to evaluate scientific information in order to make informal decisions
about
• Health care
• Environmental issues
• Technological advances
 • Public Health issues
What is good science?
- Objectivity is the key to good science
- To be objective, experiments need to be designed and conducted in a way that does not
introduce bias intro the study
Bias
- A prejudiced presentation of material
- A consistent error in estimating a value
Two main types of bias
1. Sampling bias
2. Measurement bias
Sampling Bias
Sample
- A Group of units selected to be “measured” from a larger group (the population)
Sampling bias
- Is introduced when the sample used is not representative of the population or inappropriate for
the question asked
Factors that contribute to sampling bias
SAMPLE SIZE: is the sample big enough to get a good average value?
SELECTION OF SAMPLE: Does the composition of the sample reflect the composition of the
population?
Factors such as location, age, gender, ethnicity, nationality and living environment can affect the
data gathered
How to minimize sample selection bias:
- Use a RANDOM SAMPLE = every individual has an equal likelihood of being chosen
- Limit the question asked to the specific group sampled
 Summary
Good science depends on a well-designed experiment that minimizes bias by using the
appropriate:
- Sample size
- Sample selection
- Measurement techniques
***for the question being investigated
Identifying good science: Look for signs of bias!
- Language
- Appropriate data reported to back conclusions
- Data source
Language
“Scientifically-proven”
- Science does not seek to prove but to disprove
- Be suspicious of this claim
Emotional appeals
- Conclusions should be data-based
- Emotional appeals usually are not data-based
Strong language
- Scientific conclusions should only report what the data supports
- Words should be chosen very carefully to avoid exaggeration or claims not supported by data
THE DATA SHOULD CONVINCE YOU, NOT THE WORDS USED!
Data Source
1. University Research
2. Corporate Research
3. Government Research
4. Research by Special Interest Groups
All organizations produce unbiased data. It’s important to understand the organization’s
motivation to be able to identify potential bias. The need to promote special interest or make
profits may lead to bias.

How to conduct the Review of Related Literature

1. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible
2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased
3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the study
4. Surveyed materials must have been based upon original and true facts or data to make them
valid and reliable
Significance of the Study
- Indicates how important is your investigatory project for the people, environment and
community as a whole.
- It is really relevant in the changing world or global impact into the field of technology
Scope and Limitation
- Covers the range of your research
- Includes the period of the research, the materials and the equipment to be used, the subject of
the study or the sample of the study, the procedure and the statistical treatment to be used
Definition of Terms
2 types
Conceptual
- Definitions which are indicated in dictionaries
Operational
- Definitions based on how the words were used in the study (to be used in our IP)
How to make the Review of Related Literature (Chapter II)
Related Literature
- Composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related
- Sufficient background information should be presented for readers to understand & evaluate the
results of the present study.
- Only the most important studies and theories written on the topic should be included.
Importance of Review of Related Literature
1. It helps or guides the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research problem or topic
2. It helps the investigator understand his topic or research better
3. It ensures that there will be no duplication of other studies
4. It provides the conceptual or theoretical framework of the planned research
5. It gives the researcher a feeling of confidence
6. It provides information about the research methods used
7. It provides findings and conclusions of past investigations
8. Supports and strengthen your present research findings

- Use headings arranged in logical order to indicate main points

- Avoid too long introduction to your main topic
- Include information that are directly related and relevant to your topic
- A maximum of half-page (double-space) must constitute one paragraph
- Do not copy totally the information from your source. Not more than 10% of the entire paper is
allowed for direct quotation
- Give due credit to the real source of your data. Cite authors at the end of the sentence
- Paraphrase using your own words and style the data gathered
- Summarize important points from your sources and relate them to your topic
- Reinforce your data with selected figures or statistics
- A common problem in writing RRL is that it can turn onto a boring of ideas in paragraph form
How to avoid?
- Make transitional phrases and unifying ideas to make information flow smoothly
- Spice your writing with a variety of information. Keep your paper alive!
Replace found out with:
- demonstrates
- presented evidence for
- supported
- observed
- reported
- examined
- concluded
How to write introduction of RRL
- Identify the general topic of the sources under discussion. Thus, you will provide the context or
your review of related literature
- Discuss what was already presented about the topic of your paper
- Explain why the literature used is worth reviewing
How to write the body of RRL
- Group the sources according to their common denominators (approaches, objective or specific
chronologies)
- Give the examples of how to sort out theses group. Use quotations, evidences, data, etc. They
will make your review of related literature more valid
Format:
- Top, right, left, and bottom margin, 1 inch
- Chapter headings and subheads: use consistent style and spacing
- 1.5 space all text (exceptions: quotations of four lines or longer and references)
- Page numbers at least one inch from the edge of the paper
- No form of correction fluid is to be used
- A scientific paper is a format text written in an impersonal, objective, neutral and professional
way
- The writing is concise with specific wordings and formulations
- The writing should be clear as well as lead to a deeper understanding of the subject
Language and Style
1. The language expression of a research report is distinctly scientific
2. Simplicity, conciseness and straightforwardness are main characteristics of scientific writing
3. There is also a need for consistency in the terms used and in the form of expression
4. There must be continuity from chapter to chapter and from section to section
5. The language and style should reflect accurate rule in grammar, correct spelling and correct
punctuation. Passive voice of the verb should be used
6. The first person is not used in order that the style does not become personal. The words, I,
MY, ME, & MINE should be avoided
7. Description of methodology should be in the PAST (except in the proposal). Regarding
numbers that begin a sentences these numbers should always be written as words. In the middle
of sentences numbers under 10 should be spelled out as words but 10 above should be written as
number