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Earth Coordinate Systems
Latitude/Longitude : Location of any point on earth is defined by its

Latitude (LAT) and Longitude (LON) coordinates.
Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

MK TP 3317 Navigasi dan Panduan Terbang
Basic Direction on the Earth
To start to define directions on the earth, a datum must be selected and the
simplest datum is the direction in which the earth is spinning which is then
defined east. West is then defined as the opposite of east.
Facing East, the pole on the left is called the North Pole. The pole
diametrically opposite the North is called the South Pole.

Cardinal and Quadrantal Points

Direction on the earth is measured in degrees clockwise from North. When the
North datum is the direction of the North geographic pole, it is referred to as
True Direction.
North is referred to as 000o (T)

East is referred to as 090o (T)
South is referred to as 180o (T)
West is referred to as 270o (T)

Circle in the Earth
1. Great Circle
• A circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are those of the
earth itself is called a Great Circle.
• it is called ‘great’ because a disc cut through the earth in the plane of the
great circle would have the largest area that can be achieved.
• The shortest distance between two points on the Earth surface is the shorter
arc of the Great Circle joining the two points.
• Given two points on the earth’s surface, there will be only one Great Circle
joining them (unless the points are diametrically opposed).
Great Circle

2. The Equator
• the great circle whose plane is at 90o to the axis of rotation of the earth (the polar
axis)
• lies in East-West direction and divides the earth equally into two hemispheres
• the datum for defining Latitude
• the equivalent of the X axis of the Cartesian system

3. The Meridians
• Meridians are semi-Great circles joining the North and South poles
• All meridians indicate True North-South direction.
• Every Great Circle passing through the poles forms a meridians and its anti-
meridian.
• the meridians cross the Equator at 90o.

4. The Prime (Greenwich) Meridian
• semi-Great circles joining the North and South poles
• cross equator at 90o
• passing through Greenwich
• the datum for defining Longitude
• the equivalent of the Y axis of the Cartesian system

5. Small Circle
• A circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are not those of the
earth
• The main small circles of relevance to position are the parallels of latitude
6. Parallels of latitude
• The parallels of latitude are small circles on the surface of the earth whose
planes are parallel to the equator.
• They lie in an East-West direction
• Their function is to indicate position North or South of the Equator

Graticule
• The network on a map or the surface of a globe by the Prime Meridian, the
Meridian, the Equator and the parallels of latitude.
• The graticule is an analogy on the earth’s surface of the X, Y grid on graph
paper.
• Using graticule, the position of any points can be accurately and
unambiguously defined.

Graticule on a globe

Latitude
• the arc (angular distance) measured along the meridian through the point from
equator to the point
• expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds of arc
• annotated North or South according to whether the points lies North or South of
the Equator
• Latitude 14 degrees North could be expressed as :
14 N or 14o N or 1400 N or 14o00’ N
or 14o00’00” N

Longitude
• the shorter distance in the arc along the Equator between the Prime Meridian
and the meridian through the point
• expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds of arc
• annotated East or West depending whether the point lies East or West of the
Prime Meridian (Greenwich)
• Latitude 15 degrees East could be expressed as :
015 E or 015o E or 01500 E or 015o00’ E
or 015o00’00” E

Example : The position of New York city is 41oN 74oW

The Rhumb Line
A Rhumb Line is regularly curved line on the surface of the earth which cuts all
meridians at the same angle (a line of constant direction).

Comparing the Great Circle and The Rhumb Line

Mercator projection with great circle track added.

As with Great Circle, there is only one Rhumb Line that can be drawn between 2
points.
Examples of common Rhumb Lines are :

• Parallels of Latitude (because they cut all meridians at 90o)
• Equator (a special case because the Equator is also a Great Circle)
• Meridians (are also Great Circles and the cut angle involved is 0o)
The Rhumb Line between 2 points will always lie nearer to the Equator than the
corresponding Great Circle. Conversely, The Great Circle between 2 points will
always lie nearer the Pole than the Rhumb Line.

The only line which are both Great Circles and Rhumb Lines are Equator and
any meridian (along with its associated anti-meridian).
There are no other lines that are both Great Circles and Rhumb Lines.
The parallels of latitude are Rhumb Lines because they cut all meridians at 90o,
but they are Small Circles as they do not have the same radius and centre as the
Earth.

Great Circle Direction
The direction of the Great Circle over the Earth’s surface change.
The Great Circle track is always nearer to the nearer pole.

Northern hemisphere.
Consider the track left to right in the Northern hemisphere (Rhumb Line track of
090o).
• If heading in an Easterly direction, the Great Circle track starts with an initial
direction of about 030o, then curves round to 090o and finishes up on about
150o. In other words, the track direction is increasing.
• If heading in an Westerly direction, the Great Circle track starts with an initial
210o. In other words, the track direction is decreasing.

Southern hemisphere.
Consider the track left to right in the Southern hemisphere (Rhumb Line track of
090o).
• If heading in an Easterly direction, the Great Circle track starts with an initial
030o. In other words, the track direction is decreasing.
• If heading in an Westerly direction, the Great Circle track starts with an initial
330o. In other words, the track direction is increasing.

Change in direction of great circle tracks.

Great Circle Distances
The calculation of great circle distances are limited to those where the 2 points lie
on the special great circles : on the same meridian, on meridian and anti-
meridian or on the equator.

Example 1
What is the shortest (great circle) distance between (A) London (5137 N
00012 W) and (B) Accra (0648 N and 00012 W) ?

The angular distance
= 51o37’ – 06o48’
= 44o49’
Convert the angular distance

into linier distance.
= 44o49’
= (44 x 60) + 49
= 2689 minutes of latitude
= 2689 nms

Example 2
What is the shortest (great circle) distance between (D) Durban (2930 S
03030 E) and (E) Leningrad (5947 N and 03030 E) ?

= 29o30’ + 59o47’
= 89o17’
Convert the angular

distance into linier
distance.
= 89o17’
= (89 x 60) + 17
= 5357 nm

Example 3
What is the shortest (great circle) distance between (F)
Rome (4155 N 01110 E) and (G) Honolulu (2117 N and
16850 W) ?
On meridian and anti meridian

= 011o10’ + 168o50’ = 180o

= 180o – (41o55’ +
21o17’)
= 116o48’
Convert the angular

distance.
= 116o48’
= (116 x 60) + 48
= 7008 nm

Example 4
What is the shortest distance between (J) Tokyo (3557 N
13535 E) and
(K) Rio de Janeiro (2210 S and 04425 W) ?
If the angle are drawn reasonably accurately, it is

possible by inspection to see that the shortest distance
between J and K is again via the North Pole.

= (90o – 35o57’) +
90o + 22o10’
= 166o13’
Convert the angular

distance.
= 166o13’
= (166 x 60) + 13
= 9973 nm

Example 5
What is the shortest distance between (L) Dakar (0000
N 01635 W) and
(M) Singapore (0000 N 10355 E) ?

= (016o35’ + 103o55’
= 120o30’
Convert the angular

distance.
= 120o30’
= (120 x 60) + 30
= 7230 nm

Excercise
1. What is the change of latitude between the following
positions:
a. 52o15’N to 39o35’N
b. 49o35’N to 60o20’S
c. 74o20’S to 34o30’S
d. 71o20’N to 86o45’N over the north pole

2. What is the change of longitude between the following
positions:
a. 075o45’W to 125o35’W
b. 001o20’E to 004o20’W
c. 150o40’E to 179o30’E
d. 162o36’W to 140o42’E
3. What is the difference in nautical miles from position A

(41o25’N) to position B (79o30’N). Both are on the same
meridian.

4. An aircraft is to fly from position 72o00’N 002o30’E to position
72o00’N 177o30’W on the shortest possible route.
a. Give the initial (True) track direction
b. Will the track information remain the same for the whole
flight ?
c. Give a reason for the answer given in b above
5. An aircraft is at position A at 54o20’N 002o30’W. Given a ch.lat
of 16o20’N and a ch.long of 020o30’W to B, what is the
position of B?
6. An aircraft is at position C at 36o47’S 179o21’E. Given a ch.lat
of 46o47’N and a ch.long of 20o30’E to D, what is the position
of D?

DIRECTION

Direction in navigation are normally measured clockwise from
a given datum.
True direction was defined as being related to the geographic

North and South poles (the two ends if the axis of the Earth’s
rotation.
The Earth has two ‘magnetic poles’ which are not co-located
with the geographic poles and have a very small annual
movement within the Earth.

Magnetic North is the (horizontal) direction indicated by a
freely suspended magnet influenced only by the Earth’s
magnetic field; this direction is also referred to as the magnetic
meridian at that point.
Magnetic direction is measured from magnetic North

clockwise through 360o and is suffixed by the letter (M).

Variation
The angular difference between True and Magnetic North

directions at any point is called the angle of variation.
Variation is the angle between True North and Magnetic North

and is measured in degrees East or West from True North.
When Magnetic direction is the same as True direction the

variation is nil. Magnetic North direction may lie either to the
West or East of the True North Direction.
Idealized model of world variation

For an aircraft flying between the North True Pole and the
North Magnetic Pole, the variation on that shorter arc of the
Great Circle is not zero, it is 180o.

Westerly Variation
Variation West then Magnetic Best.
The Direction of the aircraft relative to True

North is 105o.
The Direction of the aircraft relative to
Magnetic North is 122o.
Magnetic North is to the West of the True
North of True North.
Variation is 14oW.

Easterly Variation
Variation East then Magnetic Least.

The Direction of the aircraft relative to True
North is 105o.
Magnetic North is to the East of the True
North of True North.
Variation is 14oE.

Deviation
Any ferromagnetic material (iron or steel) or electrical circuits

in an aircraft may well have a magnetic field which will affect
the compass, so that the direction indicated by the compass
needle will not be magnetic north.
Deviation is the angle between Magnetic North and compass

North measured in degrees east or west from magnetic north

Westerly Deviation
Deviation West then Compass Best.
The direction of the aircraft relative to True

North is 100o.
The direction of the aircraft indicated by the
Compass is 135o.

Easterly Deviation
Deviation East then Compass Least.
The direction of the aircraft relative to True

North is 100o.
The direction of the aircraft indicated by the
Compass is 115o.

Example 1
An aircraft is steering 247o on the compass. The variation is 13oE and

there is 1oW compass deviation. What is the aircraft’s true heading ?
Solution
Deviation west, which means the heading o(M) is less than compass
Heading o(M) = 247o - 1o = 246o(M)
Variation east, which means the heading o(T) is greater than magnetic
Heading o(T) = 246o + 13o = 259o(T)

Example 2
An aircraft is to fly a heading of 090o(T). If the variation is

6oW and the compass deviation is 3oW, what heading is
required on the compass to achieve the desired true heading ?
Solution
Variation west, which means the heading o(M) is greater
Heading o(M) = 090o + 6o = 096o(M)
Deviation west, which means the heading o(C) is greater
Heading o(C) = 096o + 3o = 099o(C)
Problem

TRIANGLE
OF
VELOCITIES
Heading is the direction in which the aircraft is pointing. This is not
necessarily the direction in which it is tracking over the ground. If
there is any crosswind component, there will be a difference between
the direction in which the aircraft is pointing and the direction in
which it is travelling.
Heading is defined as the direction in which the fore and aft axis of the
aircraft is pointing; it may be measured from True, Magnetic, or
Compass North.

Track is the direction of the aircraft’s path over the ground. It may be
measured from True or Magnetic North.
Drift is the difference between heading and track.

The Effect of Wind
Aircraft do not always travel in the direction in which they are

pointed. If there is any cross-wind, the track will be different from the
heading.

Imagine a river 10 NM wide.

The component of triangle velocities
1. The Air Vector

• The Air Vector consists of Heading and True Airspeed (TAS).
• TAS is the true speed of the aircraft through the air, it is the
speed that the aircraft would travel over the ground if there
were no wind.
• The Air Vector is always drawn with one direction arrow.

2. The Wind Vector
• The Wind Vector consists of Wind Direction and Wind Speed.
• Wind direction is always given in terms of the direction that the
wind has come from, not where it is blowing to.

3. The Ground Vector
• The Ground Vector is drawn by joining up the Air Vector and
The Wind Vector.
• The resultant vector is Track and Ground Speed.
• The Ground Vector is always drawn with 2 direction arrows.

Example :
You are in a Warrior PA 28.
TAS is 100 knots.
Heading of 000o(T).
The forecast W/V is 240/30.
What will be your track and ground speed ?

CONVERGENCY
AND
CONVERSION ANGLE
Meridians are great semi-circles joining the poles. From this it follows
that meridians converge as they run towards the nearer pole, and
diverge as they run away from the nearer pole.

It is reasonably easy to see that two meridians, say, 60 degrees of
longitudinal apart, must be parallel to each other at the Equator.

At the pole, however, they will converge at an angle exactly equal to
their difference in longitude (in this case is 60o).

It also follows that at some intermediate latitude, there will be an
intermediate amount of convergence. The angle of inclination of the 2
meridians will be more than zero (the value at the equator), but less
than 60o (the value at the pole).

Convergency
The angle is known as convergency or as Earth Convergence.
Convergency is defined as the angle of inclination between two
selected meridians measured at a given latitude.

Position Latitude Change of Convergency Convergency
Longitude Ch. long
Equator 0o 60o 0o 0
Pole 90o 60o 60o 1
At the equator, where the latitude is 0o, (convergency/ch.long) is zero. At the

Poles, where the latitude is 90o, (convergency/ch.long) is a factor of one.

Therefore the relationship between convergency and latitude is a function of
the sine of the latitude.
This give us the formula :
Convergency = Change in Longitude x Sine Latitude

In the figure, the latitude is 30o N and the
change of longitude is 40o.
Therefore :
Convergency = 40o x sin(30o)
= 20o

Convergency and the Great Circle Track
At any point on the Earth, True North is defined with reference to the
direction of the local meridian. If the aircraft are at a different meridian in
flight from the point at which the aircraft started, the aircraft local direction
of True north has changed.
The change in great circle track direction is the angle of inclination of the
meridians at the 2 points where the track is measured.

The great circle direction at meridian X
is represented by the angle ‘a’ an the
great circle direction at meridian Y by
the angle ‘b’. The difference between the
two is ‘b’ – ‘a’ = convergency.

In this case, however, the meridians are not crossed by the great circle at the
same latitude.
To summarize, convergency is the angle of inclination between two selected

meridians measured at a given latitude and is equal to the difference between
the great circle directions measured at each meridian. Its value may be
calculated from the formula :
Convergency = Change of Longitude x Sine Mean Latitude

Example 1 :
The initial great circle track from A (4000 N 00200 W) to B (5000 N 01000
E) is 060o(T). What is the initial great circle track from B to A ?

Conversion Angle
Now consider both the great circle
and the rhumb lines running from A
(30 N 020W) to B (30 N 020 E).
The rhumb line (shown in red) is the

parallel of latitude of 30 N and
therefore has a constant track
direction of 090o (T) at any point
along it.

However, the great circle changes direction. The diagram shows that it
leaves A on a track angle of less than 090o (T) and crosses B on a track angle
of more than 090o (T).
Conversion angle is the difference between great circle direction and rhumb
line direction joining two given points.
Conversion angle is ½ convergency.
Conversion angle = ½ change of longitude x sin (mean latitude)

Great Circle is green.
Rhumb Line is red.

Example 1 :
a. Determine the value of convergency between J (5812N 00400W) and K

(5812N 00600E).
b. What is the Rhumb Line track from J to K ?
c. What is the initial great circle track from K to J ?

Example 2 :
Given that :
A is 55N 000E.
B is 54N 010E, if the initial true great circle track from A to B is 100o (T),
what is the true Rhumb Line track at A ?

Example 3 :
The convergency of the meridians through M and N which are in the

Southern Hemisphere is 12o.
If the rhumb line track from M to N is 249o (T), what is the great circle track
:
a. From M to N ?
b. From N to M ?


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Earth Coordinate Systems

Latitude/Longitude : Location of any point on earth is defined by its

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

North is referred to as 000o (T)

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Examples of common Rhumb Lines are :

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

The Great Circle track is always nearer to the nearer pole.

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Convert the angular distance

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Convert the angular

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

On meridian and anti meridian

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Convert the angular

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

If the angle are drawn reasonably accurately, it is

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Convert the angular

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Convert the angular

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

3. What is the difference in nautical miles from position A

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

True direction was defined as being related to the geographic

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Magnetic direction is measured from magnetic North

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

The angular difference between True and Magnetic North

Variation is the angle between True North and Magnetic North

When Magnetic direction is the same as True direction the

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

The Direction of the aircraft relative to True

Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Adisutjipto, Yogyakarta

Variation East then Magnetic Least.