General Navigation

Great Circle
 A circle on the surface of earth whose centre and radius is same as that of the earth. The
plane of the great circle passes through the centre of the earth. It is the largest possible
circle on the surface of the earth. It divides the sphere in two equal hemispheres.
 GC called ‘great’ because a disc cut through the earth in the plane of the GC would have
the largest area that can be achieved.
 For short flights it is not possible to use GC tracks because it is not constant in
direction.
 Infinite number of GC can be drawn through two points which are diametrically opposite.
 Radio Bearings: radio signals follow GC paths and this will be an important point when
dealing with plotting of radio bearings.

Small Circle
 Circle on the surface of a sphere whose centre and radius is not that of the sphere. The
plane also does not pass through the centre of the sphere. The main small circles of
reference to position are the parallels of latitude.
 Parallels of latitude: are small circles on the surface of the earth whose planes are
parallel to the equator. They lie in the east west direction. Their function is to indicate
position north or south of the equator.

Equator
 Is a GC on the surface of the earth whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of
earth. In other words, it lies in the east west direction. Any two places on the equator will
lie east west of each other.

Poles
 Are defines as the extremities of the axis about which the earth spins.
 True North: is the direction of the north geographical pole. All directions which are
measured clockwise from 0 degrees- 360 degrees with true north as datum are called true
directions.
 Magnetic North: when a magnetic needle is suspended freely influenced only by earth’s
magnetic field it will wind towards magnetic north. The directions indicated by this
freely suspended needle under the influence of earth’s magnetic field is called magnetic
north. The directions which are measured clockwise with magnetic north as datum are
called magnetic directions, measured from 0 – 360 degrees clockwise.
 Compass North: when a compass is installed in the aircraft it is subjected to influence of
many metallic and electrical components, which cause it to deviate from the direction
of magnetic north. The direction indicated by the north seeking end of a compass needle
under various influences is called compass north. The directions which are measured
clockwise with compass north as datum are called compass directions.
Keppler Laws
 First Law: The orbit of each planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of the foci. A planet
travels around the sun in an elliptical orbit, not a spherical orbit.
 Second Law: The line joining the planet to the sun, known as the radius vector, sweeps
out equal areas in equal time. In an elliptical planetary orbit, the orbital speed is fastest at
perihelion and slowest at aphelion.
Perhelion(closest point): Occurs on 4th Jan(First week of Jan)
Aphelion(futherest point): Occurs on 4th July(First week of July)
 III. The square of the satellite’s orbital period is proportional to the cube of its average
distance.
Foci: If we draw a circle, with the starting point as centre of Sphere and then sweeping out a
circumference with the radius, we have a circle. In an ellipse, there are two centres (F1 & F2)
such that the distance from F1 to the circumference and the point F2 is always constant.

Solar System
 Consists of the sun, nine major planets and about 2000 minor planets and asteroids. The
earth is the third planet from the sun and orbits the sun in an elliptical orbit at an
average distance of 93 million SM from the sun.
 The earth axis is inclined at an angle of 66.5 degrees to the orbital plane. The
inclination of the earth’s axis is the cause of the seasons and of the changing time interval
between sunrise and sunset throughout the year.

Q. What is the shape of the Earth/ Why is it an oblate spheroid?:

The shape of the earth is not a perfect Sphere but an Oblate spheroid. It is a sphere which is
slightly flattened at poles. The flattening of the poles is called compression or ellipticity and in
the case of the earth is approximately 1/300. The earth’s polar diameter is 27 SM (43 KM) less
than its equatorial diameter.
  Equatorial diameter: 6883.7 NM.
 Polar diameter: 6850.5 NM.
 Cardinal: N, S, E, W.
 Quadrantal Directions: NE, NW, SE, SW.

Meridians and Anti-meridians

 Meridians are semi-great circles joining the North and South poles. Every GC passing
through the poles forms a meridian and its anti-meridian. The meridian crosses the
equator at 90 degrees. All meridians indicate true north south direction. Meridians are
semi-GC`s and Rhumb lines.

Graticule
 The network formed on a map or the surface of a globe by the prime meridian, the
meridians, the equator and the parallels of latitude is called the Graticule. It is an analogy
on the earth’s surface of the X, Y grid on graph paper.

Rhumb Line
 Is a regularly curved line on the surface of the earth which cuts all the meridians at the
same angle. It is a line of constant direction. It is also called as loxodromes.
 Lines on the surface of the earth that has constant true direction.
 The meridians converge towards the pole. Therefore, the rhumb line has to curve towards
the equator enroute in order to make equal angles at all successive meridians.

Prime Meridian
 Is the meridian passing through Greenwich. It is the datum meridian for defining
longitude and is equivalent of the Y-axis of the Cartesian system.

Latitude
 Latitude of any point is the arc (angular distance) of a meridian between equator and the
place and it is named north or south according to whether the place is north or south of
equator. OR Latitude of any point is the angle subtended at the centre of the earth
between the Equator & a point on the surface of the earth measured along a meridian.
Q. What is the difference between Geocentric & Geodetic Latitude?
Geocentric Latitude is the angle subtended at the centre of the earth between the Equator and a
point on the surface of the earth measured along a meridian. This is the Geocentric Latitude, but
the earth is not a perfect sphere, it is an oblate spheroid.
Geographic(Geodetic) Latitude is the smaller angle between the normal to the meridian at the
point on the spheroid and the plane of the Equator. Max difference is 11. 6 minutes at occurs at
45° N/S.
 Change of latitude: is the arc of any meridian between parallels of latitude of each place.
It is named north or south according to the direction of change.
Special cases of parallels of latitude
 Arctic Circle: 66.5°N
 Antarctic Circle: 66.5° S
 Tropic of Cancer: 23.5 °N (sun is overhead the tropic of cancer on mid summer day in
the northern hemisphere)
 Tropic of Capricorn: 23.5 ° S (sun is overhead the tropic of Capricorn on mid winter day
in the northern hemisphere)

Longitude
 Longitude of any point is the shorter angular distance measured along the Equator
between the Prime meridian and the meridian through that point. They are measured and
named east or west according to whether the place is east or west of the prime meridian.
 Change of longitude: is the smaller arc of equator between their respective meridians. It
is named east or west according to the direction of change.

Q. What is the difference between Convergency & Conversion Angle? (also called Earth
convergency)
 Is defined as the angle of inclination between any two selected meridians on the earth
measured at given latitude. It increases with increase of latitude and change in longitude.
 Conversion angle is defined as the angular difference between the GC bearing and the RL
bearing.
 CA is half of convergency. It is necessary to apply CA at the place where GC direction is
measured.
 Rhumb line is always on equatorial side of GC.
 CA increases with increase in change in longitude and increase in latitude.

Definitions
 Variation is defined as the angular difference between TN and MN. It can also be
defined as the angle measured at a point between the TN direction and the direction
indicated by a freely suspended compass needle influenced by earth’s magnetic field.
 Deviation is defined as the angular difference between CN and MN. It can also be
defined as the angle measured at a point between the direction indicated by a compass
needle and the direction indicated by a freely suspended magnet under the influence of
Earth`s magnetic field.
 Heading is the direction in which the fore and aft axis of the aircraft is pointing.
 Track is the path of the aircraft described by it on the surface of the earth.
 Track Error is the angular difference between the required/ desired/ planned track and
the TMG.
 TMG is the path the aircraft has actually followed.
 Drift is the angular difference between the heading of the aircraft and the TMG, and is
denoted Port or starboard by measuring it from Hdg.
 Isogonals are lines on a map or a chart joining places of equal magnetic variation.
  Angle of dip is the angle in the vertical plane between the horizontal and the earth’s
magnetic field at a point.
 Departure is the distance between two meridians along a specified parallel of latitude,
usually in nautical miles. It is the distance moved east or west. This distance is RL
distance. Dep = Ch. Long in mins * Cos( Lat)
 Scale is the ratio between the chart length and the earth distance that it represents on
earth. It is the relationship between the length of a line drawn between two positions on a
chart and the distance on the earth between the same points.
 1:60 rule: At a range of 60 units, an angle of one degree subtends an arc (distance) of 1
unit.
 Relative Bearing: is the bearing of the object measured clockwise from the heading of
an aircraft.
 Note: Isoclinic and Aclinic lines do not appear on navigation charts.

Units of distances
 Nautical Mile : The ICAO definition of nautical mile is that it is a measure of 1852mts.
A nautical mile is a unit of length that is about one minute of arc of latitude measured
along any meridian, or about one minute of arc of longitude measured at the Equator
ONLY.
 The arc of a meridian subtending an angle of 1 minute at the centre of curvature of the
earth is a Nautical mile. It is also known as sea mile.
 At equator one minute of latitude: 6040 feet. At poles one minute of latitude: 6107 feet.
Therefore, average length of one minute of latitude is taken as 6080 feet.
 Statue Mile may be defined as an arbitrary unit of distance as decided by a statue of
Queen Elizabeth that 1 SM = 5280 feet. It is also known as English miles.
 Kilometer is defined as 1/10000th part of average distance between equator and either
pole. Thus, there are 10,000kms between equator and either pole & the circumference of
the Earth is 40000kms/ 21600nm.

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Projections
Q. What is a projection? What are the types of Projections?
Projection: The transfer of information from a globe onto a flat paper chart is achieved by a
projection. It is a representation on a flat sheet of the earth’s Graticule of meridians and
parallels. Types of projections are:
Azimuthal; Conical & Cylindrical projections.
1) Perspective projection: charts produced directly from a projection. These types of
projections are also called geometric projections.
2) Non-perspective projection: charts produced by means of mathematical methods.
3) True Projection: one produced by geometrical or optical projection
4) Modified Projection: one that has been adjusted from a true projection.
 Q. What is the Reduced Earth model?
Reduced earth model means the scale model of the earth on which the projection of the
chart is based.

R. Conformality/ Orthomorphism: 1. Scale about a given point is uniform in all

directions. 2. Navigation Bearings are correctly represented. 3. Critical property is angles
represented on the Earth must be correctly represented on the chart.
S. Test of Orthomorphism: meridians and parallels of latitude cut each other at right
angles.

Topographical Maps
 Water: colour used is blue.
 Woods: colour used is green.
 Roads: colour used is red lines.
 Railways: colour used is black lines.

Scale Factor
 Scale factor is the ratio of Chart Length and Reduced Earth Length.
 Scale is correct when Chart Length and Reduced Earth Length are equal. (SF is 1)

What are the navigation requirements for an ideal chart?

1) RL should be straight lines
2) GC should be straight lines
3) Latitudes and longitudes should be easy to plot
4) Adjacent sheets should fit correctly
5) Coverage should be worldwide
6) ICAO Annex 4 recommends that when selecting charts a conformal projection on which
a straight line approximates a great circle should be used.

Mercator Projection:
 Mercator projection is produced by a cylindrical sheet of paper which touches the
reduced earth tangentially all around the equator; with the light source at the centre of the
reduced earth, the Graticule was projected onto the cylinder.
 It is an Orthomorphic; Non-perspective projection(modified mathematically by
Flemish Kremer.
 Graticule is rectangular. Meridians are equally spaced parallel lines. Parallels of latitude
are unequally spaced parallel lines; spacing between them increases as Secant of latitude.
 Rhumb Line: As the meridians are parallel lines, a straight line track drawn on the chart
will cut all the meridians at the same angle. Therefore, RL is a straight line, everywhere!
 Great circle : The equator and the meridians are great circles but they are straight lines.
Other G/C`s will be curved line convex to the nearer pole OR curved concave towards
 the equator & RL. The GC between two points will always lie nearer to the pole than the
RL.
 Chart convergency is defined as the angle of inclination between any two selected
meridians on the chart measured at given latitude. It is zero all over the chart. It is correct
at the equator. At all latitudes apart from the equator, chart convergence is less than the
earth convergence.
 Scale is correct at the equator. At the equator the scale factor is 1. It expands away from
the equator; at a rate proportional to the secant of latitude.
Scale is correct upto 1% from Equator to 8°
Scale is correct upto ½ % from Equator to 6°.
 Uses: 1. RL flying. 2. Plotting map series. 3. Topographical maps. 4.Represent world
maps.
Q. What are the advantages & shortcomings of a Mercator projection?
Advantages: R/L is projected as a straight line on a Mercator projection. The Graticule is
rectangular which makes plotting easier. Aircraft compasses detect Local north making
steering easy.
Shortcomings/ Disadvantages: Radio waves follow G/C paths. G/C is not a straight line.
Conversion angle needs to be applied to R/L for plotting.
The chart has coverage only upto 75°N/S beyond which distortion occurs to a greater extent.
It is not a constant scale chart.
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Lambert Projection
 There are certain shortcomings of the Mercator`s projection and the major one being that
G/C was not a straight line on the Mercator. Hence, the need for Lambert`s projection.
 It is possible to project the Graticule of the earth on to the inside the surface of a cone. A
cone is placed over a reduced earth, in such a way that the cone is tangential with the
reduced earth along a parallel of latitude.
 Orthomorphic: All projections used for navigation are required to be orthomorphic.
Q. What is Lambert’s Conical Orthomorphic Projection?
The Lambert`s projection was modified mathematically from the Simple conical
projection(because it wasn`t orthomorphic) by German mathematician Johan Lambert in
1777. It is a conical projection because it is produced by placing a cone on the Reduced
Earth which intersects the earth at two parallels of latitude. It is an orthomorphic
projection as bearings are correctly represented, angles and shapes on the earth are same
as that on the chart and scale is constant in all directions.
 Graticule. Meridians are straight lines radiating from the pole. Parallels of latitude are
arcs of circles, all of which are centred at the pole, not evenly spaced. Distance increases
towards the pole.
 Rhumb lines: Curves concave to the pole of the projection.
 Great circles: At the parallel of origin, near straight line; elsewhere they are slightly
curved lines concave to the parallel of origin.
 Chart convergency: is correct at the parallel of origin. It is constant all over the sheet;
given by Chart convergence= CH. Long * sine(Parallel of origin).
  Parallel of Origin: is the parallel of latitude on which the projection is based
mathematically. It may be assumed to be half way between the two standard parallels.
 Scale: Scale is correct on the standard parallels, it expands outside until it is correct at
the standard parallels and contracts within the Std. parallels.
 Advantages: 1. Although GC are curves, they can be assumed to be as straight lines.
2. If the chart is one on which scale can be considered constant, a ruler can be used to measure
distances.
 Disadvantages: 1. Graticule is not rectangular. 2. Complication arises in the plotting of
bearings measured by the aircraft.
 Uses: 1. Used for flights with large change in longitude. 2. Visual flying maps. 3. Airline
maps – Jeppesen are based on Lambert`s Conformal Conical projection.
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Polar Stereographic Projection

 The Polar Stereographic Projection is an Azimuthal perspective projection in which a
plain sheet of paper touches the reduced Earth model at either poles and the light source
is at the opposite pole. Point of projection is diametrically opposite to point of tangency.
 Orthomorphic: It is an orthomorphic projection; all projections used for navigation
must be orthomorphic.
 Graticule: Meridians are straight lines radiating out from the pole. The angle between the
meridians is same as the change in longitude. Parallels of latitude are concentric circles.
Their radii expand away from the pole at the rate Sec2 ½ Colat.
What is Co-Lat= Co-Latitude is (90°- the Latitude). If the Latitude is 30° then Co-
Latitude is 90 – 30 = 60°.
 Rhumb line curved concave towards the nearer pole.
 Great circles are curved lines concave towards the nearer pole. Curvature of the GC is
less than that of Rhumb lines. Great circle is taken as a straight line in polar regions at
latitudes of 70°and above.
 Chart convergency is correct at the pole. The angle is same as the change in longitude.
 Scale is correct at the point of tangency only. Expands away from it as Sec 2 (½ Co-lat). It
is considered constant nearer the pole.
Scale is within 1% from 90° to 78°.
Scale is within 3% from 78°-70°.
 This type of chart fits well with the Mercator and is easy to construct.
 Uses: 1. Used in polar navigation as Mercator and Lambert`s can`t be used. . 2.
Topographical map of polar regions.
 Equatorial Stereographic: The point of tangency is on the equator.
 Oblique Stereographic: The point of tangency is on the point other than the pole and the
equator.
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Transverse Mercator Projection
 Cylinder touches a given meridian and its anti-meridian.
 Point of projection is centre of the earth.
 Graticule. The central meridian and two meridians removed 90 degrees from centre
meridian are straight lines. Parallels of latitude are nearly circles near the pole and
become elliptical as distance from the pole increases. Equator appears at 3 places.
 Orthomorphic.
 Rhumb line curved concave towards the nearer pole.
 Great circle at 90 degrees to central meridian is straight line, all else is a complex curved
line.
 Scale is correct at the central meridian. At any other point it varies as secant of great
circle distance from the central meridian.
 Chart convergency is correct at the poles and equator. Error upto 1200 NM from central
meridian is zero.
 Uses: 1. Project islands. 2. Project country in N/S direction. 3. Topographical maps. 4.
Flights with large change in latitude.
Polar Gnomic Projection
 Plain surface touches the earth at the pole.
 Point of projection is centre of the earth.
 Graticule. Meridians are straight lines radiating from the pole. Parallels of latitude are
concentric circles with the pole as centre.
 Conformal at a point of tangency.
 Rhumb line curved concave towards the nearer pole.
 Great circle is a perfect straight line.
 Scale varies rapidly.
 Uses: 1. Polar navigation. 2. Topographical maps of polar region. 3. Great circle flying as
great circle is a straight line.
 Equatorial Gnomic: when a plain surface is imagined to touch the earth tangentially at the
equator.
 Oblique Gnomic: when it is projected on a plain surface touching the earth tangentially at
a point other than the pole or the equator.

Fuel Calculations
 1 Imp Gal = 4.54 litres ( The IMP drinks 4.54 ltrs of Wine when he`s in England).
 1 US Gal = 3.79 litres. (but when he goes to the US he gets less).
 1 lb = 0.454 kg.
 1 kg = 2.2 lbs.
 Imp Gal to Lbs: 1 Imp Gal x 10 x Specific Gravity.
Seasons
 The predominant cause of the seasons is the inclination of the earth. The earth’s axis is inclined
at an angle of 66.5 degrees to its orbital plane and this is often stated as 23.5 degrees to the
normal to the orbital plane, i.e. 90 – 66.5 degrees = 23.5 degrees.
 Furthest from the sun (Aphelion) on about July 3rd and around this time about June 21st the
northern hemisphere of the earth will be tilted directly towards the sun giving a declination of
approximately 23.5 degrees N which will mark mid summer in the northern hemisphere and mid
winter in the southern hemisphere.
 Nearest the sun (Perihelion) on about January 3rd and around this time about December 22nd the
southern hemisphere of the earth will be tilted directly towards the sun giving a declination of
approximately 23.5 degrees S which will mark mid summer in the southern hemisphere and mid
winter in the northern hemisphere.
 The times of maximum declination are the solstices. The northern summer solstice, for example,
is on June 21st and the Winter solstice on December 22nd.
 Approximately midway between the solstices are the Spring about March 21 st and Autumn about
September 23rd equinoxes. The sun at these times will be over the equator with 0 degrees
declination and because the entire world will have equal periods of day and night, these are
referred to as equinoxes i.e. equal night.

Definitions
 Transits: A transit of a heavenly body refers to its crossing of a meridian. At the time of a transit
the body will be due north or south of an observer.
 Civil Day: should be related to periods of light and darkness so that 1200 hours is always about
halfway between sunrise and sunset. It should therefore be based on the sun. It is of constant
length.
 Sidereal Day: The period between successive transits of a star is referred to as sidereal day. It
will be effectively the time it takes the earth to rotate 360 degrees on its axis and it will be a
constant. It is measured against a distant star and is of nearly constant length. It is approximately
23 hours 56 minutes.
 Lunar Day: The time interval between two successive transits of moon across the observer’s
meridian. It is approximately 24 hours 50 minutes. It is longer than the normal day because
moon is revolving around the earth. Earth rotates west to east. Hence, when earth completes one
rotation the moon has moved further by 12.5 degrees.
 Apparent Solar Day: The time interval between two successive transits of real sun across the
observer’s meridian. The duration varies from 23 hours 44 minutes to 24 hours 14 minutes. It
cannot be of constant length.
 Mean Solar Day: The time interval between two successive transits across the observer’s
meridian. The duration is 24 hours. It is of constant length and related to light and darkness.
 ASD = MSD at equinoxes.
  Sidereal Year: is the time taken by the earth to complete an orbit of the sun measured against a
distant star. Its length is 365 days 6 hours.
 Tropical Year: is the length of one cycle of the seasons. Its length is 365 days 5 hours and 48.75
minutes.
 Calendar Year: is normally 365 days.
 Hour Angle: The hour angle of a celestial body is defined as the arc of the equator intercepted
between the meridian of a datum and the meridian of the body, measured westwards from 0
degrees to 360 degrees. (15 degrees = 1 hour)

Local Mean Time

 LMT is the time kept using the observer’s local anti-meridian and the mean sun. It may be
defined as the time that has been elapsed since the passage of the mean sun across the anti-
meridian of the observer’s meridian. It varies from place to place therefore it is inconvenient to
follow. The local day commences when the sun on the anti-meridian and finishes 24 hours later
when the sun returns to the anti-meridian. The time pertaining to a particular meridian is called
its LMT. It is based on the movement of the mean sun which travels through 15 degree of
longitude per hour.
 When the mean sun transits a particular meridian, the LMT at all places on that meridian is 1200
hours (midday, noon). When the mean sun transits a particular anti-meridian, the LMT at all
places on that anti-meridian is 0000 hours (midnight).
 Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is the LMT for the Greenwich meridian. LMT for the Greenwich
meridian is taken to be the standard time applicable throughout the world. It changes at a
constant rate and is regulated against International Atomic Time derived from atomic clocks. It
is regularly corrected to match GMT but the corrections are very small. UTC or GMT is the
datum for world time.
 Longitude East GMT Least. Longitude West GMT Best.
 Zone Time is the LMT of the central meridian of the zone. It gives a convenient standard for
ships at sea, keeping the hours of the day approximately synchronized with daylight and
darkness.
 Zone Number + Zone Time = Greenwich Mean Time. (Longitude E is negative, Longitude W is
positive)

Twilight
 Before sunrise, there is a period when it becomes light, and after sunset there is a period when it
remains light. These periods are generally called twilight.
 Definition: It is that period before sunrise and after sunset when refracted light from the earth’s
atmosphere gives an amount of illumination.
 Civil Twilight: It occurs when the sun’s centre is 6 degree or less below the sensible horizon. It
starts in the mornings and ends in the evenings. Illumination is such that it is possible to carry
out day time tasks without any additional artificial lighting. A daytime visual approach is
possible.
 Nautical Twilight: It occurs when the centre of the sun is between 6 degree and 12 degree below
the sensible horizon. It starts in the mornings and ends in the evenings. During this period it is
sufficiently dark that stars are clearly visible and there is sufficient light for horizon to be seen.
 Astronomical Twilight: It occurs when the centre of the sun is between 12 degree and 18 degree
below the sensible horizon. It is considered to be complete darkness. It starts in the mornings
and ends in the evenings.
  Note: Duration of the twilight increases with increase of latitude. Civil Twilight is the only
twilight period considered in the Air Almanac.

Critical Point
 It is the decision point between the two airfields from which it would take the same time to fly
to either airfield. It will take equal time to fly from CP to base or to the destination. It may
therefore also be defined as Point of Equal Time.
 It basically depends on following factors: Distance A to B, Wind Velocity and TAS.
 Tailwind: CP is towards the departure point.
 Headwind: CP is towards the destination.
 CP is independent of fuel endurance.
 CP is midway when O = H in nil wind situation. CP moves into the wind.
 CP in case of engine failure: DCP with engine failure TAS. Tcp with normal TAS.

Point of No Return
 It is defined as that point furthest removed from departure point to which an aircraft can fly and
still return to its departure point within its safe endurance.
 Maximum distance to PNR is in case of still air conditions.
 All wind components, headwind or tailwind, reduces the distance to PNR.
 If wind component increases then DPNR decreases.
 If wind component decreases then DPNR increases.
 PNR in case of engine failure: 1. All outward working in each zone with normal TAS and
normal F/C. 2. All homing working in each zone with engine failure TAS and engine failure
F/C.

Radius of Action
 It is the distance to the furthest point from the departure point to which an aircraft can fly, carry
out a given task, and return to its departure point within its safe endurance.
 The rules for calculating the radius of action are the same as those for PNR.

International Dateline
 Is the anti-meridian of Greenwich meridian with certain modification to include land areas on its
one side, on crossing of which local date changes by one day. Crossing IDL from West to East,
Repeat, Gain, and Subtract a day. Crossing IDL from East to West, Loose, Skip and Add a day.

Magnetism
 The oxide of iron called magnetite has been observed to attract small pieces of iron. This
property is called magnetism.
 Another property of a magnetite was its north seeking ability, if mounted on wood and floated in
water it would align itself roughly in a north- south direction.
 Poles: The lines of force traced by the iron filings converge towards small areas near the ends of
the magnet. These two areas of the magnet and called poles and are where properties of
magnetism are most strongly displayed. Each magnet has two poles. If a magnet is cut into two
pieces, each piece will have two poles.
  The end which points north is known as a north seeking or a red pole. The other end that points
south is known as a south seeking or a blue pole.
 Like poles repel each other. Unlike poles attract each other.

Methods of Magnetisation
 By stroking the bar of iorn repeatedly in the same direction with one end of a magnet, a process
in which the end of the bar last touched by the red end of the magnet is left as a blue pole.
 By aligning the iron bar with the lines of force of a magnetic field and subjecting it to vibration
and hammering. Such agitation during manufacture is the main cause of aircraft magnetism.
 In case of a soft iron simply by subjecting it to a magnetic field.
 By placing the specimen within the solenoid carrying a direct current. This is the most
satisfactory method as the current flowing in the coil produces a concentrated magnetic field
along the axis of the coil so that a high degree of magnetism can be induced in the iron.

Methods of De-magnetisation
 Shock. A magnetized bar of iron can be placed at right angles to the earth’s magnetic field and
hammered.
 Heat. If the specimen is heated to 900 degrees, it loses its magnetism and this does not return as
the specimen cools.
 Electric Current. The component is placed inside a solenoid carrying alternating current, the
amplitude of which is gradually reduced to zero. The strong alternating magnetic field produced
by the alternating current keeps reversing the direction of magnetisation.

Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials

 Magnetic = carbon, cobalt, nickel, chromium, and tungsten.
 Non-magnetic = aluminium, duralumin, brass, copper, plastic, and paint.

Hard Iron and Soft Iron

 Hard iron magnetism is permanent, meaning that the material, typically steel containing cobalt
or chromium, remains magnetized for an indefinite period after it has been removed from the
magnetizing field. Such a substance is suitable for permanent magnets.
 Soft iron magnetism is temporary, meaning the substance being easy to saturate magnetically
with only a weak magnetizing field but retaining little or no magnetism when the field is
removed. Nearly pure iron behaves in this way.

Magnetic Variation
 The longitudinal axis of the magnet defines the direction of the magnet meridian at the point.
The magnetic meridian is the direction of the horizontal component of the earth’s field at a point
on the earth’s surface.
 The angle, measured in the horizontal plane, between the magnetic meridian at a point and the
true meridian at the point, is known as the magnetic variation. Variation can have value from
zero to 180 degrees.

Magnetic Dip
  The angle, measured in the vertical plane, between the axis of the magnet and the horizontal is
called the angle of dip.
 Dip is reduced by pivoting the magnetic system symmetrically vertically above its centre of
gravity.

Field Strength
 The total force, angle of dip and the magnetic variation at a point are sometimes known as
magnetic elements for that place. It is convenient to resolve this total force T into its horizontal
and vertical components H and Z respectively.
 The horizontal component H of the earth’s field is known as the directive force because it is the
component which aligns the magnetic compass needle with the magnetic meridian, so providing
a directional reference. In the region of the magnetic equator, H approaches the value of T.
 Secular change. The earth’s field not only lacks symmetry but is also subject to several known
periodic changes. The slow change in the earth’s magnetic variation is known as secular change
and is caused by the westerly movement of the magnetic pole. The secular changes are most
significant and are produced by the slow movement of the magnetic poles about the geographic
poles, the period of this cycle being apparently about 960 years.
 Magnetic moment of a magnet is the product of the pole strength and effective length.

Components of Magnetism
 P-Component. It is the horizontal fore and aft component of aircraft’s permanent magnetism.
 Q-Component. It is the horizontal lateral component of aircraft’s permanent magnetism.
 R-Component. It is the vertical component of aircraft’s permanent magnetism.

Vertical Card Compass

 It is the DIC in general use. It is also known as B or E type compass. It is usually the main
magnetic heading reference in light aircraft and standby compass in larger aircraft. It consists of
a circular compass card attached directly to the magnetic assembly. This combined unit is
suspended in liquid within the compass bowl. There is a vertical lubber line on the glass window
that helps us to read the heading off the compass card.
Direct Indicating Magnetic Compass
 It is an instrument designed to indicate direction on the surface of the earth, relative to some
known datum. The compass uses the horizontal component of the earth’s field as its directional
datum.
 A magnetic influence distorts the earth’s field so that the compass magnet assembly deviates
from the magnetic meridian. This is called magnetic deviation. It can also be defined as the
angular difference measured between the direction taken up by a compass needle and the
magnetic meridian.

Grid Ring Compass

 It is found in older aircraft. It is also known as P type compass. It is more accurate than the
vertical card compass and is more stable. It is however, more bulky, heavier and more
expensive. It can be only be read in straight and level flight, as the grid has to unclamped and
aligned with the north reference before a reading can be taken against the lubber line. It achieves
a greater periodicity by the addition of the damping wires which also rotate through the compass
liquid.
Compass Requirements
 Horizontality. The magnetic assembly is pendulously suspended, the centre of gravity of this
assembly being lower than its supporting pivot.
 Sensitivity. Magnetism shows that the ability of a pivoted magnet to align itself with an external
field – its sensitivity – depends on the strength of the external field and on the magnetic moment
of the magnet. The weak external field at a place cannot be changed, but the magnetic moment
of the magnet can be increased- by increasing the magnet’s length and/or pole strength.
Sensitivity is further increased by reducing friction.
 Aperiodicity. The magnetic assembly is required to be aperiodic, which means that it should
settle down quickly on a steady indication after being displaced by turbulence or maneuvers.
Any tendency to oscillate must be quickly damped out. Several short magnets can be used
instead of one longer one. The primary purpose of the liquid is to act like a damping liquid on
the compass assembly.

Compass Liquid
 Low coefficient of expansion
 Low viscosity
 Transparency
 Low freezing point
 High boiling point
 Non-corrosiveness
 Dimethyl Siloxane Polymer meets most of the requirements.
 It should be checked for any sediment, discoloration and bubbles.

Acceleration and Turning Errors

 Acceleration errors are zero on N/S magnetic headings, increasing to a maximum on headings
090 and 270 magnetic. Acceleration causes an apparent turn towards the nearer pole.
Deceleration causes an apparent turn towards the further pole. The errors are maximum near the
magnetic poles, decreasing to zero at the magnetic equator.
 Turning errors are maximum when turning through north and south, and ignoring liquid swirl
zero when turning through east and west. The error increases with increase in magnetic latitude.
At the magnetic equator the only turning error is due to liquid swirl.

Remote Indicating Magnetic Compass

 The first requirement of the RIC is the detector unit. It is used to sense the direction of the
earth’s magnetic field in a part of the aircraft least affected by on-board electrical fields and to
be free of the turning and acceleration errors found in conventional compasses.
 Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction: If the number of lines of force threading a circuit
is changing, an induced electromagnetic force will be set up in the circuit, the magnitude of the
EMF being proportional to the rate of change in the number of lines of force threading the
circuit.
 Amplifier Unit. This unit amplifies and rectifies the signals from the Control Transformer before
they are applied to the precession circuits of the gyro.

Flight Management System

  These systems are designed to improve navigation, aid fuel efficiency and to reduce crew
workload.
 A pilot interactive navigational computing and display equipment to assist in flying an aircraft to
a previously planned route defined horizontally and vertically.
 FMS uses a process called Kalman Filtering to produce position and velocity. The Kalman
Filtering, is an algorithm which uses a series of measurements observed over time, containing
random variations and other inaccuracies, and produces estimates of unknown variables that
tend to be more precise than those that would be based on a single measurement alone.
 FMC is used for flight planning, computation of performance, air data and navigation data
selection, guidance and steering for autopilot both horizontally and vertically.
 Computers are used to make the aircraft fly along complex routes using LNAV i.e. lateral
guidance. LNAV refers to navigating over a ground track with guidance from an electronic
device which gives the pilot error indications in the lateral direction only and not in the vertical
direction.
 VNAV i.e. vertical guidance enables the system to calculate optimum cruise altitudes and to
determine the best combination of auto-throttle control and speed during climb and descent. It is
an autopilot function which directs the vertical movement of an aircraft while cruising and/or on
approach to landing. It causes an aircraft to climb or descend according to a pre-programmed
FMS flight plan.
 At all times if the crew is not controlling the aircraft by hand, they use the FMS controls to fly
the aircraft.
 CDU. Control Display Unit. The primary function is to act as the interface between the aircraft
and the crew. It can be used to command completely automatic control of the aircraft or semi-
automatic with varying degrees of pilot involvement including full manual control.
 Database. The information stored in the FMS is called database. The database is divided in two
major sections. One contains performance related information and the other contains
information dealing with navigation. The purpose of the performance database is to reduce the
need for the flight crew to refer to the Cruise Control Manual during flight. The FMC navigation
database includes most information that would normally be determined by referring to the
navigation charts. FMC contains two sets of navigation data, each valid for 28 days. They are
updated by he maintenance every 28 days.
 Cost Index. It is determined by dividing aeroplane operating cost by fuel cost. If the cost index
is zero that would result in minimum trip fuel consumption and so will include cruise at
maximum range cruise and a low speed descent.
 IDENT. The ident page of the FMC allows the crew to confirm aircraft details on start up and
this in turn initiates a series of prompts to direct the crew through the route procedures that need
to be generated for their flight.
 POS INIT. We must check the FMS clock time against the aircraft clock to ensure
synchronization between the systems. We must also ensure that airfield datum or gate position is
entered accurately to allow for IRS alignment.
 RTE. Here we will start entering our starting and destination airport ICAO designators. We may
then enter the flight number and the company route to take us to our destination.
 PERF INIT. This page is used to update the aircraft to its current performance/weight
configuration for the route to be flown.

RNAV
  It is a method of IFR navigation that allows an aircraft to choose any course within a network of
navigation beacons, rather than navigating directly to and from the beacons. It is also defined as
a method of navigation which permits aircraft operation on any desired flight path within the
coverage of station-referenced navigation aids or within the limits of capability of self-contained
aids, or a combination of these.
 The required accuracy is achieved by some, or all of the following inputs of information:
VOR/DME, ILS/MLS, LORAN, GNSS, INS/IRS, ADC, and Time. It integrates information
from sensors such as air data, inertial reference, radio navigation, satellite navigation, together
with inputs from internal data bases and crew-entered data bases.
 This system allows the aircraft to take a more direct flight path appropriate to the route they are
flying thereby improving the efficiency and helping in relieving congestion on the overcrowded
airway system. This helps in reduction in vertical and horizontal separation criteria. This also
helps in reduction of distance, flight time and fuel.
 There are 2 types of RNAV systems.
 Basic RNAV. It is required to give a positional accuracy to within 5 NM on 95% of the
occasions. The following systems are required in order to conduct B-RNAV operations: a
continuous indication on the PFD of the aircraft position relative to track; display of distance,
bearing, ground speed and time to the active “TO” waypoint; minimum storage of 4 waypoints;
appropriate failure annunciation for RNAV system and sensors. It is now mandatory for all
aircraft with a sitting capacity of more than 30 pax to have Basic RNAV installed.
 Precision RNAV. It must be accurate to within 1.0 NM on 95% of the occasions. This system
automatically determines aircraft desired flight path by a series of waypoints held in a database.
P-NAV offers the ability to use RNAV functionality in all phases of flight except final and
missed approach.
 Aircraft Flight Manual. The certification criteria and RNAV system limitations shall be
specified in the AFM.
 There are 3 levels of RNAV capability.
 2D RNAV. It relates to capabilities in horizontal plane only. It includes a navigation computer
unit, control display unit and an indicator in form of a CDI or a HIS.
 3D RNAV. It indicates the addition of a guidance capability in both horizontal and the vertical
plane.
 4D RNAV. It relates to the capabilities in both horizontal and vertical planes plus a timing
function.
 RNAV equipment in airbus is a combination of GPS, VOR -VOR dist calculated by NAV
DATABASE, VOR - DME dist calculated by NAV database, FMS position so a combination of
all this makes RNAV for our aircraft so if our aircraft can maintain a nav accuracy of 5 nm 95%
of the time then our aircraft will be RNP 5 or RNAV 5.

Required Navigation Performance

 Required Navigation Performance (RNP) is a type of performance-based navigation (PBN) that
allows an aircraft to fly a specific path between two 3-dimensionally defined points in space.
RNAV and RNP systems are fundamentally similar. The key difference between them is the
requirement for on-board performance monitoring and alerting. A navigation specification that
includes a requirement for on-board navigation performance monitoring and alerting is referred
to as an RNP specification. One not having such a requirement is referred to as an RNAV
specification.
  RNP also refers to the level of performance required for a specific procedure or a specific block
of airspace. An RNP of 10 means that a navigation system must be able to calculate its position
to within a circle with a radius of 10 nautical miles. An RNP of 0.3 means the aircraft navigation
system must be able to calculate its position to within a circle with a radius of 3 tenths of a
nautical mile.

 A related term is ANP which stands for "actual navigation performance". ANP refers to the
current performance of a navigation system while "RNP" refers to the accuracy required for a
given block of airspace or a specific instrument procedure.

 Airborne navigation equipment includes: system which use external navigation aids such as
VOR/DME, DME/DME, GNSS, LORAN-C; and systems which are self-contained, e.g. INS or
inertial reference systems.

 The ICAO special committee on future Air Navigation system FANS defines RNP as a
statement of required navigation accuracy in the horizontal plane ( lateral and longitudinal
position fixing ) necessary for operation in the defined airspace.

 RNAV is the facility and the RNP is just a term used to define the navigation accuracy
capability of an aircraft.

Inertial Reference System

 The laser gyro has caused a technological revolution in the design of initial reference and
navigation systems. This solid state high precision, angular rate sensor is ideally suited for
highly reliable strap down system configuration. It eliminates the need for gimbals, bearings,
torque motors, and other moving parts and consequently changes the system operation
considerably from conventional inertial navigation systems.
 Inertial Navigation means the determination of a vehicles location without the aid of external
references. Strap down inertial navigation goes a step further by enabling navigation without the
use of a mechanically stabilised platform. This has been achieved through the advent of laser
gyros / rate sensors and powerful, high speed micro-processors. The laser gyros allow a micro-
processor to maintain a stable platform mathematically, rather than mechanically.
 The Inertial Reference Unit is the heart of the Inertial Reference System. It provides all required
inertial reference output’s for the aircraft avionics. The primary sources of information for the
IRU are its own internal sensors three laser gyros and three inertial accelerometers. The only
other inputs required are initial position, barometric altitude and TAS.
 Initial position is required because present position is calculated from distance travelled from the
initial position entered. Barometric altitude stabilises the vertical navigation, vertical velocity
and inertial altitude outputs. The TAS input allows the IRU to calculate wind velocity.
 Laser Gyro is an example of the application that uses the characteristics of light to measure
motion. LASER = Light Amplification and Simulated Emission of Radiation. One beam rotates
in one direction and other in the opposite direction. The frequency difference between the two
beams is easily and accurately measured along optical paths. They measure rotation by
comparing two laser beams created and directed to rotate in opposite directions within a very
narrow tunnel. Lasing is achieved by running high voltages through the helium neon gas
between the anodes and the cathodes. The laser beam that is created can be described as a high
energy beam of coherent light which is said to be of a pure frequency.
  The principle source of error with this form of device is associated with random drift. This is
caused by imperfections of gyro bearings and mass imbalances but with the laser system noise is
the main cause. The accuracy is directly influenced by the length of its optical path. The most
important potential problem is lock in, also called laser lock, which occurs at very low rotation
rates.
 Platform. INS (platform set in gimbals) requires three rate integrating gyros and accelerometers
to achieve an output that we can use and this process is started by ensuring that the platform is
horizontal at correct latitude. IRS (strap down) attaches the three laser gyro / rate sensors and
accelerometers directly to the aircraft chassis.
 Advantages: 1. No spin up time. 2. Insensitivity to G attitude – roll and pitch maneuvers.
3. Mechanically simple and highly reliable. 4. Wide dynamic range. 5. Very small drift rates –
greatest errors induced by the operator.
 Dither is used in the laser gyro in order to: 1. Enhance the accuracy of the gyro at all rotational
rates. 2. Increase the maximum rotational rate that can be sensed by the gyro. 3. Stabilise the
laser frequencies at peak power output. 4. Break the frequency lock which would prevent small
rotational rates from being sensed by the gyro.

Alignment of IRS
 The FMGS uses the reference point co-ordinates of the departure airport to align the IRS. It
automatically calls these up from the database after the flight crew has entered a company route
or an origin-destination city pair and pressed the ALIGN IRS key. The flight crew can manually
adjust these co-ordinates to the gate position. A normal alignment takes ten minutes and fast
alignment takes 30 seconds. Fast alignment is used to refine a position when time is limited. IRS
alignment is done so that the ring laser gyros do not measure any acceleration on ground.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

 A body continues in state of rest, or uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is acted upon by
an external force.
 The acceleration – rate of change of velocity – of a body is directly proportional to the force
acting on the body and is inversely proportional to the mass of the body.
 To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Inertial Navigation System

 The fundamental element of this complex system is the Inertial Sensor System (ISS). To make
up this system we have a stable platform consisting of high quality gyros and accelerometers
and a computer.
 The purpose of a computer is to integrate the accelerometer outputs with time to give velocity
and then integrate velocity with time to give distance travelled.
 To change all this information from ISS to INS we have a further computer which allows up to
inject and store waypoints and then compute track angle error, distance and time to go to reach
them. This information can be used by the FDs, autopilot, or for manual flying of an aircraft.
 The modern INS was the first self-contained single-source of all navigation data. The gyro and
the accelerometer are mounted on a common gimbal. In reality, three integrating gyros are
mounted on the inertial platform, with their input axis mutually perpendicular. Three gimbal
motors drive the platform gimbal rings about the pitch, roll and vertical axes respectively.
 Accelerometers. Two accelerometers are mounted at the heart of the inertial system. These
acceleration measuring devices sense any change in the aircraft’s velocity either as an
 acceleration or deceleration very accurately. One of the accelerometers measures the aircraft’s
acceleration in the North-South direction and the second in the East-West direction. These are
sensitive pendulous devices that produce an electrical output which is double integrated with
time to produce a) velocity and b) distance.
 The computer associated with the inertial system knows the latitude and longitude of the takeoff
point and calculates that the aircraft has travelled so far in the North direction and so far in an
East direction. The computer can then compute the new position of an aircraft and give a digital
read-out which we should note is to tenths of a degree.
 Platform. To keep the accelerometer level, it is mounted on a gimbal assembly, commonly
called the platform. The platform is nothing more than a mechanical device which allows the
aircraft to go through any attitude change and yet the very inner element of the platform on
which the accelerometers are mounted is able to stay earth level.

Principle of INS
 Accelerometers are used in three dimensions to measure accelerations which are manipulated to
produce velocities and distances.
 Accelerometers use the inertia principle to measure acceleration N/S and E/W. These then pass
through integrators to produce distances which when applied to the correct starting position
gives the new position.
 Inertia is a property of a mass to continue in its state of rest or linear velocity unless acted on by
an external force.
 Inertial Navigation Unit (INU): calculates the angular velocity of the platform, the components
of the platform axes proportional to the accelerometer outputs, the angular velocity of the earth
at the present position in inertial space and eliminates unwanted accelerations due to gravity and
coriolis.

Errors of INS
 Bounded. Errors which build up to a maximum and return to zero within 84.4 minutes schuler
cycle.
 Unbounded errors are either cumulative track errors or distance errors. It is an error that
increases with time.
 Inherent errors are caused due to the irregular shape and composition of the earth, the movement
of the earth through space and other factors.

Comparison between INS and IRS

 INS. It is a stand alone navigation system where the co-ordinates are fed in the system before the
aircraft moves. Up to five waypoints can also be fed in the computer and INS coupled with
autopilot can navigate the aircraft to programmed waypoints. It usually consists of two stable
gyros that use double integration to find N/S and E/W movements.
 IRS. It is a reference system and it is unable to navigate on its own. It feeds the information to
FMS or FMGS computer calculates how to navigate. It usually consists of strap down gyro
which are ring laser gyros. There are no moving parts in these gyros hence there is no frictional
losses and these gyros are more accurate.
Grid MORA
 The Grid MORA altitude provides terrain and man-made structure clearance within the section
outlined by latitude and longitude lines. Grid MORA values are derived by Jeppesen which
clear all terrain and man-made structures by 1000 ft in areas where the highest elevations are
5000 ft MSL or lower and by 2000 ft in areas where the highest elevations are 5001 ft MSL or
higher.
Q. What is the significance of GRID MORA?
The Grid MORA does not provide for NAVAID signal coverage or communication coverage. In
respect to flight planning and during an actual flight the Grid MORA is a good value to
a) determine obstacle clearance whenever you have or would like to divert from the airway
following an emergency descend; b) When flying directto a point away from an airway; c)
Diverting away from an airway to a VFR airfield located in that Grid.
 Values less than 14,000 feet are green while the values greater than 14,000 feet are in
magenta.
=========================================================================
RVSM: Reduced Vertical Separation Minima
 It is an aviation term used to describe the reduction of the standard vertical separation required
between aircraft flying above FL290 and up to FL410, from 2,000 feet to 1,000 feet. This
therefore increases the number of aircraft that can safely fly in a particular volume of airspace.
Historically, standard vertical separation was 1,000 feet from the surface to FL290, 2,000 feet
from FL290 to FL410 and 4,000 feet above this. This was because the accuracy of the pressure
altimeter decreases with height.
 Air data computers (ADCs) combined with altimeters have become more accurate and autopilots
more adept at maintaining a set level, therefore it became apparent that for many modern
aircraft, the 2,000 feet separation was too cautious. It was therefore proposed by ICAO that this
be reduced to 1000 feet.
 Each aircraft type that the operator intends to use in RVSM airspace should have received
RVSM airworthiness approval from the regulatory authority of the country of manufacture/
design including the approval of continued airworthiness program.
 Only aircraft with specially certified altimeters and autopilots may fly in RVSM airspace,
otherwise the aircraft must fly lower or higher than the airspace, or seek special exemption from
the requirements. Additionally, aircraft operators (airlines or corporate operators) must receive
specific approval from the aircraft's state of registry in order to conduct operations in RVSM
airspace. Non RVSM approved aircraft may transit through RVSM airspace provided they are
given continuous climb throughout the designated airspace, and 2,000 ft vertical separation is
 provided at all times between the non-RVSM flight, and all others for the duration of the
climb/descent. "State aircraft", which includes military, customs and police aircraft, are
exempted from the requirement to be RVSM approved.
 Check W in item 10 of ATC flight plan.
 Within RVSM airspace donot overshoot or undershoot by more than 150 feet during cleared
transitions between fight levels. Also ensure that the transponder and the autopilot are associated
with one of the ADRs which are within tolerance limit of 200 feet. Ensure that the GPWS
FLAP MODE is on.
 Flight Preparation.
 1. Verify the airframe is RVSM certified and capable.
 2. Check forecast weather suitable for RVSM.
 3. Ensure rectification of snags on RVSM equipment completed.
 Procedures Prior to RVSM Airspace Entry.
 1. Two primary altitude measurement systems and one automatic altitude control system.
 2. One altitude alerting device.
 3. Operating Transponder.
 4. Check RVSM equipment operating normally.
 5. Check instrument tolerances are within the limits as per RVSM monitoring report.
 6. Obtain new clearance in case of RVSM equipment failure/ out of tolerance.
 7. If 2 ADRs are operative, record altimeter indication on the PFD and standby altimeter.
 In-Flight Contingencies.
 1. If unable to continue flight in accordance with ATC clearance, obtain revised clearance prior
to indicating any action using distress or urgency signal as required.
 2. If possible, depart away from ATS route by turning 90 left or right. Alert nearby aircraft
using 121.5 / 123.45 MHz. Watch for conflicting traffic both visually and by TCAS.
 3. Turn on all exterior lights.
 4. Acquire a track laterally separated by 25 NMs from assigned route, once established climb or
descent 500 feet.
 5. If unable to use RVSM. Notify saying : “Unable to comply RVSM” “Unable RVSM due
equipment” “Unable RVSM due turbulence” “Ready to resume RVSM”
 6. Check PFD indication from onside ADR or ADR 3 is within  20 feet tolerance.
 RVSM compatible. 000 – 179 = FL290, 310, 330, till 410. 180 – 359 = FL300, 320, 340 till 400.
 Non-RVSM compatible. 000 – 179 = FL290, 330, 370, 410. 180 – 359 = FL310, 350, 390.
 Examples of equipment failures which should be notified to ATC.
 1. Failure of automatic altitude-control systems aboard the aircraft.
 2. Loss of redundancy of altimetry systems.
 3. Loss of thrust on an engine necessitating descent.
 4. Any other equipment failure affecting the ability to maintain cleared flight level.
 Equipment Required. ADR1 + ADR2, DMC 1 + DMC 2, 1 transponder, 1 autopilot function, 1
FCU channel, 2 PFD, 1 FWC and TCAS.
 Weather Deviation. To indicate priority for ATC purpose, state “Weather Deviation Required”.
 For deviation less than 10 NMs maintain assigned level.
 For deviation greater than 10 NMs 
Route Centre Line Track Deviation > 10 NMs Level Change
East Left/ Right Descend/ Climb 300 feet
 West Left/ Right Climb/ Descend 300 feet

========================================================================

 CANPA : Constant Angle Non Precision Approach (Ops Circular 1 of 2005) : Old one!
Current is : OC No. 2 of 2014 CDFA Approach Technique.
 HISTORY: Initially the majority of the CFIT (Controlled Flight into Terrain) accidents happen
on approaches with no vertical guidance. The risk of an accident during approach and guidance
phase is five times greater in case of a non-precision approach as compared to the precision
approach.

What is CDFA?
A technique, consistent with stabilized approach procedures, for flying the final approach
segment of a nonprecision instrument approach procedure as a continuous descent, without
level-off, from an altitude/height at or above the final approach fix altitude/height to a point
approximately 15 m (50 ft) above the landing runway threshold or the point where the flare
maneuver should begin for the type of aircraft flown.

 The goal is to fly a constant angle approach even if a glide slope or visual slope indicator such
as a VASI or PAPI is unavailable. It involves making a stabilized constant angle descent rather
than a quick descent to the MDA followed by flying level at the MDA until the runway
environment is in sight or upon reaching the missed approach point.
Q. Significance/ Advantages of the CANPA/ CDFA profile?
 1. This reduces pilot workload and provides for enhanced situational awareness.
 2. The technique is similar to an ILS and allows for a constant descent rate and power setting.
 3. The technique provides the pilot with the time to acquire visual cues for landing.
 4. Its fuel efficient.
 5. Reduced noise on the final approach path.
 6. Terrain clearance.
 7. It provides greater obstacle clearance along the final approach course.
ICAO Procedures for Air Navigation Services-Aircraft Operations prescribes a stabilised approach in
that the aircraft must be in a stabilised position at a certain altitude. 50 feet is not added to the DH in an
ILS approach as it is done for a CANPA approach to calculate the DDH because ILS is more accurate
and inline with the runway centerline.

Derived Decision Height

 It is not permissible to descend below the MDA unless the required visual reference is
established. It must be understood that if a go-around is initiated at MDA while descending the
aircraft will go below the MDA during the missed approach maneuver, which is not allowed. To
compensate for this the operators must add a margin of at least 50 feet to the MDA and call it a
DDA (H), so that executing a missed approach at the DDA (H) will not cause the aircraft to
descend below the MDA.
  The air operators are required to establish aircraft type specific safety margins of at least 50 feet
for each aircraft type operated and establish type specific DDH for each approach. CANPA will
allow the aircraft to be flown on the published descent path from the FAF to the DDH.
 DDH is a point from which a stabilised approach can be continued visually to a landing; or if
visual reference not established, a point from which a missed approach can be initiated and
conducted with the assurance that the aircraft will not descent below the MDA (H) or below the
state published OCA (H), whichever is higher.
 Decision to go around must at the latest be taken upon reaching the DDA (H) in order to avoid a
descent below the published MDA specifically in case of a very early missed approach point.

Approach with a FAF

 Approaches which have a FAF established may be used for a straight-in approach. The distance
of the aircraft from touchdown may be determined using any of the following aids: DME, FMS,
GPS, or ATC Radar.

Approach without a FAF

 Where a FAF is not defined in the chart, a pseudo FAF can be worked out on the inbound track,
based on the inbound track, based on the initial approach/intermediate altitude. From this point,
a rate of descent can be computed, ideally for a 3 glide path. A straight-in approach may be
conducted if the pseudo FAF and the distance of the aircraft from touchdown can be determined
using any of the following aids: DME, FMS, GPS, or ATC Radar. The crew must use all
possible resources including ATC Radar to monitor their position.

VNAV Approach
 The advantage of approach VNAV is the availability of continuous vertical path information and
reduced workload. The key element of approach VNAV is the availability of a vertical angle
from the FMS Navigation database. VNAV may only be used if the approach chart depicts the
VNAV descent angle and descent path, and the coded VNAV descent angle is displayed on the
final approach segment of the FMS legs page when the appropriate non-precision approach is
selected from the database.
 When used on approach to landing, VNAV follows an ILS glideslope towards the runway. The
process is called Autoland.

LNAV Approach
 The minimums for this approach are higher than that of ILS approaches and RNAV approaches
that incorporate vertical guidance. Aircraft executing a LNAV instrument approach must
descend incrementally rather than follow a fixed glide slope. This is called a non-precision
approach to distinguish it from a precision approach in which there is electronic vertical
guidance to the DH.

Coffin Corner
 The coffin corner (or Q corner) is the altitude at or near which a fast fixed-wing aircraft's stall
speed is equal to the critical Mach number, at a given gross weight and G-force loading. At this
altitude the airplane becomes nearly impossible to keep in stable flight. Since the stall speed is
the minimum speed required to maintain level flight, any reduction in speed will cause the
 airplane to stall and lose altitude. Since the critical Mach number is the maximum speed at
which air can travel over the wings without losing lift due to flow separation and shock waves,
any increase in speed will cause the airplane to lose lift, or to pitch heavily nose-down, and lose
altitude. The "corner" refers to the triangular shape at the top right of a flight envelope chart
where the stall speed and critical Mach number lines come together.
 In aerodynamics, the critical Mach number (MCRIT) of an aircraft is the lowest Mach number at
which the airflow over some point of the aircraft reaches the speed of sound.

TCAS: Traffic Collision Avoidance System/ Aircraft Collision Avoidance system

 The system is designed to provide an additional margin of safety and keep commercial aircraft
clear of conflict.
 An aircraft must carry a transponder and have the facility to interrogate other aircraft
transponders. ICAO names it ACAS, but it is also known as TCAS.

 TCAS I. It is a first generation collision avoidance system and simply warns the crew of other
traffic in the vicinity of aircraft. It will detect and display range and approximate relative
bearing. If the aircraft is carrying a Mode C transponder relative altitude will also be displayed.
It only gives TA’s. Traffic Traffic. It does not give any RA information.
 TCAS II. It detects intruders in the TCAS aircraft’s vicinity(range selected, max range is
30nm), assesses the collision risk and presents warnings to the crew in the form of TA’s and
RA’s in vertical plane only.
Climb, Increase Climb, Descend, Increase Descend, Monitor Vertical Speed.

 Principle of Operation:. TCAS operates on the secondary radar principle using the normal SSR
frequencies of 1030 MHz and 1090 MHz, but in an air to air role. Using this principle the
TCAS system creates two protective three dimensional bubbles relative to aircraft`s position
around the TCAS equipped aircraft.
 Mode A transponders transmit no height information and therefore the information available to
the TCAS equipment is 2D only and can only give TA’s.
 Mode C transponders broadcast height information to the TCAS equipment and the system
becomes 3D and can give both TA’s and RA’s in vertical plane.
 Mode S transponders broadcast height information and also allow a discrete data link to be
established between them. The data link will allow avoidance manoeuvres to be mutually
resolved.
 Working: TAs exists when an intruder penetrates the outer bubble caution area and is
between 35 and 45 seconds from the collision area. They appear as solid amber circles. A
potential collision threat and associated to aural alert and estimated time for impact is about 40
seconds.
 RAs exist when an intruder penetrates the inner bubble warning area and is between 30 and
20 seconds from the collision area. RA’s appear as solid red squares. These indicate a serious
collision hazard. A real collision threat and associated to aural alert and estimated time of
impact is about 25 seconds. The vertical orders are displayed on the PFD to fly the green sector.
 Preventive RA’s = These are RA`s in which no maneuver is required, as no collision threat
exists. Monitor Vertical Speed. Corrective RA’s = RAs in which manoeuvre is necessary to
avert as collision risk exists.
 Proximate Traffic. It appears as solid cyan diamond and represents no collision threat but this
intruder is in the vicinity of the aircraft closer than 6 NM laterally and  1200 ft vertically.
 Other Traffic. It appears as hollow cyan diamonds which represent transponder equipped
aircraft within range of the display and within 2700 feet relative height. No collision threat but
they are in the detection envelope and do not belong to any of the above intruders.
 A + sign and number above the symbol means an intruder is above the aircraft.
 A trend arrow  or  appears alongside the symbol when the intruder’s vertical rate is 500 per
minute or greater.

 Estimated Time (TAU): The estimated time in which an intruder aircraft becomes a threat is called TAU.
There is a different TAU value for TA as there is for RA because the RA range is smaller. TAU TCAS
primarily uses time-to-go to CPA rather than distance to determine when a TA or an RA should be issued. The
time to CPA is called the range TAU and the time to co-altitude is called the vertical TAU. TAU is an
approximation of the time, in seconds, to CPA or to the aircraft being at the same altitude. CPA (Closest Point
of Approach).
Q. What is the difference between TCAS 7.0 & TCAS 7.1?
There was a lot of confusion on RA given by TCAS version 7.0 when it came to reducing ROD/ ROC,
so in TCAS 7.1 version an Aural alert was introduced which was `Level- Off` which wasn`t there in
TCAS 7.0 which clears the confusion.

Q. Why does TCAS gives RA only in Vertical plane& not horizontal?

The bearings represented on a TCAS display aren`t very accurate, hence, TCAS gives RA`sonly in the
Vertical plane. The next generation TCAS will probably have RA`s in horizontal plane as increased air
traffic density is requiring new inventions to existing systems.

1) No `Increase ROD` RA below 1450ft AGL

2) No RA below 1000ft AGL
3) No TA below 400ft. AGL
=========================================================================
GPWS or EGPWS: Enhanced Ground Proximity System
 History: GPWS was introduced in mid-1970`s due to 3-4 CFIT accidents every year.
 What is CFIT?: CFIT is Controlled Flight into Terrain: It is when an airworthy aircraft under
the complete control of a Pilot is inadvertenly flown into Terrain,, Water, Obstacle causing
fatalities.
 A ground proximity warning system (GPWS) is a system designed to alert pilots if their aircraft
is in immediate danger of flying into the ground or an obstacle. It is to alert the flight crew to the
existence of an unsafe condition due to terrain proximity. It also warns of terrain proximity
during landing and takeoff sequences. It is defined as a type of Terrain awareness warning
system (TAWS). More advanced systems are known as Enhanced GPWS (EGPWS).
 The EGPWS enhances flight safety and can prevent those accidents which could result from
crew errors or distraction, malfunction or misinterpretation of navigation equipment, or
inappropriate ATC instructions.

 The system monitors an aircraft's height above ground as determined by a radio altimeter. A
computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates trends, and will warn the captain with
visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in certain defined flying configurations ("modes").
 GPWS Inputs:
Central
Radio Altimeter Visual Alert/ Warning
Air Data Computer Processing
Machmeter/ Airspeed Indicator Aural Alert/ Warning
Unit
Glideslope Indicator
Undercarriage Position Master Indication
Nav Position(GPS)
Flaps Position Indicator.
Remember: RAMGUNF
The modes are:
 R 1. Excessive Barometric Descent rate : has two vertical boundaries. Penetration of the
upper boundary generates an Aural Alert ("SINK RATE") repeated every 1.5secs & penetration
of the lower boundary generates an Audible Wx ("WHOOP WHOOP PULL UP")
(50 to 2450 feet).
 E 2. Excessive terrain closure rate : (2A = 50 to 1800 feet not in landing configuration)
(2B = 220 – 790 feet in landing configuration). This mode has two boundaries. Penetrating
upper boundary will give an aural alert (TERRAIN TERRAIN) repeated every 1.5secs &
penetrating second/lower boundary will give an Visual/ Aural Warning (WHOOP WHOOP
PULL UP).
 N 3. Altitude loss after take off or following a Go-Around with a high power setting:
It provides an alert if a descent is made during initial climb or go-around. Aural Alert ("DON'T
SINK"); Visual/Aural Warning is ``TERRAIN – TERRAIN` (50 to 700 feet).
 U 4A. Protection against Unsafe terrain clearance :
System is armed after T/O and 700` AGL(Radio Alt) & when the a/c descends below 500ft.
Radio Alt & speed less than 220kts. Aural Alert:"TOO LOW – GEAR" & with increase in
Airspeed above 220 kts and a/c below 1000` Radio Alt. Aural alert becomes Visual/Aural
Warning is `TOO LOW TERRAIN`. 4B.Protection for Flaps not in Ldg Configuration:
Landing Gear needs to be down & flaps not in landing configuration. Aural Alert generated is
"TOO LOW – FLAPS" (speed less than M0.28) (this mode alerts the crew when the gear is
down but the flaps are not in the landing configuration). (50 to 1000 feet). For obvious reasons,
`Too Low Gear` has priority over `Too low Flaps` and both can be inhibited by the Flap/ Gear
inhibit Switch.
 G 5. Protection against excessive deviation below Glideslope : Whenever on ILS the A/c is
below 1000` AGL and G/S deviation is more than 1.3dots below G/S, the Aural Alert generated
is `GLIDESLOPE` & repetition & aural volume increases as the Glideslope deviation increases
(1000 feet or less).
  D 6A. Descend below Minimums: Aural alert MINIMUMS generated as theA/c descends
through minimums set on the Captain`s Baro Altitude Alerter. Additional Safety features is it
gives height callouts above Landing threshold: 50`- 40- 30`- 20`- 10` .
 6B. Protection against excessive steep bank angle : Gives an Aural Alert Bank Angle; Bank
Angle whenever the A/c bank angle exceeds 30 degrees when a/c flying close to ground.
 W 7. Windshear protection ("WINDSHEAR"). Visual and aural windshear warnings are given
when several parameters such as ground speed, airspeed, height, rate of descent and radio
altitude, indicate the initial conditions of entering an area of a windshear.
 Traditional GPWS does have a blind spot. Since it can only gather data from directly below the
aircraft, it must predict future terrain features. If there is a dramatic change in terrain, such as a
steep slope, GPWS will not detect the aircraft closure rate until it is too late for evasive action.
 Improvements were made and the system was renamed "Enhanced Ground Proximity
Warning System" (EGPWS/TAWS).
 Difference between GPWS/ EGPWS:
1) The GPWS system was now combined with a worldwide digital terrain database and works
in conjunction with Global Positioning System (GPS. On-board Navigational computers
compared its current location with a database of the Earth's terrain. The Terrain Display
now gave pilots a visual orientation to high and low points nearby the aircraft. EGPWS
software improvements were focused on solving two common problems; no warning at all,
and late or improper response.
2) Also, EGPWS provides a terrain clearance on all airports & prevents pre-mature descents on
Non-precision Approaches(VOR/ NDB).

What is the difference between Predictive & Reactive Windshear?

Predictive: Predictive Windshear as the name suggests is that which is predicted ahead of the Aircraft
& A/c is 10 seconds from entering & is between 0.5-5nm in front of the A/C. An Area of Increasing
Headwind: Performance Increase: Amber Caution is generated.
Reactive Windshear: is when an aircraft is already in the Windshear which reduces the Margin to
stall. A/C experiences extreme tailwinds, severe downdrafts. Perf decrease: Master Warning is
generated. Memory action for CL-30: 1) Thrust to APR 2) A/P disengage 3) no change in configuration
4) Maintain direction and wings level with both hands 5)First indication that you`re out of Windshear is
an increase on the ASI.
Why no change in configuration? Taking flaps from 30 to 10 degrees would cause the aircraft to sink
slightly which is highly undesirable in such a situation. Keeping the gear extended would prevent a
belly landing in case of severe downdraft, at least the L/G wheels can absorb the impact!
=======================================================================
Radio Altimeter
 The function of the radio altimeter is to measure & display the vertical distance between the
aircraft and the ground directly beneath it with a high level degree of accuracy. It is
important to remember that, whilst it is very accurate, it only measures the vertical distance and
is incapable of measuring terrain clearance ahead of its aircraft.
 RA for civil use operate in SHF band within a frequency band of 4200 to 4400 MHz. There is
one more frequency band UHF between 1600 and 1700 MHz is also reserved for RA operation,
but not for civil use.
 Range: The instrument can be used between zero and 2500 feet.
 Operation: Works on the principle of FMCW (Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave),
Primary Radar principles. Principle of operation is to continuously transmit a variable
 frequency signal in a relatively narrow beam vertically downwards. The signal is then reflected
from the ground and received at the radio altimeter receiver following an elliptical path, located
separately from the transmitter. It determines the time taken for a radio wave to travel from the
aircraft to the ground directly beneath the aircraft and back again.
RATE OF CHANGE OF FREQUENCY: MEASURE OF TIME: PROVIDES A/C HEIGHT.
 The accuracy of the RA is given at 1 ft or 3% of the indicated height, whichever is greater.
It can also be subjected to errors due to reflections from parts of the aircraft structure, such as
the landing gear, or due to the leakage of signals between the transmitting and receiving aerials.
Errors:
Mushing Error: It is an error in the radio altimeter and it occurs due to difference in height of
transmitting and receiving antenna.
Residual Height: Height difference between the antennae on the fuselage & bottom of trailing
main wheels; on an approach to a landing is known as Residual height. Earlier, there used to be
1 manufacturer for a 747 & A corporate Jet; hence the Residual height error. Now almost every
aircraft has it`s own Radio Altimeter and gives accurate height readings.

Q.Which Instruments employ Radio Altimeter?

Ans. Radio Altimeter is one of the crucial instrument of (E)GPWS and also an essential serviceable
equipment required for landing during CAT 2 & CAT3A,B,C operations.
Q. How Radio Altimeter works on Primary Radar, when it transmits on one frequency and
receives on another?
Ans. Radio Altimeter works on the principle of FMCW. It transmits on one frequency and the received
frequency differs. Rate of change of frequency denotes to Measure of time which translates to A/C
height. Though it transmits and receives on different frequency, it does not have another transmitter on
ground which transmits this differing frequency! The same frequency alters itself and not from a
different source.

=========================================================================

Extended Twin Engine Operations (ETOPS)

 ETOPS requirements are applicable to routes over water as well as remote areas over land. The
purpose of ETOPS is to provide very high level of safety while facilitating the use of twin
engines on routes, which were previously restricted to three or four engine aircraft. ETOPS
operation also permits more effective use of an airline resource.
 Operators cannot operate a twin engine aircraft of AUW more than 5700 kg beyond 60 minutes
on single engine inoperative cruise speed unless approved by DGCA for ETOPS. The segment
of operation beyond 60 minutes will be termed as Extended Twin Engine Operations (ETOPS)
and this will require prior approval of DGCA.
 Adequate airport is an airport meeting the safety requirements for takeoff and landing for
commercial and non-commercial operations. It should be anticipated that at the expected time of
use that the aerodrome will be compatible with the performance requirements for the expected
landing weight and will be available and equipped with services such as ATC, lighting,
communications, weather reporting, nav-aids, refueling and emergency services, and also must
have one instrument approach.
 Suitable airport is an adequate airport with weather reports or forecast or any combination
thereof indicating that the weather conditions are at or above operating minima as specified in
 the operations specification and the field condition report indicates that a safe landing can be
accomplished at the time of the intended operations.
 Diversion/ Enroute alternate airport means an airport at which an aircraft may land if a landing
at the intended airport is inadvisable. The aerodrome will be available and equipped with
necessary ancillary services such as ATC, sufficient lighting, communications, weather
reporting, navigation aids, emergency services etc.
 APU is a gas turbine engine intended for use as a power source for driving generators, hydraulic
pumps and other aeroplane accessories, equipment and/or to provide compressed air for
aeroplane pneumatic system.
 Extended Range Operations are those flights conducted over a route that contains a point farther
than one hour flying time at the approved one engine inoperative cruise speed ( under standard
conditions in still air ) from an adequate airport.
 Extended range entry point is the point on the aeroplanes out bound route which is one-hour
flying time at the approved single engine inoperative cruise speed (under standard conditions in
still air) from an adequate airport.
 ETOPS segment starts at the ETOPS entry point and finishes when the flight path is back and
remains within 60-minute area from an adequate airport.
 Maximum diversion time is the maximum flying time authorised from any point of the route to
the nearest adequate airport for landing.
 Propulsion System. A system consisting of power unit and all other equipment utilized to
provide those functions necessary to sustain, monitor and control the power/thrust output of any
one-power unit following installation on the airframe.
 75 Minutes Operation. Approval to carry out extended range operation with 75 minutes
diversion time may be granted by DGCA to an operator with minimal or no in-service
experience with particular airframe engine combination. This approval will be based on such
factors as the proposed areas of operation and the operator’s demonstrated ability to successfully
introduce aircraft into operation, and the quality of the proposed maintenance and operation
program. For this approval, the service experience of Airframe –engine combination may be less
than 250,000 hours in the world fleet.
 In Flight Shutdown. When an engine ceases to function in flight and is shutdown, whether self-
induced, crew initiated or caused by some other external influence.
 Up To 120 Minutes Operation. Each operator requesting approval to conduct extended range
operations with a maximum diversion time of 120 minutes (in still air) should have minimum of
12 consecutive months of operational in service experience with the specified airframe engine
combination. Normally the accumulation of at least 250,000 engine hours in the world fleet (not
necessarily on a particular airframe) will be necessary before the proposal is considered. This
number of engine hours maybe reduced if sufficient data is available to prove reliability of the
engine.
 Above 120 and up to 180 Minutes Operation. Each operator requesting approval for maximum
diversion time of 180 minutes (in still air) should have held current approval for 120 minutes
ETOPS for a minimum period of 12 months with a corresponding high level of demonstrated
propulsion system reliability.
 Any operator requesting approval for extended range operations with twin engine aeroplanes
should submit the request with the supporting data to the Regional Airworthiness office of
DGCA at least three months prior to the proposed start of extended range operation with the
specific airframe/engine combination.
  The operators should develop MEL exclusively for ETOPS operations which may be more
restrictive than MMEL considering the nature of operation proposed and service problems that
may be encountered and unique to the operator.

CAVOK
 Visibilities greater or equal to 10 km, no cumulonimbus, no cloud below 5000 feet or highest
MSA and no weather significant to aviation.

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) and Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)
 It is a light system positioned besides the runway that consists of two, three or four boxes of
lights that provide a visual indication of a fixed-wing aircraft’s position on the glidepath for
associated runway. It is usually located on the left side of the runway and can be seen up to five
miles during the day and twenty miles by night. It has two bars or four lights installed in a single
row instead of far and near bars that would be characteristic of Visual Approach Slope Indicator.
 VASI is a system of lights on the side of an airport runway threshold that provides
visual descent guidance information during approach. These lights may be visible from up to
eight kilometers (five miles) during the day and up to 32 kilometers (20 miles) or more at night.

Runway Lighting
 Runway End Identification Lights (REIL) – unidirectional (facing approach direction) or
omni-directional pair of synchronized flashing lights installed at the runway threshold, one on
each side.
 Runway end lights – a pair of four lights on each side of the runway on precision instrument
runways, these lights extend along the full width of the runway. These lights show green when
viewed by approaching aircraft and red when seen from the runway.
 Runway edge lights – white elevated lights that run the length of the runway on either side. On
precision instrument runways, the edge-lighting becomes yellow in the last 2,000 ft (610 m) of
the runway, or last half of the runway, whichever is less. Taxiways are differentiated by being
bordered by blue lights, or by having green centre lights, depending on the width of the taxiway,
and the complexity of the taxi pattern.
 Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS) – lights embedded into the surface of the
runway at 50 ft (15 m) intervals along the runway centerline on some precision instrument
runways. White except the last 3,000 ft (914 m), alternate white and red for next 2,000 ft
(610 m) and red for last 1,000 ft (305 m).
 Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL) – rows of white light bars (with three in each row) at 100 ft
(30 m) intervals on either side of the centerline over the first 3,000 ft (914 m) (or to the
midpoint, whichever is less) of the runway.
 Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights – installed along lead-off markings, alternate green and
yellow lights embedded into the runway pavement. It starts with green light about runway
centerline to the position of first centerline light beyond holding position on taxiway.
 Taxiway Centerline Lead-On Lights – installed the same way as taxiway centerline lead-off
Lights.
 Land and Hold Short Lights – a row of white pulsating lights installed across the runway to
indicate hold short position on some runways that are facilitating land and hold short
operations (LAHSO).
  Approach Lighting System (ALS) – a lighting system installed on the approach end of an
airport runway and consists of a series of light-bars, strobe lights, or a combination of the two
that extends outward from the runway end. It gives visual references for the pilot while landing.

Azimuth Guidance Nose in Stand (AGNIS)

 Two closely spaced lights which illuminate different combinations of green and red lights to
indicate the aircraft’s position relative to the centerline. They are mounted in a box at cockpit
level at the end of the stand, aligned with the centerline.

Parallax Aircraft Parking Aid (PAPA)

 A large board is positioned to the right of the stand into which a horizontal slot has been cut. A
vertical light can be seen through the slot which, when aligned from the left-hand seat of an
aircraft with the appropriate mark on the front of the board for the aircraft type, indicates the
correct stopping position.

Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude

 The lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR airways. It meets the
obstacle clearance requirement for the entire segment but assures navigation signals only 22 NM
from the VOR station.

Minimum Enroute Altitude

 The lowest published altitude between radio fixes that meets obstacle clearance requirements
and assures acceptable navigation signal coverage.

Minimum Off-Route Altitude

 This is an altitude derived by Jeppesen. MORA provides known obstacle clearance within 10
NM of the route centerline.

Runway Visual Range

 It is the horizontal visibility calculated along the runway using a transmissometer. There are
total three values given; touchdown RVR, mid RVR and roll out RVR.

Visual Descent Point

 It is a point on the non-precision approach at which a descent below MDA can be initiated
provided runway or runway environment is in sight.

Mountainous Area
 An area of changing terrain profile where the changes of terrain elevation exceed 3000 feet
(900m) within a distance of 10 NM.

Missed Approach
 A maneuver conducted by a pilot when an instrument approach cannot be completed to a
landing. The route of flight and altitude are shown on instrument approach procedure charts. A
pilot executing a missed approach prior to the Missed Approach Point (MAP) must continue
along the final approach to the MAP. The pilot may climb immediately to the altitude specified
in the missed approach procedure. A term used by the pilot to inform ATC that he/she is
executing the missed approach.
Missed Approach Point
 That point in an instrument approach procedure at or before which the prescribed missed
approach procedure must be initiated in order to ensure that the minimum obstacle clearance is
not infringed.

Maximum Authorized Altitude

 A published altitude representing the maximum usable altitude or flight level for an airspace
structure or route segment.
Minimum Safe Altitude
 Altitude depicted on an instrument approach chart and identified as the minimum safe altitude
which provides a 1000 ft obstacle clearance within a 25 NM radius from the navigational facility
upon which the MSA is predicated. If the radius limit is other than 25 NM, it is stated. This
altitude is for EMERGENCY USE ONLY and does not necessarily guarantee NAVAID
reception. When the MSA is divided into sectors, with each sector a different altitude, the
altitudes in these sectors are referred to as “minimum sector altitudes”.

Minimum Crossing Altitude

 The lowest altitude at certain fixes at which an aircraft must cross when proceeding in the
direction of a higher minimum en route IFR altitude (MEA)

Minimum Descent Altitude

 A specified altitude or height in a non-precision approach or circling approach below which
descent may not be made without visual reference.

Future Air Navigation Systems

 It is used primarily in oceanic areas taking advantage of both satellite communication and
satellite navigation to effectively create a virtual radar environment for safe passage of aircraft.
 It uses the GPS and IRS to fix their position and on-board FMS to manage the navigational
solution and flow of information. The position of the aircraft is then transmitted through a
communications router and sent to ATC via either VHF or SATCOM. The standard of FANS is
to use SATCOM when out of VHF range.
 There are over 34 Flight Information Regions (FIRs) and Upper Information Regions (UIRs)
around the globe supporting ATC surveillance and Controller Pilot Data Link Communication
providing FANS coverage worldwide.
 With the introduction of RNP and FANS ATC controllers can safely and significantly reduce
those separation distances and allow more flexibility for FANS equipped aircraft.
 CPDLC (Controller/Pilot Data Link Communication). It allows a two way communication
between the cockpit and ATC. It contains the set of pre-determined text messages for clearances,
requests and routine message traffic. The current FANS CPDLC is designed to use the ACARS
network.

Air Navigation
 The basic principles of air navigation are identical to general navigation, which includes the
process of planning, recording, and controlling the movement of a craft from one place to
another. Successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without
 getting lost, breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board
or on the ground.
 The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying under
the visual flight rules (VFR) or the instrument flight rules (IFR). In the IFR case, the pilot will
navigate exclusively using instruments and radio navigation aids such as beacons, or as directed
under radar control by air traffic control. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely navigate
using dead reckoning combined with visual observations with reference to appropriate maps.
This may be supplemented using radio navigation aids.

Performance
 Takeoff Run Available – The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground
run of an airplane taking off.
 Takeoff Distance Available – The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of
the clearway, if clearway is provided. It can also be defined as the distance available for an
aeroplane to takeoff and attain screen height. It is limited to 1.5 x TORA. The clearway length
allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary.
 Takeoff Run Required – It is the measured run required to the unstick speed (V R) plus one-
third of the airborne distance between the unstick and the screen height. The whole distance is
then factored by a safety margin, usually 15%.
 Takeoff Distance Required – It is the measured distance required to accelerate to rotation
speed and thereafter effect a transition to a climbing flight and attain a screen height at a speed
not less than the takeoff safety speed or V 2. The whole distance is then factored by a safety
margin, usually 15%.
 Clearway – It is a length of an obstacle free area at the end of the runway in the direction of
takeoff with a minimum dimension of 75 m either side of the extended runway centerline that is
under the control of the licensed authority.
 Accelerate-Stop Distance Available – The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of
the stopway, if stopway is provided. This is the total distance for the aeroplane to accelerate to
V1, abandon takeoff and to brake safely. Can also be referred to as Emergency Distance
Available (EMDA).
 Stopway – It is the length of the unprepared surface at the end of the runway in the direction of
the takeoff that is capable of supporting an aircraft if the aircraft has to be stopped during a
takeoff run.
 Landing Distance Available – The length of runway that is declared available and suitable for
the ground run of an airplane landing.
 Emergency Distance Available – LDA (or TORA) plus a stopway.

Notes
 Speed to be maintained when in a DME arc = 230 Kt.
 Control Zone. A controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of the earth to a
specified upper limit.
 Control Area. A controlled airspace extending upwards from a specified limit above the earth.
 Controlled Airspace. Airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is
provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace classification.
 Ceiling. The height above the ground or water of the base of the lowest layer of cloud below
6000 meters (20,000 feet) covering more than half the sky.
  Braking Action. A report of conditions on the airport movement area providing a pilot with a
degree/quality of braking that might be expected. Braking action is reported in terms of good,
fair, poor, or nil.
 Alternate Aerodrome. An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes either
impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or to land at the aerodrome of intended landing.
 Airway. A control area or portion thereof established in the form of a corridor equipped with
radio navigation aids.
 Air Defense Identification Zone. The area of airspace over land or water, extending upward
from the surface, within which the ready identification, the location, and the control of aircraft
are required in the interest of national security.
 Runway Incursion. It is an incident where an unauthorized aircraft, vehicle or person is on a
runway. This adversely affects runway safety, as it creates the risk that an airplane taking off or
landing will collide with the object.
 Aquaplaning Speed. The speed where a loss of directional control on the ground is caused by a
decrease in surface friction due to contaminant on the surface of the runway.
 Screen Height. It relates to the minimum height achieved over the runway before the end of the
clearway should an engine failure occurs on takeoff. The screen height also marks the end of the
takeoff distance.
 Dead Reckoning. It is the process of calculating one's current position by using a previously
determined position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon known or estimated speeds
over elapsed time, and course. Dead reckoning, using best estimates of speed and direction, is
subject to cumulative errors. The words dead reckoning are also used to mean the process of
estimating the value of any variable quantity by using an earlier value and adding whatever
changes have occurred in the meantime. Dead reckoning begins with a known position, or fix,
which is then advanced, mathematically or directly on the chart, by means of recorded heading,
speed, and time.
 Pilotage. It is navigation by reference only to landmarks.
 Radio Navigation. It relates to navigation by the use of radio aids that is navigation signals
broadcast by radio stations on the ground or from satellites.
 Celestial Navigation. It relates to navigation by measuring angles to heavenly bodies to
determine the position on earth.
 Inertial Navigation. It relates to navigation by self-contained airborne gyroscopic equipment or
electronic computers that provide a continuous display of position.

North Atlantic Routes

 North Atlantic Tracks (NAT) are trans-Atlantic routes that stretch from the northeast of North
America to Western Europe across the Atlantic Ocean. They ensure aircraft are separated over
the ocean, where there is little radar coverage. These heavily-traveled routes are used
by aircraft traveling between North America and Europe, flying between the altitudes of 28,500
and 42,000 feet. Entrance and movement along these tracks is controlled by special Oceanic
Center air traffic controllers to maintain separation between airplanes. The primary purpose of
these routes is to provide a Minimum Time Route (MTR). They are aligned in such a way as to
minimize any head winds and maximize tail winds impact on the aircraft. This results in much
more efficiency by reducing fuel burn and flight time. To make such efficiencies possible, the
routes are created daily to take account of the shifting of the winds aloft.
 The specific routing of the tracks are dictated based on a number of factors, the most important
being the jetstream—aircraft going to North America from Europe experience headwinds caused
 by the jetstream. Tracks to Europe use the jetstream to their advantage by routing along the
strongest tailwinds. Because of the difference in ground speed caused by the jetstream,
westbound flights tend to be longer in duration than their eastbound counterparts. North Atlantic
Tracks are published by Shanwick Center (EGGX) and Gander Center (CZQX), in consultation
with other adjacent air traffic control agencies and airlines.
 Prior to departure, airline flight dispatchers/flight operations officers will determine the best
track based on destination, aircraft weight, aircraft type, prevailing winds and Air Traffic
Control route charges. The aircraft will then contact the Oceanic Center controller before
entering oceanic airspace and request the track giving the estimated time of arrival at the entry
point. These reports can be made to dispatchers via a satellite communications link (CPDLC) or
via High Frequency (HF) radios. In the case of HF reports, each aircraft operates
using SELCAL (Selective Calling). The use of SELCAL allows an aircraft crew to be notified of
incoming communications even when the aircraft's radio has been muted. Thus, crewmembers
need not devote their attention to continuous radio listening.
 The tracks reverse direction twice daily. In the daylight, all traffic on the tracks operates in a
westbound flow. At night, the tracks flow eastbound towards Europe. This is done to
accommodate traditional airline schedules, with departures from North America to Europe
scheduled for departure in the evening thereby allowing passengers to arrive at their destination
in the morning. Westbound departures leave Europe mid-day and arrive in North America in the
late afternoon. In this manner, a single aircraft can be efficiently utilized by flying to Europe at
night and to North America in the day. The tracks are updated daily and their position may alter
on the basis of a variety of variable factors, but predominantly due to weather systems.

Action In The Event Of Air Ground Communication Failure

 As soon as it is known that two-way communication has failed, ATC shall maintain separation
between the aircraft having the communication failure and other aircraft based on assumption
that the aircraft will operate in accordance with VMC or IMC. Also the air traffic services unit
shall forward information concerning the radio communication failure to all the ATS units
concerned along the route of flight.
 Visual Meteorological Conditions.
 1. Set transponder to Code 7600.
 2. Continue to fly in VMC.
 3. Land at the nearest suitable aerodrome.
 4. Report its arrival time by the most expeditious means to the appropriate ATS unit.
 Instrument Meteorological Conditions.
 1. Set transponder to Code 7600.
 2. Maintain the last assigned speed and level, or the minimum flight altitude if higher for a
period of 20 minutes following the aircraft’s failure to report its position over a compulsory
reporting point and thereafter adjust level and speed in accordance with the filed flight plan.
 3. Proceed according to the current flight plan route to the appropriate designated navigation aid
serving the destination aerodrome and, and hold over the aid until commencement of descent.
 4. Commence descent from the navigation aid at or as close as possible to the expected approach
time last received and acknowledged, or as close as possible to the expected time of arrival
resulting from the current flight plan.
 5. Complete a normal instrument approach procedure as specified for the designated navigation
aid.
  6. Land if possible within 30 minutes after the expected time of arrival or the last acknowledged
expected approach time, whichever is later.

Mass and Balance Definitions

 Standard Empty Weight. The weight of the airframe and engine with all standard equipment
installed. It also includes the unusable fuel and oil.
 Optional or Extra Equipment. Any and all additional instruments, radio equipment, installed but
not included as standard equipment, the weight of which is added to the standard empty weight
to get the basic empty weight.
 Basic Empty Weight. The weight of the airplane with all optional equipment included. In most
modern airplanes the manufacturer includes full oil in the basic empty weight.
 Useful Load. The difference between the gross takeoff weight and basic empty weight. In other
words defined as the load which is removable, or which is not permanently part of the airplane.
 Payload. The load available as passengers, baggage, freight, etc, after the weight of the pilot,
crew usable fuel have been deducted from the useful load.
 Operational Empty Weight. The basic empty of the airplane and the weight of the pilot. It
excludes payload and usable fuel.
 Usable Fuel. Fuel available for flight planning.
 Unusable Fuel. Fuel remaining in the tanks after a run-out test has been completed in accordance
with the government regulations.
 Operational Gross Weight. The weight of the airplane loaded for takeoff. It includes the basic
empty weight plus the useful load.
 Maximum Gross Weight. The maximum permissible weight of the airplane.
 Maximum Take-off Weight. The maximum weight approved for the start of the takeoff run.
 Maximum Ramp Weight. The maximum weight approved for ground maneuvering. It includes
the weight of fuel used for start, taxi and run-up.
 Maximum Landing Weight. The maximum weight approved for landing touchdown.
 Maximum Zero Fuel Weight. The weight of the airplane exclusive of usable fuel, but including
useful load.

Q. How do you carry out a CANPA approach if FAF is not published? How is the FAF crossing height
calculated? A.  x Range x 100 feet.

Q. If you are navigating using triple INS and if all three fail, how will you navigate?
A. The pilot answered raw data but the examiner was looking for GPS as an answer.

Q. How is the height of cloud base calculated using weather radar?

A. (Height – Beam Width/2) x Range x 100 feet.

Q. How do you know whether your aircraft is RNAV approved ?

A. Operations Manual or Aircraft Flight Manual.

Q. Enroute chart classification?

A. LO = for use upto but not including 18000 ft. HE = for use at 18000 ft and above. Terminal Area
Charts depict radio navigation information in the congested areas at a larger scale and are intended for
use from surface upto 18000 ft.
 INSTRUMENTS

Static Pressure
 It is defined as the ambient atmospheric pressure at any location is called as the static pressure.
It decreases at a rate of 1 Hpa for every 27 feet increase in height.
 It can also be defined as the pressure of the stationary air surrounding an aircraft, irrespective of
its level or speed, is sensed through a set of small holes on either side of the aircraft called static
sources or static vents.
 Static head consists of a tube with its forward end sealed but with holes or slots cut in the sides.
These slots do not face into the airflow but just senses the static pressure.

Dynamic and Pitot Pressure

 As an aircraft moves forward, it displaces the surrounding air. As the aircraft moves forward it
experiences an additional pressure on the leading edges due to the resistance of the air to the
aircraft movement. This additional pressure is called dynamic pressure and its value depends on
speed of aircraft through the air and on the density of the air.
 The pressure being measured at the forward facing parts of an aircraft will be the sum of the
static and the dynamic pressure, this pressure is called pitot or total pressure, which is sensed by
a forward facing open ended tube called pitot tube. This tube is parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the aircraft.

Static Pressure Error

  The static system of the air pressure measurement will be inaccurate if the airflow is turbulent,
or due to the presence of crosswind or side-slipping.
 It depends mainly on the positioning of the pressure head, the airspeed and the aircraft altitude.
About 95% of the position error associated with a combined pressure head is produced by
turbulence about the static head.
 The effect of turbulence is minimized by locating the static source clear from areas of disturbed
airflow.
 To eliminate the errors due to crosswind or side-slipping, static source is duplicated and this is
known as static balancing.

Manoeuvre-Induced Error
 They are short term fluctuations of pressure at the static vents and delays in the associated
pipelines transmitting pressure changes to the instruments.
 Change in angle of attack, and turbulence due to lowering or raising flaps and landing gear are
the prime causes of the error-producing changes in airflow over the static vents.
 These errors appear as a marked lag in pressure instrument indications.

Alternatic Static Source

 It is normally provided in the event of the static head/vents becoming clocked.
 Blockage of the static source is one of the probable hazards in flight. This may take the pressure
from within the cabin in case of an unpressurised aircraft, or from a separate external source.
The source will be less accurate than the primary or blocked static vent, since that would have
been in optimum position.
 The pressure senses is likely to be lower than the ambient due to aerodynamic suction.
 In either case, there is likely to be a slight difference in pressure compared with that from the
normal source. The aircraft operating data manual or aircraft flight manual normally contains
correction values to be used when the alternate source is being used.
 In light aircraft, if alternate source is not fitted, and the static source becomes blocked. You can
break the glass of the vertical speed indicator.

Air Temperature
 What is the difference between SAT & TAT?
Static Air Temperature (SAT): This is the temperature; the air at the surface of the aircraft would
be at if there were no compression effects due to the aircraft’s movement. It can also be defined as
the temperature of the air through which the aircraft is going to fly. Prevailing OAT is known as
Static Air Temperature.
Total Air Temperature (TAT): This is temperature of the air when it has been brought completely
to rest, as in the pitot tube. TAT can also be defined as the maximum temperature attainable by the
air when brought to rest, adiabatically.
 The ram rise, that is the temperature increase due to compression and effects of friction, can be
subtracted from the TAT to give the Corrected OAT. TAT- Ram Rise= OAT
 The recovery factor (k) can be defined as the percentage of the ram rise (RAT) sensed and
recovered by a TAT probe. K= % Ram rise.
 Errors associated with the thermometers are instrument errors (manufacturing imperfections),
environmental errors and heating errors (adiabatic and kinetic heating).
 SAT = TAT – (V/100)2 where V is the TAS in knots. Ram rise= (V/100)
  TAT = SAT + Ram Rise.
 TAT = SAT (1 + 0.2kM2).

Airspeed Indicator
 The pitot head measures the pitot pressure and the static head measures the static pressure.
These two pressures are fed to the airspeed indicator, a differential pressure gauge, which
measures their differential pressure. Indicated Airspeed is a measure of dynamic pressure.
 Dynamic pressure = ½ V2; where V is the TAS and  is density of the surrounding air.
 Principle: The ASI measures the dynamic pressure and converts this to an indication of airspeed
by displaying on a suitably calibrated result. We know that pitot pressure is a combination of
static and dynamic pressure. Thus the function of the ASI is to remove the static pressure
element of pitot pressure and use the resulting dynamic pressure.
 Construction: The instrument comprises a sealed case connected to the static source and
contains a capsule fed with the pitot pressure. Hence, the static pressure element of the pitot
pressure inside the capsule is balanced/ cancelled by the static pressure surrounding the capsule.
The capsule will respond only to the changes in dynamic pressure element of the pitot pressure.
The faster the aircraft flies, greater would be the dynamic pressure and greater would be the
capsule expansion. ASI tolerance is  3 Kts or 5% of indicated Airspeed.
TAS = CAS + (1.75% of CAS per 1,000 ft of Altitude).
 The ASI is calibrated to read the TAS at ISA MSL conditions.
 Errors:
 Blocked Pitot and Blocked Static Error: As Pitot gets blocked in level flight, there will be no
change in Indicated airspeed. In a descend, with Pitot blocked, the ASI will only sense increase
in Static pressure which causes the Capsule to compress and Airspeed reduces.
Conversely in a climb; the Static pressure would decrease and with Pitot blocked, the capsule
expands indicating an increase in Airspeed.
(Remember PUDSOD: Pitot blocked, Underreads in a descend, Static blocked overreads in
Descent).
Pitot blocked: Airspeed () as Altitude () : Same sense as an Altimeter
Static blocked: Airspeed () as Altitude (): Opp. Sense of an Altimeter
If Pitot pressure leaks; the ASI Underreads( for obvious reasons).

 Lag Error: Any changes in Airspeed, are not instantaneously displayed on the Airspeed gauge. It
takes 1-2 secs to display the correct Airspeed.
 Instrument Error. Manufacturing imperfections and usage result in small errors. A correction
card can be produced for the speed range of the aircraft.
 Position Error. Alternatively known as static pressure error, arises mainly from the incorrect
sensing of the static pressure.
 Density Error. As we know that dynamic pressure is proportional to density, so at altitude where
density is less, the dynamic pressure generated by a given TAS will be less than for the same
TAS in flight at MSL. Therefore, ASI capsule expansion will be less and speed indicated will be
less than the TAS. Density error causes the ASI to underread when flying at altitudes
AMSL. If flying below MSL, density error causes it to overread. This is because the ASI is
calibrated to ISA MSL density of 1.225k.g/m . The ASI is calibrated to read TAS at MSL. So,
at higher altitudes where density is less, to balance the Dynamic pressure Equation (½ V2); if
density decreases then TAS at higher levels needs to increase.
  Compressibility Error: Air is compressible and except at TAS below about 150 knots where the
effect is negligible, the pressure produced in pitot tube is higher than it would be for an ideal
incompressible fluid. Compressibility factor needs to be subtracted from to indicate true
IAS/TAS. At Airspeeds above 300 kts where the Compressibility error is significant; the
dynamic pressure sensed at higher altitudes/ levels would cause the ASI to overread; hence
compressibility error needs to be subtracted.
 Manoeuvre-Induced Error: Caused due to extension/ raising of flaps/ Ldg gear.
 White Arc denotes the flaps operating range from VS0 to VFE.
 Green Arc denotes the normal operating range from VS1 to VNO.
 Yellow Arc denotes the caution range which extends from VNO to VNE.
 Red Radial Line denotes VNE or VMCA.
 Blue Radial Line denotes VYSE. It denotes the best rate of climb speed for one engine out,
maximum weight at MSL.(Told by Rens at CAE): Important!!!
 IAS = Indicated reading on the instrument.
 CAS = IAS +_ corrected for instrument and position error.
 EAS = CAS +_ corrected for compressibility error.
 TAS = EAS corrected for density error or (CAS corrected for compressibility & density error).

Altimeter
 The function of the pressure altimeter is to indicate height above a given pressure datum. It
operates on the principle of decreasing atmospheric pressure with increasing height. It is in fact
just a simple aneroid barometer that is calibrated to read pressure in terms of height. It is
calibrated to read height above a specified datum for any specific atmosphere pressure.
 The higher an aircraft is flying, shorter is the column of air above it and consequently the lower
is the atmospheric pressure at the aircraft. In other words, the greater the height, the lower the
pressure, and by measuring the pressure the altimeter measures height.
 Calibrated at ISA MSL conditions.
 Simple Altimeter. Static pressure is fed directly into the casing from the static source. As height
increases, the static pressure decreases and the capsule expands under the control of a leaf
spring. There is a mechanical linkage that magnifies the expansion and converts it to a rotational
movement of a single pointer over a height scale. It also has a setting knob which is geared with
the pointer.
 Sensitive Altimeter. The principle of operation of this altimeter is almost same as that of a
simple altimeter. Sensitivity is improved by incorporating two to three aneroid capsules
connected in series with each other. These are geared 100:10:1, the smallest indicating 100000
feet per revolution, next one indicates 10000 feet per revolution and the largest indicates 1000
feet per revolution.
 Errors.
 Time Lag. With many types of altimeter the response to change in height is not instantaneous.
This causes the altimeter to under-read in a climb and over-read in a descent. The lag is most
noticeable when the change in altitude is rapid and prolonged.
 Position Error. Alternatively known as static pressure error, arises mainly from the incorrect
sensing of the static pressure.
  Instrument Error. Manufacturing imperfections and usage result in small errors. These errors are
kept as small as possible by adjustments within the instrument.
 Blockage of Static Source. It will not register any change in height. The height at which the
blockage occurred will still be indicated regardless of any climb or descent.
 Manoeuvre-Induced Error.
 Barometric Error. Provided that the altimeter is set with local QNH and it indicates altitude
above MSL. If the local surface pressure has changed since the QNH value was set, a barometric
error will result.
 Temperature Error. When flying in cold air the altimeter will over-read.
 Height. Vertical distance of a level, point or an object, measured from a specified datum.
 Altitude. Vertical distance of a level, point or an object considered as a point, measured from
MSL.
 Flight Level. Surfaces of constant pressure related to the standard pressure datum and separated
by specified pressure intervals.
 QFE. Aerodrome level pressure, which when set on the altimeter will cause it to read zero on
ground.
 QNH. It is the MSL pressure if set on the altimeter will indicate height above MSL. It will read
aerodrome elevation if on ground.
 Regional QNH. It is the lowest forecast QNH. It is used to ensure safe terrain clearance.
 Transition Altitude. This is the altitude at or below which the vertical position of an aircraft is
controlled in terms of altitude.
 Transition Level. It is the lowest flight level available for use above the transition altitude.
 Transition Layer. This is the airspace between the TA and the TL. Its width is 1000 – 1499 feet.

Servo Assisted Altimeter

 This type of altimeter gives an increased operating range and also improves the instrument
accuracy, particularly at high levels.
 At high altitude the change in pressure corresponding to the change in height is much smaller
than at low altitude. This means that for a given height change, capsule movement at high
altitude is relatively small, and frictional resistance in the linkage of an unassisted altimeter
causes more errors and lag.
 The principle of this altimeter is that the small movements of the capsules are detected by a very
sensitive electro-magnetic pick-off. This produces an electric current which is amplified and
used to drive a motor which rotates the counters and the pointers.
 Tolerance of a servo altimeter is 30 ft at 0 height. Sensitive altimeter = 70 ft at 0 height.
Simple altimeter = 100 ft at 0 height.

Vertical Speed Indicator

Q. Explain principle, construction, working & erros of VSI?
Principle: Rate of change of altitude(static pressure) is indicated to the pilot on the VSI, sometimes
referred to as rate of climb/ descend indicator.
  Construction: The VSI consists of a tight Instrument case within which there is an aneroid
capsule and is attached to a metering unit/ choke & further mechanically linked to the VSI
display. When an aircraft departs from a level flight, there is a change in the static pressure. VSI
measures the pressure difference between each side of a restricted choke or a metering unit. A
capsule in the airtight case is fed by the static pressure. The case is also fed with the static
pressure but through a restricted choke.
Simple: Static pressure ↓: Capsule contracts : VSI Indicates ROC.
Static Pressure ↑: Capsule Expands: VSI indicates ROD.
 If the aircraft is climbing, the pressure in the capsule is less than that in the case, the consequent
compression of the capsule is converted by mechanical linkages to an indication of a rate of
climb( As you climb, static pressure ↓ ; capsule compresses↓; VSI indicates climb) ;
o ( As you descend, static pressure ↑; capsule expands ↑; VSI indicates descend).
Errors:
 Blockage of Static Source. It will cause the needle to return to zero.
 Lag Error: The pointer takes a few seconds to steady because of the time taken to build up a
steady pressure difference in climb or descent.
 Instrument Error. Due to manufacturing imperfections.
 Position Error. If static pressure is subject to position error the VSI will wrongly indicate a
climb or a descent when speed is suddenly changed.
 Manoeuvre-Induced Error: These are any short term fluctuations in pressure at the static vent
during altitude changes.
 Checks: 200 feet at temperatures -20 and + 50C. 300 feet outside these temperatures.
Types of VSI: 1) Linear scale VSI 2) Logarithmic scale VSI. This is preferred as this
kind shows accurate ROC/ROD at VS below 2000fpm.
How is lag error eliminated/ reduced in IVSI (Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator)?
 The time lag error is the most significant error of the VSI. In order to overcome the lag error,
IVSI incorporates an vertical accelerometer unit(dashpot) which quickly responds to a change of
static pressure. The piston in the vertical acceleration pump immediately rises in the cylinder
and increases the pressure in the capsule. The capsule expands and the pointer will give an
instant indication of descent.
 The main error of the IVSI is that it tends to over react to turbulent flying conditions and small
fluctuations should be ignored. In a steep, level turn there will be a false indication of climb as
the piston sinks to the bottom of the cylinder.
=========================================================================
Machmeter:
Q. Explain the Principle & Construction of Machmeter?
The Machmeter is an essential instrument for high speed aircraft. As an aircraft approaches the
local speed of sound, the airflow over some parts of fuselage or wings may reach local speed of
sound and a shock-wave may be created. These shock waves cause more drag, less lift and a
mach tuck & reduction in control effectiveness or loss of controls.
 Principle: The Machmeter displays the Mach no. at which an aircraft is flying by measuring the
ratio of TAS to the LSS. The speed at which the sound travels through the air is called speed of
sound. It basically depends on the air temperature and location. The speed of sound at any
specific location is called local speed of sound.
 Speed of Sound (kts) = 38.95√T where T is the Absolute temperature (In Kelvin). AtMSL,
spped of sound is 661.6 kts.
  In high speed aircraft mach meter is an essential instrument. It displays the present mach number
so that the pilot can keep his mach number well below the critical mach number for his aircraft
and avoid the problems associated with high speed flight.
 Critical Mach No: The speed at which airflow over some part of the aircraft reaches the speed
of sound and a shock wave is created is known as the Critical Mach No. Mach Crit is not a limit
but Mmo is.
 Construction: The instrument uses two capsules and linkages to indicate the aircraft’s TAS as a
proportion to the LSS. The first capsule is an airspeed capsule which will expand and contract as
a result of changes in the dynamic pressure. The second capsule is an altitude capsule which will
expand and contract as a result of changes in the static pressure. The movement of the airspeed
and the altitude capsules is then transmitted to the instrument by means of mechanical linkages
and gears.
 Static pressure enters the case while pitot pressure is fed directly into the airspeed capsule.
Expansion and contraction of airspeed capsule is transmitted via the airspeed link and main shaft
to the ratio arm, but the position of the ratio arm is also governed by the expansion and
contraction of altitude capsule. Basically if either or both capsules expand, then the ranging arm
will rotate out of the diagram and the indicated mach number will increase.
 Errors: Q. Why is the machmeter calibrated to overread?
 1) Position error: The Instrument uses the same sources of Pitot and Static pressure as ASI and
hence suffers from position error caused at these sources. At Low speeds, this error is
insignificant. At high Airspeed, the Machmeter is designed as such so that it always overreads;
coz if it underread then in cruise or descends, a/c might fly at LSS causing a Mach tuck.
Q. What is Mach tuck? Mach tuck is an aerodynamic effect, whereby the nose of
an aircraft tends to pitch downwards abrupty as the airflow around the wing
reaches supersonic speeds. The aircraft will be subsonic, and traveling significantly
below Mach 1.0, when it first experiences this effect.
2) Manoeuvre-induced errors: Whenever the aircraft manoeuvres, there is an error induced
due to uneven airflow over static sources.
3) Blockage: Same as that of ASI. P U D S O D. Static (over-read in descend) and pitot source
blocked (under-read in descend).

Air Data Computer

 There are numerous systems in modern aircraft that require air data inputs in terms of static
pressure, pitot pressure and total air temperature. It is logical to supply such data in electronic
form. The ADC receives pitot pressure and static pressure from the normal and alternate sources
and convert those into electronic and transmits them to the various indicators and systems.
 It is a device that uses analogue or digital computing techniques to convert pressure and
temperature data into electronic signals which are transmitted to the display instruments and to
other systems.
 ADC’s can also be programmed to apply the necessary corrections for pressure errors,
barometric pressure changes and compressibility effects. TAS can also be calculated by the
ADC.

Gyroscopes
Q. What is Gyro? What are the properties of a gyro?
Ans. Any rotating mass/ body is a gyro. The earth is a gyro spinning about the axis between the
geographic poles. Gyros are defined in their orientation as either horizontal or vertical by reference
 to their spin ais and not the rotor. A gyro possesses two gyroscopic properties of Rigidity in space
& precession.
Rigidity in space: This is also known as gyroscopic Inertia. The spin axis of a gyro will maintain a
fixed direction in space unless acted upon by an external force. It can also be defined as the spin axis of
the gyro will remain pointing towards a fixed point in space unless it is physically forced to move. It is
a product of angular velocity and mass.
Rigidity can be increased by increasing the mass of the rotor; concentrating the mass along the
circumference of the rotor or increasing the RPM of the gyro.
Precession: It is defined as the angular change in direction of the spin axis when acted upon by an
external force. If an external force is applied to change the direction of the rotor axis, the gyro resists
angular movement in the plane of the torque applied and instead moves in a plane at right angles to that
of the torque, the resulting movement is called precession.

Rate of precession ( Ω) = T/ I w
T = Applied Force/ torque
I = Moment of inertia of rotor
W= Angular velocity of rotor
Tus, Rate of precession is inversely proportional to gyroscopic rigidity.
Q. What are gimbals? What are degrees of freedom?
Gimbals are support for the rotor of a gyroscopic instrument. Gimbal rings, are known briefly as
gimbals. A gyro having two gimbals viz. out and inner gimbal will measure the angular displacement
from a known reference. Displacement gyros are defined by `two degrees of freedom`.
Some other gyros use only one gimbal which measure angular rate. These are called `rate gyros` and
are defined as `one degree of freedom` gyros.

Q. What are the types of gyros?

Types of gyros are:
1) Space Gyro: It has two degrees of freedom, and so has gyroscopic inertia relative to a fixed point in
space .
2) Tied gyro: Has the gyro/ rotor axis maintained (tied) in a desired position, so having gyroscopic
inertia relative to the reference to which it is tied.
3) Earth gyro: A gravity controlled tied gyro, so having gyroscopic inertia relative to the earth`s
vertical.
 4) Rate Gyro: Has one degree of freedom, and is constructed to measure rate of turn. It has
freedom in only two planes at 90 to each other and is constructed to measure rate of turn in the
third plane at 90 to the other two.
Other types of gyros are Suction & electric gyros.
Suction and Electric Gyros
 Suction Gyro. These are independent of electric power and so are not vulnerable to risk of total
electrical failure. The moisture, oil and nicotine in the airflow penetrate the filter, reduces the
bearing life, and so impairing accuracy. At high altitude, adequate suction cannot be maintained.
With a venturi tube, in flight it is subject to icing risk and suction is insufficient on ground.
 Electric Gyro. These are a later development and are more expensive, heavier and require AC
power supplies. It can be constructed with higher moment of inertia and spin speed, giving
greater rigidity and consequently improved stability. It gives improved accuracy. Operating
RPM is quickly attained when switched on first. The instrument is sealed for longer life &
greater accuracy.
Q. What is real/ apparent Wander? Drift & Topple?
Wander: If the axis of the gyro departs/shifts from its chosen direction, it is said to be wander.
 Real Wander is due to the manufacturing imperfections; cause small rates of random precession.
 Apparent Wander is due to the rotation of the earth. Apparent wander is the observed wander of
a gyro axis relative to a datum on the earth.
 Topple = Wander in vertical plane. Drift = Wander in horizontal plane.
Horizontal axis gyros can drift & topple; whereas
Vertical axis gyros can only topple.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Directional Gyro Indicator

 The function of the DG is to indicate the aircraft’s heading, utilizing the rigidity of a spinning
gyro to do so.
 The gyro spin axis is maintained horizontal and it can be set so that it is referenced to either
magnetic north or true north. It has two degrees of freedom of precession. It employs a tied gyro.
 There is no magnetic element in the DI, so it is not north seeking and must initially be
synchronized with the magnetic compass. Having no magnetic element, the DI does not suffer
from compass turning and acceleration errors produced by the vertical component of the earth’s
magnetic field.
 Caging Knob. Before the start of a flight, DG should be set so that aircraft heading information
should be agreed with the aircraft compass heading. It is done by the help of a caging knob.
Depressing this knob engages a caging mechanism that locks the inner gimbal at right angles to
the outer gimbal so locking the rotor axis in the yawing plane. Rotating the knob will rotate the
outer gimbal and this is done till the aircraft heading is the same as that of the compass heading.
The instrument should also be caged during violent manoeuvres to prevent the gyro from
toppling.
 If the aircraft exceeds the roll and pitch limits of 85 (55 in air driven gyro’s) the gyro will
topple as the inner gimbal comes up against the stops, the precession causing the outer gimbal
and scale to spin rapidly.
 Errors. Gimballing errors, random wander, apparent wander due to earth’s rotation and change
of aircraft’s position.
 Compensation of apparent wander due to the rotation of the earth is done by means of an
adjustable latitude nut on a threaded stud fixed horizontally to the inner gimbal.

Artificial Horizon
 It uses a vertical earth gyro that has freedom of movement about all three axes. The spin axis of
the gyro is maintained earth vertical, using the force of gravity to keep it aligned with the earth’s
centre. They may be electrically or air driven. The main purpose of the AI is to provide the pilot
with an indication of the aircraft’s attitude in both pitch and roll.
 In older instruments limits were 60 in pitch and 110 in roll. Nowadays in modern equipment
limits are 85 in pitch with complete freedom in roll.
 Suction or air-driven artificial horizon exhausts air through four slots which are normally half
covered by four pendulous vanes. Electric artificial horizons use leveling / mercury switches and
torque motors.
 When an aircraft accelerates in a level attitude a false nose-up, right wing down, or climbing
right hand turn turn will result.
  Turning through 90 = under-read bank angle, climb.
 Turning through 180 = bank angle correct, climb.
 Turning through 270 = over-read bank angle, climb.
 Turning through 360 = bank angle correct, pitch angle correct

Turn and Slip Indicator

 Rate of turn indicator uses a rate gyro to measure the rate of turn about a vertical axis.
 The slip indicator is a very simple pendulous device which is used mainly to show whether or
not a turn is balanced, to indicate the extent of a slip or skid.
 The purpose of the turn and bank indicator is to measure and display the aircraft rate of turn and
to indicate whether the aircraft is correctly banked for a co-coordinated turn with no slip or skid.
To measure the rate of turn i.e. rate of movement about the yaw axis, the instrument employs a
rate gyro that is sensitive to movement about the aircraft yaw axis only.

Turn Co-ordinator
 Light aircraft are often fitted with a variation of the turn and bank indicator, known as a turn co-
ordinator. The purpose of the instrument is to present the pilot with a display that makes co-
ordination of bank angle and turn rate as simple as possible.

EFIS
 Electronic Flight Information Systems
 It comprises of two identical systems supplying the captain and first officer with navigation
information on two display screens each, mounted one above the other. Each pilot’s display has
its control panel, and a symbol generator from which the electronic representations on the
screens are generated. There is a third symbol generator that acts as a standby unit and may
supply either of the pilot’s display in case of a failure.
 The upper display is an Electronic Attitude and Direction Indicator (EADI). It displays the
aircraft attitude in pitch and roll. Artificial Horizon is divided horizontally, with the upper half
blue and lower half brown. The display also includes flight director command bars, ILS
glideslope, localizer deviation indications and deviation indication from a selected airspeed.
Radio altitude is also indicated on the EADI. Between 1000ft and 2500 ft it is displayed in a
digital format. Below 1000ft the display changes to a circular scale display.
 The lower display is an Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI). It presents a display of
flight navigational information and progress in one of the nine possible modes, selected from the
HIS section of the EFIS control panel. The modes available are: MAP, CTR MAP, PLAN,
FULL VOR/ ILS, EXP VOR/ILS and EXP NAV/FULL NAV.

EICAS
 Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System
 It is an electronic display consisting of two CRT screens mounted vertically, one above the
other, usually positioned centrally on the cockpit console, where they are easily visible to either
pilot. The displays are capable of presenting all the engine and system operating data. These
displays are generated by two computers that are continuously receiving operating data from the
engines and the various aircraft systems.
  Operational Mode. This is the mode in which the system is used throughout the flight. In this
mode, the upper screen displays the primary engine information and the lower screen remains
blank so long as all engine and system operating parameters are normal.
 Status Mode. This mode is primarily for use during preparation of the aircraft for flights and
shows the status of the aircraft systems and their readiness for the flight. The display appears on
the lower screen of the EICAS and shows flying control surfaces positions in analogue format.
 Maintenance Mode. This mode is available to maintenance engineers for diagnosis of operating
faults. It contains records of engine and system operating conditions and is only available on
ground.

ECAM
 Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring
 It was developed for the Airbus family aircraft. The display screens are mounted side-by-side
and both are in use continuously. The left screen displays information covering systems status,
warnings and corrective actions required in check list format. The right screen displays
information in analogue formats.
 CLR. This is a clear switch. Depressing this switch will clear the message.
 STS. Depressing this switch allows manual selection of aircraft system status displays, provided
that there is no warning message displayed.
 RCL. If a warning is cleared whilst its associate failure is still existent, it may be recalled by
depressing the recall switch on the panel.
 Synoptic displays. Synoptic diagrams of each of the 12 aircraft systems are called up on
depressing a specific system button on the ECAM control panel.
 Systems. ENG, HYD, ELEC, BLEED, COND, PRESS, FUEL, APU, F/CTL, DOOR, WHEEL.

Automatic Landing
 Fail Passive. At automatic flight system is considered to be fail passive if there is no significant
deviation from the flight path, or out-of-trim condition, following a failure within the system,
but the landing cannot be completed under automatic control. In simple terms, it means that if
one autopilot fails, the other also disconnects, but there will be nothing to prevent the pilot
completing the landing manually.
 Fail Operational. In order for a landing to be continued automatically, following a failure within
the system, it follows that there must be at least three independent autopilots and two
independent monitoring systems. A single failure in either of these will render the system fail
passive, but it still has sufficient redundancy to meet the criteria for completing the landing
under automatic control.

Flight Warning System

 The function of a FWS is to alert the pilots to the existence of an abnormal situation that
requires action; it also identifies the nature and the location of the failure or condition. Warnings
may be aural or visual or sensory, or a combination of both.
 Warnings or Level A alerts. These require immediate crew action. RED
 Cautions or Level B alerts. These require immediate crew alertness and possible future action.
AMBER or YELLOW.
 Advisories or Level C alerts. These require crew alertness. AMBER or YELLOW.
 Sensory. A vibratory mode on the controls is used to indicate stall approach and demands
immediate action to avert loss of control.
Overspeed Warning
 The purpose of this warning is to alert the flight crew if the airspeed exceeds the V MO/MMO limits
calculated by the ADC.

Altitude Alerting System

 Its function is to warn the pilots both visually and aurally that the aircraft is approaching or
deviating from the altitude selected on the autopilot control panel. It does this in certain height
bands above and below the selected altitude. When the aircraft is approaching a selected
altitude, and it is within 900 feet of that selected altitude, the amber altitude alert lights
illuminate and an aural chime alert sounds for a 2-second period.

Stall Warning System

 The purpose of this warning is to warn the pilot of an impending stall. It does so when the
aircraft approaches the stalling angle of attack for the current speed and configuration of the
aircraft.

Cockpit Voice Recorder

 The principle of a CVR system is to preserve, in the event of an accident, vital information that
is recoverable for use by the Accident Investigation Branch. The CVR automatically records the
last 30 minutes of communications and conversations on the flight deck. It becomes operational
whenever 115 volts AC power is applied to the aircraft though it can be disabled during the
aircraft maintenance.
 The system comprises a tape recorder, a control unit, a monitor display and an area microphone.
The tape recorder is located inside a crash-proof metal box that is painted red orange and
normally placed at the rear of an aircraft.
 It should be capable of recording the frequency range of 350 Hz to 3000 Hz.
 AUTO. When the switch is in AUTO position, it will start to record when the first engine is
started and will stop 5 minutes after the last engine has been shut down. If in ON position, after
the first engine start it will automatically switch to AUTO mode.
 CVR TEST. It has a Built in Test Equipment.
 ERASE. Erase of the tape is only possible if the aircraft is on ground, all engines stopped and
the parking brake set.
 All the multi-engine aircraft and all aircraft having an AUW > 5700 kgs with a seating capacity
for more than 9 passengers shall be equipped with a CVR.
 On and after April 1, 1998 CVR should record for the last 2 hours.
 CVR should record: 1. Voice communications transmitted or received on the flight deck by
radio. 2. All sounds within the flight deck environment. 3. Voice communications between the
crew using the aircraft interphone system. 4. Voice or audio signals identifying navigation or
approach aids. 5. Voice communications of flight crew members using the public address
system, if installed.
 CVR must have a device to assist in locating the recorder in water.
 If the CVR is inoperative, the aircraft must be dispatched provided that: 1. Not more that 8
consecutive flights have been carried. 2. Not more than 72 hours have elapsed since
unserviceability. 3. Any FDR to be carried in flight is operative. 4. It is reasonably not possible
to repair CVR before flight.
Flight Data Recorder
 The principle of a FDR system is to preserve, in the event of an accident, vital information that
is recoverable for use by the Accident Investigation Branch. It may be combined with a CVR.
 FDR has the following components: 1. A recording system. 2. A control unit on the overhead
panel. 3. A control unit on the pedestal.
 All the multi-engine aircraft and all aircraft having an AUW > 5700 kgs with a seating capacity
for more than 9 passengers shall be equipped with a FDR.
 AIDS. Aircraft Integrated Data Systems. It processes data for various aircraft systems to ease
maintenance tasks. This is done via a data management unit (DMU) that collects and processes
data to compile reports for storage and printing. Some of this information is sent to the FDR via
the flight data interface unit (FDIU) for recording mandatory parameters of the flight. Data
stored on the DMU can be printed both in flight as well as on the ground for the purpose of
maintenance.
 Same reasons for an aircraft to be dispatched with an inoperative FDR.
 Parameters recorded: altitude, airspeed, heading, and acceleration, pitch and roll attitude, radio
transmission keying, thrust or power on each engine, configuration of lift and drag devices, air
temperature, use of automatic flight control systems, angle of attack.

RADIO AIDS

Radio Wave
 Radio waves are the product of the changing fields produced by an alternating current. This
alternating current is produced by rotating a wire in a magnetic field. This makes the electrons
flow along the wire in accordance with the alternating voltage produced. Because of the voltage
and the current are alternating, the electrons flow in one direction for half of the rotation, and
reverses its direction for the second half.
 Radio waves simply act as a vehicle for the information, so they are commonly called carrier
waves.
Definitions
 Phase. It is defined as the stage of movement of a particle in a cycle.
 Cycle. It is defined as one complete series of values, or one complete process. In one cycle, it
covers a distance of one wavelength.
 Hertz. It is defined as one cycle per second. The number of cycles per second is expressed in
Hertz.
 Amplitude. It is the maximum displacement or the maximum value it achieves during a cycle.
 Frequency. It is defined a number of cycles in one second, expressed in Hertz.
 Wavelength. It is defined as the physical distance travelled by the radio wave during one
complete cycle of transmission.
 Aerial. It is defined as the simple half-wave dipole cumbersome for aircraft use.
 Bandwidth. It is defined as the range of frequencies containing the sidebands.

Phase and Phase Difference

 Phase angle and that phase comparison can only be carried out between two radio waves at the
same frequency, and that the measurement is made from the reference wave to the variable
wave.
 It should be noted that space wave exists at all frequencies and that in LF and MF both
groundwave and skywave exist.

Polarisation
 When a suitable alternating current is applied to an aerial, electromagnetic waves are radiated
from the aerial. There are two components, electric and magnetic, thus radiated travel together at
a speed of light. Both travel at right angles to each other.
 When the transmission is made from a vertical aerial, the electric component travels in vertical
plane and magnetic in horizontal plane. This emission is called vertically polarized.
 When the transmission is made from a horizontal aerial, the electric component travels in
horizontal plane and magnetic in vertical plane. This emission is called horizontally polarized.
 Where the electric and the magnetic components spin around the axis of advance, the signal is
circularly polarized.

Modulation
 A plain radio will not be heard and not it will convey any information. Some components can
make it audible, but the only signal heard is a constant audio tone, still nothing is read. Some
form of intelligence is to be impressed upon such a wave if it is to convey information. This
process of impressing such information by changing the original signal is called modulation
 Amplitude Modulation. As the name suggests, the amplitude or the strength of the carrier is
varied in accordance with the amplitude of the audio modulating signal, keeping the carrier’s
frequency constant.
 Frequency Modulation. It involves changing the carrier frequency at a rate corresponding to the
modulating signal’s frequency, and at a frequency difference corresponding to the modulating
frequency’s amplitude.

Comparing FM and AM
  Power. Power is required to modulate any signal. FM signal requires some extra power, and
will travel a shorter distance, but an AM signal with maximum modulation requires about 50%
more power than the basic carrier wave.
 Transmitter and Receiver. An FM transmitter is relatively simpler but a suitable receiver must
be more complex. An AM transmitter is a complicated piece of equipment, whereas its receiver
can be quite simple.
 Static Interference. It is caused by electrical disturbances in the atmosphere. These are much
more of a problem to AM receptions, because the interference is similar to an AM signal. Most
static can be filtered out of a FM receiver.

Emission Designation
 VHF = A3E. A = Amplitude modulated, double sideband. 3 = Single channel containing
analogue information. E = Telephony.
 HF = J3E. J = Amplitude modulated, single sideband, suppressed carrier wave. 3 = Single
channel containing analogue information. E = Telephony.
 VOR = A9W. A = Amplitude modulated, double sideband. 9 = Composite system. W =
Combination of telemetry, telephony and telegraphy.
 ILS = A8W. A = Amplitude modulated, double sideband. 3 = Two or more channels containing
analogue information. W = Combination of everything.
 DME = P0N. P = Pulse modulated, constant amplitude. 0 = No modulating symbol. N = No
information transmitted.

Frequency Band Frequencies Wavelengths Propagation Uses

Characteristic
s
Very Low Frequency 3 – 30 KHz 100 – 10 km Ducting No civil uses
Low Frequency 30 – 300 KHz 10 – 1 km Surface Wave ADF, DECCA, LORAN
C
Medium Frequency 300 – 3 MHz 1000 – 100 Surface Wave ADF, Long range
m communication
High Frequency 3 – 30 MHz 100 – 10 m Surface Wave Long range
communication
Very High Frequency 30 – 300 MHz 10 – 1 m Space Wave Short range
communication, VDF,
VOR, LLZ, Marker
Ultra High Frequency 300 – 3 GHz 100 – 10 cm Space Wave ILS, DME, SSR
Super High Frequency 3 – 30 GHz 10 – 1 cm Space Wave MILS, RAD ALT, AWR
Extremely High 30 – 300 GHz 10 – 1 mm Space Wave No civil uses
Frequency

Doppler Radar
 Doppler navigation system uses the Doppler principle to measure the aircraft’s ground speed
and drift. The radar functions by continuous measurement of Doppler shift and converting the
measured values to groundspeed and drift angle.
 The principle of Doppler is that whenever there is a relative motion between a transmitter and a
receiver a frequency shift occurs which is proportional to their relative motion. The change in
frequency is called the Doppler shift, Doppler effect or the Doppler frequency.
  Transmitter and the receiver will cause the frequency to decrease if the transmitter and the
receiver are moving apart and vice-versa.

Radio Waves in the Atmosphere

 The D layer is generally regarded as being between 50 and 100 km above the surface of the
earth, with an average of 75 km. The E layer exists between 100 and 150 km with an average
altitude of 125 km. The F layer spreads between 150 and 350 km with an average altitude of 225
km, although during the day it appears to split into two layers F1 and F2 layers.
 Diurnal Effect. The D layer absorbs a certain amount of power, especially at low frequencies,
and will also refract those low frequencies a certain amount. The D layer disappears at night.
The E layer thins, and appears to move upwards way from the earth. The E layer absorbs less
and refracts MF and low HF at higher levels. The F layer also thins, absorbs a little and refracts
HF at higher levels.
 Critical Angle. The angle at which a radio signal strikes a layer is a major factor in deciding
whether a signal will return to the surface of the earth or not. It can also be defined as the lowest
angle at which first reflected sky wave is received.
 Critical Frequency. It is the lowest frequency at which no reflection takes place from the
ionospheric layers. The value of the critical frequency depends upon the time of the day and the
season. During day its value is greater than in the night. In summers its value is greater than in
winter.
 Skip Distance. It is the distance between the transmitter and the place where the first reflected
sky wave is received. It is always greater than the dead space.
 Skip Zone or Dead Space. It is an area upto which the ground wave can travel and the point
where first reflected sky wave is received. In this area no signal is heard hence it is termed as
dead space or dead zone.
 Sky Wave. A portion of radio energy leaves the transmitter aerial at an inclined angle and
travels upward and entering the ionospheric layers. On entering ionospheric layers it refracts to
such an extent that it gets reflected back to the earth and is received on earth as a sky wave.
 Space Wave. Above the critical frequency, the radio energy penetrates through ionospheric
layers and do not get reflected. The radio waves travel in straight lines from the transmitter
directly to the receiver. Such type of propagation is called a space or a direct wave.
 Ground Wave. A portion of radio energy leaving the transmitter aerial tends to cling to the
surface of earth and travels along the surface of the earth as a ground wave. It is a combination
of space and surface waves.
 Multi-hop. If a sky wave is powerful enough, it can be reflected by the earth’s surface and sent
back into the ionosphere for a further refraction back to the earth. This is called multi-hop and
makes it possible for a sky wave signal to reach around the earth.
 Fading. A wave transmitted from an aerial can get to a receiver along many paths. The signal
will be attenuated by varying amounts along each path, often more than one receivable signal
will arrive at the receiver. These signals will usually be out-of-phase, and if so will interfere
with each other, causing fading.
 Duct-propagation. VHF waves refracted in changing density in moist inversion.

Ground Direction Finding

 Principle. The aerial is vertically polarized and has an array of vertical elements arranged in a
circle. This is known as Adcock aerial. The equipment resolves the bearing from the
 transmissions received at each aerial in the array. The bearing is then displayed on the Cathode
Ray Tube. Hence the system is sometimes known as Cathode Ray DF.
 QDM. Aircraft’s magnetic heading to steer in zero wind to reach the station.
 QDR. Aircraft magnetic bearing from the station.
 QUJ. Aircraft’s true track to the station, not generally used.
 QTE. Aircraft true bearing from the station.
 Class A accurate to within 2. Class B accurate to within 5. Class C accurate to within 10.
Class D accurate to >10.
 VHF Let Down Service. There are two procedures. QDM and QGH.
 In the QDM procedure the pilot calls for a series of QDM and uses them to follow the published
approach pattern, making his own adjustment to heading and height.
 In the QGH procedure the controller obtains bearings from the aircraft’s transmissions,
interprets this information and passes to the pilot headings and heights to fly designated to keep
the aircraft in the published pattern.

Communications – High Frequency

 HF. The principle of efficient HF communication relies on choosing a frequency appropriate for
a given set of ionospheric conditions that will produce the first return at the required skip
distance from the transmitter.
 HF is considered to be far superior: 1. Aerials are shorter and less expensive to install. 2. Static
noise is less than in MF and tolerable. 3. Higher frequency suffers less attenuation in the
ionosphere.
 In HF, night frequency is half of the day frequency. If the transmission in the night is continued
on the day frequency, a longer skip distance will result, leaving the receiver in the dead space.
 The HF frequency band allocated to commercial aviation ranges from 2 – 22 MHz, but in
practice it is only used up to around 18 MHz.
 Factors affecting HF range: 1. Transmission power. 2. Time and season of the day and year. 3.
Any disturbance in the ionosphere. 4. Geographical location. 5. Frequency in use.

Communications – Very High Frequency

 The VHF band is chosen for RTF communications at short ranges, the operating frequencies
being kept at the lower end of the band, 117.975 to 137 MHz. Within this band communication
channels are available at 8 KHz separation. The transmission is A3E. VHF is free from static,
but being vertically polarized the receiver aerials do pick up some background noise.
 Factors affecting VHF range: 1. Transmission power both at aircraft and ground station. 2.
Height of the transmitter and the receiver. 3. Obstacles at or near the transmission site.
 Space or Direct Wave.

SELCAL
 Pilots on long-haul flights used to listen to the radios all the time waiting for their own callsign
to alert them to a message for them. This was tiring, especially on HF frequencies, with a lot of
static noise. This type of system allows the pilot to mute the receiver until ATC transmits a
group of two pulses. It is available both on HF and VHF.
Intercom
 Most aircraft communication systems include an intercom facility. This basically consists of an
amplifier which directly amplifies the input from each crew member’s microphone. Intercom
 signals can therefore be received in every other crew member’s headset, or a loudspeaker, at a
similar strength to those amplified from external radio waves.

ADF/NDB
 Automatic Direction Finding/ Non Directional Beacon
 The NDB is a ground based transmitter which transmits vertically polarized signals in all
directions, in the LF and the MF bands. The allocated frequencies for the NDB are between 190
and 1750 KHz.
 A cone of silence exists overhead the NDB transmitter during which the aircraft does not receive
any signals. The diameter of the cone increases with height.
 Principle. The ADF measures the bearing of a NDB relative to the fore and aft axis of the
aircraft.
 Types of NDB: Locators (these are low powered NDBs used for an airfield or runway approach
procedures or are co-located with, and supplement, the outer and middle markers of an ILS
system, they normally have a range of 10 to 25 NM) and En-route NDBs (they have a range of
50 NM or more and those serving oceanic areas will have a range of several hundred miles, used
for homing, holding and en-route navigation).
 NDBs have 2 to 3 letter identification and there are two types of emission N0NA1A and
N0NA2A. The N0N part of the emission is the transmission of an unmodulated carrier wave,
which would not be detectable on a normal receiver, so a BFO is provided on ADF equipment.
When using N0NA1A beacons, the BFO should be selected ON for tuning, identification and
monitoring and when using the N0NA2A beacons the BFO should be selected ON for tuning but
OFF for identification and monitoring. BFO is a device which produces a signal inside the
receiver at a frequency of about 1000 Hz removed from the received wave.
 The frequency and the hours of operation are available in AERADIO which is an AAI
publication and is available on payment.

Factors affecting range and accuracy of NDB

 Precipitation Static. It is generated by the collision of water droplets and ice crystals with the
aircraft. It causes a reduction in the signal:noise ratio which affects the accuracy of the bearings
and in extreme cases completely masks the incoming signal.
 Thunderstorms. Very powerful discharges of static electricity. These discharges cause bearing
errors in the ADF.
 Night Effect. By day the D layer absorbs signals in the LF and the MF bands, at night the D
layer disappears allowing the skywave contamination of the surface wave being used. This
arises for two reasons, phase interference of the skywave with the surface wave because of the
different paths and induction of currents in the horizontal elements of the loop aerial. This effect
first becomes significant at 70 – 100 NM from the NDB. The effect is manifest by fading of the
audio signal and needle hunting and is worst around dawn and dusk, when the ionosphere is in
transition.
 Station Interference. Due to the congestion of stations in the LF and MF bands, the possibility of
interference from stations on or near the same frequency exists. This will cause bearing errors.
 Coastal Refraction. The amount of diffraction and attenuation of the surface wave changes with
the surface on the earth below. Radio waves speed up over the water due to the reduced
absorption of energy (attenuation) compared to that which occurs over land. This speeding up
causes the wave front to bend away from its normal path and pull it towards the coast.
  Lack of failure warning system. There could be false indications due to a failure in the system
are not readily detectable due to the absence of failure warning system.

VOR:
Q. What is a VOR?
 VOR stands for VHF Omni-Directional Range. It provides bearing (direction) of an aircraft
from a ground based station/ conversely an aircraft can establish it`s azimuth with respect to a
VOR ground station once a radial is obtained. VOR was adopted as the standard short range
navigation Aid in 1960 by ICAO. It produces 360 ° radials/ tracks at 1° spacing and are aligned
in relation to Magnetic north at VOR Location. It is practically free from static interference and
is not affected by sky waves, which enables it to be used by both day and night. When a VOR is
co-located with a DME an instantaneous range and bearing fix is obtained.
Q. What is a radial? A radial is a magnetic bearing raditated from a VOR station and reference is
always Magnetic North. QDR
 Frequency Band: It operates in the VHF band between 108MHz- 117.95 MHz.
108 – 112 MHz: This is primarily an ILS band but ICAO has allowed it to be shared with the
short range VOR system. VOR frequencies are even decimal after the digit. (40 channels).
ILS LLZ is given odd decimal digits.
112 – 117.95 MHz. (120 channels). The emission code is A9W:
A: Main carrier Amplitude modulated double side-band.
9: Composite System
W: Combintion of Telephony, telemetry & telegraphy.
 Working/ Operation: VOR bearing is obtained by phase comparison.
An aircraft’s VOR receiver measures the phase(angular) difference between two signals from
the VOR transmitter:
A 30 Hz frequency modulated(FM) omni-directional, reference signal which produces constant
phase regardless of a receiver’s bearing from the VOR &
30 Hz amplitude modulated (AM) variable phase signal created by the rotating transmission
pattern. The two 30 Hz signals are modulated differently to prevent interaction and merging at
the aircraft’s receiver.
 The resultant rotating limacon diagram, which provides the directional information, is created by
combining the polar diagrams of the rotating loop and the reference signal.
Q. What is the Cone of Confusion(Ambiguity): It is a conical area directly overhead the VOR
beacon in which no reception(radiation) is received. Modern VOR equipment is capable of
radiating signals up to 60 or even 80 above the horizon. That still leaves a gap overhead the
station, in the form of a cone where no planned radiation takes place. While passing through
this zone the receiver comes under the influence of weak signals causing confusion to the
indications in the airborne equipment. The needles indicates no direction; once out of the
conical area; the VOR needle reverses it`s readout indicating station passage.
 The DOC may vary from by sectors but it is valid both by day and night. Use of a VOR outside
the DOC can lead to navigation errors. Also do not use the facility when no identification is
heard.
 Types of VOR:
 BVOR. Broadcast VOR that gives weather and airfield information.
  What is the difference between VOR & DVOR: Doppler VOR is that which overcomes Site
error. In DVOR: Reference signal is AM. Variable phase signal is FM. To maintain the phase
relationship which exists in the conventional VOR transmissions the rotation of the directional
signal is anti-clockwise. As a result, the same VOR equipment can be used with either CVOR
or DVOR beacons.

 TVOR. Terminal VOR which has low power used at major airfields.
 VOT. Test VOR giving 180 radial. Aircraft should have less than 4 error.
 VORTAC. Combined VOR and DME beacons.
 Range is affected by the transmission power (greater the power greater is the range), height of
the transmitter and the receiver.
Q. What are the Errors of VOR?
 Site Error: It is caused by uneven terrain such as hills and man-made structures, trees and even
long grass in the vicinity of the transmitter. Ground VOR beacon site error is monitored to 1
accuracy.
 Propagation error: It is caused by the fact that, having left the VOR site with 1 accuracy,
the transmissions are further affected by terrain and distance. At considerable range from the
VOR scalloping can occur.
Q. What is VOR scalloping? VOR scalloping is defined as an imperfection or deviation in the
received VOR signal. It causes the radials to deviate from their desired/ standard track.

Q. What are the VOR equipments?

Airborne Equipment:
 The aerial: For slower aircraft it is a whip type fitted on the fuselage and for high speed aircraft
it is a blade type fitted on either side of a vertical fin.
 The receiver: This is a box fitted in the avionics bay.
 The indicator: Information derived from the VOR signal received at the aircraft may be fed to a
flight director system or to the more simple displays such as CDI or the RMI (Radio Magnetic
Indicator).
 Accuracy: The transmitted signal is subjected to errors, but for 95% of the time it must be at
least better than 3.
 RMI = arrowhead gives QDM and the tail gives QDR.
Q. What are the Uses of VOR?
1) In-flight procedures = radial interception, track keeping, station passage.
2) Marks the beginning, end or midpoint or sections of Airways.
3) Used as a let-down at Airfields using published procedures.
4) As a holding Nav-aid for aircraft.
5) Improving situational Awareness by getting two cross cuts for 2 VOR; if DME
unserviceable/ not on board.
=========================================================================

Instrument Landing System

 History: The Instrument landing system has been in existence for over 50 years. It provides
pilots with an accurate means of carrying out an instrument approach to a runway, giving
guidance both in the horizontal and vertical planes. It even enables the aircraft to carry out
automatic landings. ILS is a precision approach system because it gives guidance in both
horizontal and the vertical plane.
 It provides the pilot with visual instructions in the cockpit to enable him to fly the aircraft down
a pre-determined glidepath and localizer to his decision height. At DH pilot decides to land, if he
has the required visual references to land or he goes around and executes a missed approach
procedure.
 ILS Components:
 The Localiser transmits in the VHF band and between 108 – 111.975 MHz to provide 40
channels. It shares this frequency with the short range VOR. ILS frequencies have an odd digit
after the decimal. The LOC transmitter is located about 300m from the upwind end of the
runway.
Coverage: The localizer coverage extends from the transmitter to distances of:
1) 25 NM within  10 on either side of the Runway centerline
2) 17 NM within 10 and 35 from the centre-line
3) 10 NM outside of  35 if coverage is provided.
The localiser antenna produces two overlapping lobes along the runway approach direction. The
right hand lobe is the 150 Hz modulation(Blue) and the Left hand lobe 90 Hz modulated(yellow).
 The Glidepath operates in the UHF band between 329.15 and 335 MHz to provide 40
channels. It is frequency paired with the LLZ and the pairing is in accordance with ICAO table.
It is located 300m in from the landing threshold and about 200m from the runway edge abeam
the touchdown point.
Coverage:GP coverage extends from the transmitter to a distance of at least 10 NM in sectors of
8 in azimuth on each side of the centre-line.
Vertical coverage is provided from 0.45 upto 1.75  above the horizontal where  is the glide
path angle. A UHF carrier wave is used and the lobes are in the vertical plane. The upper lobe is
the 90 Hz modulation and the bottom lobe has a 150 Hz modulation.
 The Markers transmit at 75 MHz in the VHF band.

 DME is also paired with the ILS frequencies are now increasingly provided to supplement or
replace the range information provided by the marker beacons.
DME ranges are zero referenced to the ILS runway threshold.
 Some ILS installations also have a low powered NDB called a Locator at the site of the OM
beacon.
 Back Course approaches are allowed in some countries. This allows the aircraft to fly a non-
precision approach on the back beam of the localiser transmitter.
 Identification : Whenever serviceable, the ILS transmits 2 or 3 letter Morse codes at
7groups/min. Identification is automatically suppressed if the ILS becomes unserviceable or is
withdrawn. When the ILS is undergoing maintenance, the identification coding will be
removed and will be replaced by a continuous tone. Under these conditions no attempt should
be made to use the ILS as completely erroneous indications may be received.
  False GS: These are paths of points in the vertical plane, containing the RWY centerline where
the DDM is Zero, other than paths of points forming the ILS glidepath. The first false
glideslope occurs at approximately twice the glide path angle, 6 above the ground for a
standard 3 glide path. False glideslope always occur above the true glideslope and should not
constitute a danger but the pilots should be aware of their presence.
Caused due to: Metallic structures situated at the Transmission point & ground reflection &
2) Height & propogation characteristic of the aerial.
 Localiser and the Glidepath information can be displayed on either the CDI or the HSI.
EXTRACTS FROM DGCA CAR All Weather Ops 8C-1
 ILS Critical Area: This is an area of defined dimensions about the localiser and glide path
antennas where vehicles and aircraft are restricted during all ILS operations to prevent
unacceptable disturbances to the ILS signal-in-space.
 ILS Sensitive Area: This extends beyond the critical area and is where parking or movement of
vehicles and aircraft is controlled to prevent the possibility of unacceptable interference to the
ILS signal during low visibility ILS operations.
 Holding points: Protection of ILS signals during Cat 2 & 3 operations may dictate pre-takeoff
holding points be more distant from RWY than holding positions used in Good Wx. Such
holding positions will be appropriately marked & will display signs `Category II-III Hold`; &
there maybe a bar of red stop lights.
 Decision Altitude (Height): A specified(published) altitude or height in a 3D instrument
approach operation at which a missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference
to continue the approach has not been established so that obstacle clearance is not infringed. DA
is with reference to MSL and DH is with reference to Threshold elevation.
 Minimum Descent Altidtude: A specified (published) altitude or height in a 2D instrument
approach procedure below which a descent must not be made without the required Visual
reference.
What are these required Visual references(cues)? There are 9 of them: TV RETTTTT
1) Elements of the Approach Lighting system
2) Threshold
3) Threshold markings
4) Threshold lights \
5) Threshold Identification lights
6) Visual Glide slope Indicator(PAPI)
7) TDZ zone or TDZ markings
8) TDZ lights
9) RWY edge lights

 Low Visibility Take-Off: A term used in relation to flight operations referring to a take-off
from a RWY where the RVR is less than 400m.
 Missed Approach Point: That point in an Instrument approach procedure at which the
prescribed Missed approach procedure must be initiated in order to ensure that the minimum
obstacle clearance is not infringed.
 Runway Visual Range(RVR): The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centerline of
the RWY can see the RWY surface markings or the lights delineating the RWY or identifying
it`s centerline.
  Visibility: Visibility for aeronautical purposes is defined as the greatest distance at which a
black object of suitable dimensions situated near the ground can be seen and identified when
observed against a bright background OR
The greatest distance at which lights in the vicinity of 1000 candelas can be seen and identified
against an unlit background.
 Procedure Turn(ILS): A maneuver in which a turn is made away from the designated track
followed by a turn in the opposite direction to permit the aircraft to intercept and proceed along
the reciprocal of the designated track.

 Operational Performance Categories/ Categories of ILS:

Category Decision Height RVR
CAT 1 Not lower than 200 feet not less than 550m/ VV not less than
800m
CAT 2 Lower than 200 but greater than 100 not less than 300m
feet
IIIA Lower than 100 feet or no DH Not less than 175 m
IIIB Lower than 50 feet or no DH Less than 175m but greater than 50m
IIIC No DH limitations No RVR limitations

Why do the LOC and GP operate in different bands?

1) The LOC operates in the VHF band and the GP operated in the UHF band, if both were to operate in
the same Band then there would be interference of signals causing erroneous indications which would
be unacceptable for a Precision approach.
2) GP is more sensitive than the LOC and is required to be so as it`s related to the vertical profile of
the Aircraft.

When is the A/C said to be established on the LOC?

A/C is said to be on the LOC when it experiences an Equisignal of Right(150 Hz) and Left(90Hz), or
when the difference of Depth in Modulation (DDM) is Zero.

What are the errors of ILS?

1) Beam bends caused by atmospheric conditions.
2) Scalloping caused by reflections which result is rapid fluctuations of needles on the CDI/ HSI
3) Beam noise generated by the transmitter/ due to interference: To avoid this vehicular and aircraft
movement should be restricted on ground.
4) Identification should be heard, if ID is removed ILS is unreliable.
5) Heavy rain/ snow can also attenuate the ILS signal reducing range/ degrading accuracy.
6) FM transmitters, transmitting on frequencies just below 108mHz may cause spillage causing
interference to ILS signals.
7) Disadvantages of ILS: Cannot be sited in hilly terrain.

What is the significance of the Outer, Middle & Inner Marker?

Marker beacons are slowly phasing out and replaced by DME installations which are again frequency
paired with ILS and are zero referenced to the landing RWY threshold.
 1) Outer Marker: Whenever an Aircraft is at OM, it is approximately 3.5- 6nm from the Ldg
threshold. An a/c on localizer at the appropriate altitude at OM, will be at FAF and will have
intercepted the GP enabling it to be fully established on ILS.
2) Middle Marker: An a/c at Middle marker will be at approximately 3500`+_ 500` from the Ldg
threshold.
3) Inner Marker: An a/c at Inner marker will be 250-1500` (i.e. 0.5nm) from Ldg threshold. At
the appropriate height at IM, the aircraft would be at the Missed Approach point.

From Jeppesen
Instrument Approach Procedure(IAP): A series of predetermined manuevres with reference to
flight instruments and specified protection from obstacles from the Initial Approach fix to a point
where a landing can be accomplished, or if the landing cannot be accomplished then to a position at
which Holding or enroute obstacle criteria apply.
There are 2 types of Approach procedures:
1) Precision Approach Procedure: An IAP which utilizes precision lateral and vertical guidance
with minima as determined by category of operation. E.g: ILS, MLS
2) Non-Precision Approach Procedure: AN IAP which utilizes only lateral and no vertical
guidance. E.g: VOR/ NDB/ VOR-DME.
`
a) Initial Approach Fix: That fix/point in an IAP which marks the beginning of the Initial
Approach Segemrnt or the end of the Arrival route.
b) Initial Approach Segment: That segment in an IAP which begins at the IAF and ends at the
Intermediate fix/ FAF.

c) Intermediate Fix: That fix/point in an IAP which marks the beginning of the Intermediate
Approach segment or end of the Initial approach segment.
d) Intermediate Segment: That segment in an IAP which begins at the IF and ends at FAF or
between the end of reversal, racetrack or dead reckoning track procedure and the FAF.

e) Final Approach Fix: that fix/ point in an IAP which marks the beginning of the Final approach
segment or which begins at the FAF and extends to a point from where a circling maneuver for
landing on another RWY can be accomplished or one which begins at FAF and ends at MAPt.
f) Final Approach Segment: That segment in an IAP in which alignment for descent and landing are
accomplished.

Q. What is Approach Ban Point and Policy?

Approach Ban point: is a point on the final approach segment of the Instrument Approach
Procedure where the reported VV/ RVR at the lading RWY must meet the applicable minima so as
to meet the regulatory requirements for conducting an approach to a landing.
Policy: 1) The PIC of an aircraft shall not commence an IAP if the applicable VV/ RVR is below
minima. 2) If after commencing the approach; the VV/ RVR falls below minima, then approach should
not be continued a) below 1000ft AGL or into the final approach segment.
If after entering the final Approach segment, the VV/ RVR falls below minima, then the approach can
be continued below DA/MDA.
3) An approach shall be continued below DA/ MDA if the 9 visual cues are available for Ldg.
The touchdown RVR is always controlling. If reported the midpoint and stop end RVR are also
controlling.
What are these required Visual references(cues)? There are 9 of them: TV RETTTTT
1) Elements of the Approach Lighting system
2) Threshold
3) Threshold markings
4) Threshold lights \
5) Threshold Identification lights
6) Visual Glide slope Indicator(PAPI)
7) TDZ zone or TDZ markings
8) TDZ lights
9) RWY edge lights

========================================================================
Microwave Landing System
 It was designed to replace the ILS with an advanced precision approach system that would
overcome the disadvantages of ILS( Cannot be sited in Hilly terrain) and also provide greater
flexibility to its users. It is a precision approach and landing system that provides position
information and various ground to air data.
 There are 200 channels available worldwide as compared to 40 channels of that of ILS.
 Coverage: The azimuth coverage is at least 40 of the runway on-course line and glideslopes
from 0. 9 to 20 can be selected. The usable range is 20 – 30 NM from the MLS site.
 There is no problem with back-course transmissions; a secondary system is provided to give
overshoot and departure guidance 20 of runway direction up to 15 in elevation up to a range
of 10 NM.
 Operation: Operates in the SHF band: 5030 – 5090 MHz. This enables it to be sited in hilly
areas without having to level the site. Course deviation errors of the LLZ and the glideslope
caused by the aircraft, vehicles and buildings are no longer a problem because the MLS
scanning beam can be interrupted and therefore avoids the reflections.
 MLS has a built-in DME.
 Identification prefix for the MLS is an M followed by two letters.
 The aim for all MLS equipped aircraft to operate to CAT III criteria.
 Principle. It employs the principle of Time Division Multiplexing( Time Reference Scanning
Beam) whereby only one frequency is used on a channel but the transmissions from the various
angle and ground data equipments are synchronized to assure interference free operations on the
common radio frequency.
 Time referenced scanning beam is utilised in both azimuth and elevation. The aircraft computes
its azimuth position in relation to the runway centre-line by measuring the time interval in sec
between the reception of a to and fro scanning beam.
 Another beam scans up and down at a uniform speed within its elevation limits. The aircraft’s
position in relation to its selected glideslope angle is thus calculated in the same manner by
measuring the time difference between the reception of the pulses from the up and down
sweep.
What are the differences between ILS & MLS?
How is MLS more beneficial/ advantageous as compared to ILS?
ILS MLS
 1) ILS has only 40 channels Worldwide
2) Cannot be sited in hilly terrain,
requires large area of flat land for
installation.
3) Has Limited coverage:
Coverage of LOC
25 nm within +_ 10° of RWY
centerline
17nm within +_ 10° to 35° of RWY
centerline
10 nm outside 35° of RWY centerline.
Coverage of GP
0.45 to 1.75(O) times the GP angle;
above horizontal .
+_ 8° of RWY centerline upto 10nm
4) Not all ILS equipped aircraft can land
in CAT III Wx conditions.
5) Relatively cheaper to install, no
curved approaches.
6) No special procedures for slow
moving aircraft & helicopters
MLS has 200 channels Worldwide
Can be sited in Hilly terrain, doesn`t require flat land.
Coverage of MLS:
Azimuth Coverage
+_ 40° to either side of RWY centreline; and usable
range is 20-30 nm.
Coverage of Elevation(GP)
0.9° to 20° above the horizontal.
All MLS equipped aircraft are designed in CAT III Wx
conditions.
Extremely expensive, not many installations
worldwide; permits curved approaches.
Because of increased Azimuth & coverage;
Helicopters can do MLS approaches.

Radar
 RADAR. Radio Detection And Ranging.
 It used pulses for its operation but subsequently continuous wave techniques were also
developed for other functions such as radio altimeter, because CW radars have no minimum
range limitation. It is of great use to civil aviation, because it is used by ground-based radars in
the control, separation and navigation of aircraft as well as in airborne systems for weather
warning and navigation.
 Primary Radar. It uses pulses of radio energy reflected from a target, i.e. it uses one frequency
throughout.
 Secondary Radar. It transmits pulses on one frequency, but receives on a different frequency, i.e.
the object transmits its own energy. It is a system utilizing an interrogator and transponder; the
transponder can be located in the aircraft or on the ground.
 SSR provides ATC with information regarding an aircraft’s callsign, altitude, speed, track
history, destination and type of emergency when appropriate.
 DME provides a pilot with very accurate slant ranges from a ground based receiver or
transmitter known as a transponder.
 Doppler Radar is a self-contained airborne system, needing no ground based equipment, which
provides a pilot with a continuous indication of the aircraft’s drift and ground speed.
  AWR is used to depict the range and bearing of clouds, indicate areas of heaviest rainfall, and
calculate the height of cloud and ground mapping.
 Pulse Recurrence Interval is the time interval between two pulses. It is also known as Pulse
Recurrence Period.
 Pulse Recurrence Frequency is the number of pulses transmitted in one second. It is also known
as Pulse Recurrence Rate.
 Pulse Width is the length of time that a radar pulse is transmitted. It is usually measured in
microseconds.
 Pulse Length is the length in metres occupied in space by a transmitted pulse.
 Beam Width is measured as the angle between the two points where the signal strength is half
that of the maximum. It can also be defined as the angular width of a transmitted beam. It also
depends on the aerial design.

En-Route Surveillance Radar

 These are long range radars with a range of 200 – 300 NM. It is used for airway surveillance to
provide range and bearing of an aircraft. Additional information is provided by the SSR. The
wavelength and the pulse lengths are relatively long. The longer pulse length ensures that the
target is illuminated for sufficient time to give a good return.

Aerodrome Surveillance Radar

 These are short range radar providing positional information up to 25 NM. Their wavelengths
are 3cm or 10 cm. They provide positional information and control of aircraft in aerodrome
vicinity, radar vectoring to the ILS and Surveillance Radar Approach.

Terminal Surveillance Area Radar

 These are medium range radar with a range of up to 75 NM, used for controlling traffic in
TMA’s.

High Resolution Surveillance Radar

 It can provide final approach guidance of better quality. The approval of high resolution
procedures in based upon an operational and technical evaluation of the equipment. The
accuracy, resolution, antenna rotation rate, low level cover and extent of permanent echoes are
assessed as capable of giving a high probability of a successful approach with a termination
range of .5 NM or less.

Precision Approach Radar

 It is a runway approach and available only at military airfields. It transmits on a frequency of 10
GHz and provided the controller with very accurate azimuth and elevation information on two
screens positioned one on top of the other. The glidepath is normally a standard 3. The system
has two antennae. A pilot is talked down by the controller to his decision height.

Airport Surveillance Movement Radar

 It is designed to provide a detailed, bright and flicker-free display of all aircraft and vehicles on
runways and taxiways so that the ATC officers can be certain that runways are clear of traffic
before landings and take-offs, and to enable them to ensure the safe and orderly movement of
traffic on the taxiways.
  We also have Airfield Surface Movement Indicator installed at major airfields to provide a very
accurate radar display of the aerodrome infrastructure and all the movements of traffic on
taxiways and runways.

Airborne Weather Radar

 Weather radars were originally introduced because of the dangers to the aircraft flying in the
troposphere from the cumulonimbus clouds. AWR is primary radar and both of its functions,
weather detection and ground mapping; use the echo principle to depict range and searchlight
principle to depict the relative bearing of the targets.
 It operates on a frequency of 9375 MHz and it is best for large water droplets and hail. Large
raindrops reflect 3cm radar beam. A frequency higher than 9375 MHz would produce returns
from small droplets and cause unnecessary clutter whereas a lower frequency would fail to
produce any returns.
 The antenna shape can be a parabolic or a flat plate which produces both a conical and a pencil-
shaped beam. The antenna is also stabilised in pitch and roll. Pencil beam (MAN) for weather
and long range (> 60 NM) mapping. Cosecant beam (MAP) for short range mapping.
 WEA mode = pencil beam with Automatic Gain Control, it operates upto range of 25 NM and
ensure the intensity (brilliance) of the display.
 The airborne equipment consists of a transmitter / receiver, an antenna, an indicator and a
control unit normally on the pedestal.
 The main functions of the AWR is used to depict the range and bearing of clouds, indicate areas
of heaviest rainfall, and calculate the height of cloud and ground mapping, provide a position fix
(range and bearing).
 Movement of storm can be calculated using hold switch on the AWR. The anvil shape of the
thunderstorm will show the movement of the thunderstorm.
 The beam width must be as narrow as possible for efficient target resolution. Thus, in order to
produce narrower beams, it is essential to use shorter wavelengths.
 Black (Very light or no returns)  Green (Light returns)  Yellow (Medium returns)  Red
(Strong returns)  Magenta (Turbulence).
 Standby. It is used to hold the equipment in readiness during periods when the AWR is not
required. The radiation can damage the health and reflections from adjacent structures can
damage the equipment.
 The maximum practical range for weather and for navigation is in the region of 150 NM.
 Tilt Control. This control enables the radar beam to be tilted from the horizontal within 15 UP
(+) and 15 DOWN (-).
 Swept Gain. In AWR, returns within 25 NMs are returned normally, but as the time from
transmission increases, the sensitivity of receiver is also proportionally increased. This allows
for iso-echo or color discrimination at longer ranges upto 70 NM. This increase in sensitivity is
called swept gain.

Secondary Surveillance Radar

 It requires an aircraft to be fitted with a transmitter / receiver, called a transponder. The pilot
will set a four-figure code allocated by the ATC and the transponder will transmit information
automatically, in pulse coded form, when it is interrogated by the ground station called the
interrogator.
Advantages of SSR:
  It requires much less power to provide coverage upto 200 – 250 NM.
 It is not dependent on aircraft’s echoing area or aspect.
 It gives clutter free responses as it does not rely on reflected pulses.
 It indicates an aircraft’s track history, speed, altitude and destination.
 It can indicate on the controller’s screen, that the aircraft has an emergency or lost radio
communication or is being hi-jacked.
 The ground station transmits / interrogates on 1030 MHz and receives on 1090 MHz. The
aircraft receives on 1030 MHz and transmits / transponds on 1090 MHz.
 Mode A = an interrogation to indentify an aircraft.
 Mode C = an interrogation to obtain an automatic height read-out of an aircraft. The
transponder will produce an ICAO determined code that corresponds to the height, referenced to
1013.25 hPa, regardless of the pressure setting on the altimeter and the code selected on the
transponder.
 Ident: The Special Position Identification pulse may be transmitted together with the
information pulses with the Ident button when the pilot’s transponder is pressed, usually at
ATC’s request. This pulse is after the last framing pulse and will be automatically and
continuously transmitted for about 20 seconds. It produces a distinctive display so that a
controller can pick out a particular aircraft by asking the pilot to Squawk Ident.
 7700 = To indicate an emergency situation.
 7600 = To indicate a Radio Communication Failure.
 7500 = To indicate unlawful interference with the planned operation of the flight.
 2000 = To provide recognition of an aircraft which has not received any instructions from the
ATC units to operate the transponder.
 7004 = To indicate aerobatic manoeuvres in progress.
 0000 = To indicate transponder malfunction.
Errors
Garbling. It is caused by the overlapping replies from two or more transponders on nearly the same
bearing from the ground station and within a distance of 1.7 NM from each other measured on a
line from the antenna.
Fruiting: It is the interference at one interrogator caused by replies from a transponder responding
to interrogations from another.
 Mode S = it is being introduced in order to overcome the limitations of the present modes A and
C. S stands for Selective addressing. The new system has to be compatible with the existing
modes A and C so that it can be used to supplement the present system. It can provide ground-
to-air, air-to-ground and air-to-air data exchange using communication protocols. The system
would have over 16,700,000 discrete codes available for allocation to individual aircraft on a
permanent basis. It also causes a reduction in R/T workload. Height readout will be in 25 feet
increments. It improves the situational awareness for the radar controller.
With Mode S transponder; following data is available to Controller:
1) Automatic reporting of Flight ID
2) Transponder Capability Report 3)Altitude repoting in 25ft increments
3) Flight Status(whether A/c on ground/ in air).
Enhanced Functionality:
1) Magnetic Hdg 2) Speed(IAS/ TAS/ M. No.) 3) Roll Angle
4) Track Angle Rate 4) Vertical Speed(Rate) 5) True Track Angle/ GroundSpeed.
========================================================================
Distance Measuring Equipment
 It is a secondary radar system which operates by Pulse technique & enables an aircraft to
establish its range from a ground station. DME provides Slant range by pulse technique.A pilot
obtains accurate magnetic bearings from a VOR beacons and accurate slant ranges from a DME.
It is a line-of-sight navigation aid.
 Frequency: It operates on the Secondary radar principles between 962 and 1213 MHz in the
UHF band at 1 MHz spacing. This provides 252 spot frequencies or channels.
 Operation: The Aircraft transponder transmits on one of 962-1213mHz and the response
frequency differs by +_ 63MHz. To achieve a rapid lock-on during the range search; the
DME interrogator transmits at 150 pulse-pairs per second for 100 seconds(15000 pulse-
pairs). If lock-on is still not achieved it will then reduce the rate to 60 pulse pairs per
second and maintain the rate until a lock-on is achieved . At lock-on; it reduces to 25 pps.
The aircraft’s interrogator transmits a stream of omni-directional pulses on the carrier frequency
of the ground transponder. Similarly, the interrogator’s receiver starts a range search. At the
transponder on the ground the received interrogation pulses are re-transmitted after a delay of
50sec, at a frequency that is 63 MHz removed from the interrogation frequency.
There is always a difference of 63 MHz between the interrogation and transponding
frequencies. The numbers of channels are 1 to 126X and 1 to 126Y.
 DME is also paired with the ILS localiser frequencies. These DME supplement or replace the
range information provided by the marker beacons. DME is always zero-referenced to the ILS
runway threshold. It is selected by choosing an ILS frequency.
 Accuracy: Based on a 95% probability, the system accuracy for DME used for navigation for
DME- N is accurate to +_0.25nm or +_1.25% of indicated range. Precision system are accurate
to 0.2nm of Indicated range.
 Errors: 1) DME works on Line-of-sight. Any intervening High terrain will cause the pulse to
block and gives inaccurate / no range. Higher the aircraft & ground beacon; higher is the range.
2) The effect of bank angle is to hide the aircraft antenna from the transponder on the ground
and will cause an interruption in flow of signals. DOC(Designated Operational Coverage) is
published for a DME. This protects a DME from co-channel interference. DOC is specified as a
range and height. The use of DME beyond its DOC limitations may result in range errors.
Relative Position of VOR/ DME or Frequencies Identification
TACAN
ASSOCIATED: Both transmit same callsign.

a)Both Transmitters Co-located ; or There are 4 idents every 30

seconds.
b)The maximum distance between 2
transmitters is 30m/ 100` in TMA`s; or PAIRED VOR transmits 3 idents of the
four.
c)The maximum distance between both
transmitters is 600m/ 2000` for Use The DME transmits the fouth
elsewhere one.

NOT associated but serving the same PAIRED First two letters are the same;
location Last letter for DME is `Z`
VOR- DME / TACAN widely separated May or may not Totally different
be Paired Identifications
========================================================================
Global Navigation Satellite Systems
 The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System is operated by USA.
 The Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) is operated by Russia.
 GPS comprises of three segments: the space segment, the control segment and the user segment.
 Principle. Satellites send their position and a time signal. Receiver compares the transmitter
code with its memory of code. It also notes the time difference between the transmission and the
reception. Time x speed of light = distance, DME – like pseudo-ranges.
 Space Segment. It comprises a constellation of 24 SV’s in 6 orbital planes, 21 SV’s are
operational and the other 3 are in space spares, to be activated to replace any failure of an
operation SV. The orbits have an average height of 10,898 NM (20,200 km) and have an orbital
period of 12 hours. The orbital planes have an inclination of 55 and are equally spaced around
the Equator. The SV’s have 4 atomic clocks with an accuracy of 1 nanosecond. A SV will be
masked if its elevation is less than 5 above the horizon,
 Control Segment. The monitoring stations check the SV’s internally computed position and
clock time, at least once every 12 hours. The SV orbits are affected by the gravitational
influences of the sun, moon and planets and are also affected by solar radiation, so errors
between the computed and actual position occurs. When a positional error is detected it is sent to
the SV for the SV to update its knowledge of position. Similarly if an error is detected in the SV
time this is notified to the SV, as clocks cannot be corrected, this error is included in the
broadcast.
 User Segment. It is used to determine position on and close to the surface of the earth.
 Differential GPS. It is a means of improving the accuracy of a GPS by monitoring the integrity
of the SV data and warning the user of any errors which occur. They will provide warnings of
failure in the SV data and prevent or minimize the effect of such errors, or provide failure
warning and improve the accuracy of the deduced position.
 Fixing.
 1 satellite gives position sphere.
 2 satellites gives ambiguous position on the earth’s surface.
 3 satellites gives ambiguous position in space.
 4 satellites remove the time errors and give accurate stand alone fix.
 6 or more provide remote autonomous integrity monitoring.
 SA. Selective Availability may degrade SPS signals by introducing time errors.
Q. What are the error of Errors of GPS?
1) SV Ephemeris Error: This is caused due to the incorrect position of the SV as gravitational
effects of sun, moon and other planets cause the SV to not be in it`s accurate position. The
position is checked every 12 hrs and max error is 2.5m.
2) SV Clock error: SV clock is checked every 12 hrs. and any error is passed from the Ground
control station directly to the SV and is included in the broadcast Max error is 1.5m.
3) Ionospheric Propogation Error: As radio waves travel through the Ionosphere; the ionised
particles cause delay thereby introducing an error. This is the most significant error of the
GNSS. The error is inversely proportional to the square of L1 & L2 frequencies. Max error is
5m
4) Tropospheric Propogation error: Tropospheric conditio6ns such as heavy rain, snow,
increased humidity; pressure & temperature cause the radio wave to slow down when they
reach at the receiver. Max error is 0.5m
 5) Receiver Noise error: All radio receivers generate internal noise causing an error which
results in a delay in time measurement and max error is 0.5m
6) Geometric Dilution of Precision: Caused due to a poor cross cut between position lines;
when the satellites are relatively close to each other.
7) Multi- Hop propagation: As the name suggests this error is due to the radio waves are
reflected from the ground or from other parts of the aircraft. Max error is 0.6m
8) Effect of Aircraft manouvre: Aircraft manouvre viz. steep bank could cause 1-2 SV`s to be
masked, causing a degradation in accuracy. To overcome this, the receiver aerial should be
mounted on top of the fuselage close to the Aircraft`s centre of gravity.
9) What is SA in GPS? What is dithering of SV Clock?
Selective Availability: SA was an error which was deliberately introduced by US DoD in
1995. SA has been removed on 01 st May-2000 by Prez. Clinton and has assured that it won`t
be re-introduced. SA was achieved by introducing random error in the SV clock causing
errors which would degrade the position accuracy to as long as 100m. This is known as
Dithering the SV Clock time.
 Accuracy of GPS: CA signal accurate to 30m for 95% of time; 300m for 99.99%
Vertical accuracy = 500 feet for 95% and 1500 feet for 99.99%.

What is Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE)?

 Some states have approved the use of GPS as the only navigation service in oceanic and remote
areas. In this case the avionics should not only have the ability to detect a faulty satellite through
RAIM but it should also exclude that satellite and continue to provide guidance. This feature is
called FDE. Under such approval aircrafts carry dual systems and operators perform pre-flight
predictions to ensure that there will be enough satellites in view to support the planned flight.
This provides operators with a cost-effective alternative to inertial navigation systems in oceanic
and remote airspace.
 RAIM require minimum of 5 Satellites.
RAIM in FDE uses minimum of 6 satellites not only to detect a faulty satellite but also to
exclude it from the navigation solution so that the navigation function can continue without
interruption.
FDE availability ranges from 99.8% for en-route to 89.5% for non-precision approach
operations.

Pseudo-Range in GPS
 It is the range calculated by the receiver on the basis of the almanac. It calculates the actual
range after it receives the code from satellite. When using GPS, ranges from three satellites are
needed even for a two-dimensional fix and either separate altitude information or a fourth
satellite is needed for a three-dimensional fix. As the clock in the aircraft is less accurate than its
atomic counterpart the initial range, called a pseudo range, is invariably inaccurate, an error
known as receiver clock bias. The pseudo range from several satellites would produce a cocked
hat instead of a precise fix. The aircraft’s equipment has the capability to run a series of
simultaneous equations to correct the pseudo ranges to a precise fix.
Local Area Augmentation System
 It is an all-weather landing system based on real-time differential correction of the GPS signal.
Local reference receivers send data to a central location at the airport. This data is used to
formulate a correction message, which is then transmitted to users via a VHF data-link. A
receiver on the aircraft uses this information to correct GPS signals, which then provides a
standard ILS style display to use while flying a precision approach.

Wide Area Augmentation System

 It is an extremely accurate navigation system developed for civil aviation by the FAA. Its
accuracy is less than 3m 95% of the time, and it provides integrity information equivalent to or
better than receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM). This is achieved through 25
ground stations throughout the US.
 These ground stations send the measured difference to a master relay station which sends the
corrections to two geostationary satellites at the same longitudes as the east and west coasts.
Those satellites beam the correction signal back to earth. It also has the ability to provide
horizontal and vertical navigation for precision approaches for all users at all locations, as
ground-based systems were very expensive.

LORAN C
 It is an acronym for long range navigation.
 It is a hyperbolic system operating at a frequency of 100 KHz. It uses the principle of
differential range by pulse technique to measure the time difference between the arrival, at an
aircraft’s receiver, of a series of pulses from a master transmitter and a series of pulses from up
to four slave or secondary transmitters; this arrangement of transmitters is called chain.
 The pulses from the transmitter were displayed on the CRT with the time difference between the
master and slave transmitters being displayed, alternately, on a read out unit once every second.
 LORAN C has a range of 1200 NM over water and 900 NM over land.
 Accuracy of LORAN C. Ground wave = 0.2 – 1 NM at 1000 NM range. Sky wave = 10 – 20
NM at 2500NM range.

DECCA
 It is a hyperbolic navigation system using radio frequencies in the LF band. It works on the
principle of differential range by phase comparison. The earlier systems required a navigator to
plot the aircraft position by taking readings from indicators called decometers and identifying
hyperbolic lines on charts. The later systems provided the aircraft position on a read-out or a
moving map display once the system had been set up correctly.
 Hyperbola is the path of a point having a constant difference in distance from two fixed points
called the foci. A series of such hyperbolae is known as a family where the foci are called
Master and Slave.
 The two fixed points used to create a family of hyperbolae, for either a Decca or Loran C chain,
are the master and the slave transmitters, master controls the slave and the GC distance between
them is called the baseline.
 Range of Decca is 300 NM by day and 200 NM by night.
 Accuracy of Decca is 4 NM by night, 2 NM by day in winter and 0.5 NM by day in spring,
summer and autumn.
Speed of Light = 3 x 108 m/sec or 162,000 nm/sec.