Atoms

Universe consists of matter and energy. Energy is the capacity to do work. Matter
has mass and occupies space. All matter is composed of basic elements that cannot
be broken down to substances with different chemical or physical properties.
Elements are substances consisting of one type of atom, for example Carbon atoms
make up diamond.
Atoms are the smallest particle into which an element can be divided. These
subatomic particles include: Proton, Neutron and Electron.
The proton is located in the center (or nucleus) of an atom, each atom has at least one
proton. Protons have a charge of +1, and a mass of approximately 1 atomic mass unit
(amu). Elements differ from each other in the number of protons they have, e.g.
Hydrogen has 1 proton; Helium has 2 protons.
The neutron also is located in the atomic nucleus (except in Hydrogen). The neutron
has no charge, and a mass of slightly over 1 amu. Some scientists propose the neutron
is made up of a proton and electron-like particle.
The electron is a very small particle located outside the nucleus. Because they move
at speeds near the speed of light the precise location of electrons is hard to pin down.
Electrons occupy orbitals, or areas where they have a high statistical probability of
occurring. The charge on an electron is -1. Its mass is negligible (approximately 1800
electrons are needed to equal the mass of one proton).
Table 1. Subatomic particles of use in biology.

Name Charge Location Mass

Proton +1 atomic nucleus 1.6726 X 10-27 kg

Neutron 0 atomic nucleus 1.6750 X 10-27 kg

Electron -1 electron orbital 9.1095 X 10-31 kg

The atomic number is the number of protons an atom has. It is characteristic and
unique for each element. The atomic mass (also referred to as the atomic weight) is
the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Atoms of an element that have
differing numbers of neutrons (but a constant atomic number) are termed isotopes.
Two atoms of the same element is called molecule for example O2, H2, N2.
H + H → 𝐻2
O + O → 𝑂2
N + N → 𝑁2

CHEMICAL REACTION
A chemical reaction is in which the bonds are broken within reactant molecules, and
new bonds are formed within product molecules in order to form a new substance.

Basic Concepts of Chemical Reactions

A Chemical Reaction is a process that occurs when two or more molecules
interact to form a new product(s).
Compounds that interact to produce new compounds are called reactants
whereas the newly formed compounds are called products.
Chemical reactions play an integral role in different industries, and in our daily
life, for example rusting of iron and fermentation of wine.
In a chemical reaction, a chemical change must occur which is generally
observed with physical changes like precipitation, heat production or colour
change etc.
A reaction can take place between two atoms or ions or molecules, and they
form a new bond and no atom is destroyed or created but a new product is
formed from reactants.
The rate of reaction depends on and is affected by factors like pressure,
temperature, the concentration of reactants.

OXIDATION NUMBER OR VALENCY

Oxidation number of an atom is the charge that atom would have if the compound
was composed of ions.
RULES OF DETERMING OXIDATION NUMBER
 1. The oxidation number of an atom is zero in a neutral substance that contains
atoms of only one element. Thus, the atoms in O2, O3, P4, S8, and aluminum
metal all have an oxidation number of 0.
2. The oxidation number of simple ions is equal to the charge on the ion. The
oxidation number of sodium in the Na+ ion is +1, for example, and the
oxidation number of chlorine in the Cl- ion is -1.
3. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 when it is combined with a nonmetal
as in CH4, NH3, H2O, and HCl.
4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is -1 when it is combined with a metal as
in. LiH, NaH, CaH2, and LiAlH4.
5. The metals in Group IA have an oxidation number of +1, they form
compounds (such as Li3N and Na2S).
6. The elements in Group IIA have a +2 oxidation number. They form
compounds (such as Mg3N2 and CaCO3).
7. Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of -2. Exceptions include molecules
and polyatomic ions that contain O-O bonds, such as O2, O3, H2O2, and the
O22- ion.
8. The elements in Group VIIA has a -1 oxidation number. They often form
compounds (such as AlF3, HCl, and ZnBr2).
9. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is zero.
H2O: 2(+1) + (-2) = 0
10.The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge
on the ion. The oxidation number of the sulfur atom in the SO 42- ion must be
+6, for example, because the sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in this
ion must equal -2.
SO42-: (+6) + 4(-2) = -2
11.Elements toward the bottom left corner of the periodic table are more likely to
have positive oxidation numbers than those toward the upper right corner of
the table. Sulfur has a positive oxidation number in SO2, for example, because
it is below oxygen in the periodic table.
SO2: (+4) + 2(-2) = 0
CLASSWORK: write the first 20 elements and their oxidation number.
Types of Chemical Reactions
The basis for different types of reactions is the product formed, the changes that
occur, the reactants involved and so on. Different types of reactions are
• Combustion reaction
• Decomposition reaction
• Neutralization reaction
• Redox Reaction
• Precipitation or Double-Displacement Reaction
• Synthesis reaction

1. Combustion Reaction
A combustion reaction is a reaction with a combustible material with an oxidizer
(oxygen) to give an oxidized product. An oxidizer is a chemical requires to burn,
generally oxygen. Consider the example of combustion of magnesium metal.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO + Heat
The product of all combustion reaction with organic compound are CO2 and H2O.
C4H8 + 6O 2 → 4 CO2 + 4H2O
2. Decomposition Reaction
A Decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a single component breaks down
into multiple products. Certain changes in energy in the environment must be made
like heat, light or electricity breaking bonds of the compound.
CaCO3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
3. Neutralization Reaction
A Neutralization reaction is basically the reaction between an acid and a base giving
salt and water as the products. The water molecule formed is by the combination
of OH– ions and H+ ions. The overall pH of the products when a strong acid and a
strong base undergo a neutralization reaction will be 7. For example,
the neutralization reaction between Hydrochloric acid and Sodium Hydroxide giving
out sodium chloride and water.
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
4. Redox Reaction
A REDuction-OXidation reaction is a reaction in which there is a transfer of
electrons between chemical species. Let us consider the example of an
electrochemical cell-like redox reaction between Zinc and Hydrogen.
Zn + 2H + → Zn2+ + H2
0 1 +2 0
Zinc is oxidized and hydrogen ion is reduced, the former is the oxidizing agent while
the later is the reducing agent.
There was increase in oxidation number of zinc whereas, a decrease in oxidation
number was observed for hydrogen
Oxidation loss in electron while reduction is gain in electron.
5. Precipitation or Double-Displacement Reaction
It is a type of displacement reaction in which two compounds react and consequently,
their anions and cations switch places forming two new products. Consider the
example of the reaction between silver nitrate and sodium chloride. The products
will be silver chloride and sodium nitrate after the double-displacement reaction.
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO3
Here, Silver Nitrate and Sodium Chloride undergo a double displacement reaction.
Wherein Silver replaces Sodium in Sodium Chloride and Sodium joins with Nitrate
becoming Sodium Nitrate along with the Silver Chloride as the product.
6. Synthesis Reaction
A Synthesis reaction is one of the most basic types of reaction wherein multiple
simple compounds combine under certain physical conditions giving out a complex
product. The product will always be a compound. Let us consider the Synthesis
reaction of sodium chloride with reactants solid sodium and chloride gas.
2Na(s) + Cl(g) → 2NaCl(s)
Here, we have 2 Atoms of solid Sodium reacting with Chlorine gas giving out
Sodium Chloride viz. Common Salt as the product.