Lesson 02

CEng 112n: Building Technologies
Lesson 02: Lesson Summary:

This lesson discusses the
WOOD and WOOD WORKING topics on wood and wood

construction. This includes the
properties, defects, products,
• Wood Defined, Parts, • Preservation and preservation, treatment of wood,
and Classification Treatment what carpentry is and the
techniques involved in the craft, as
Softwood and Hardwood • Carpentry well as the construction systems
Classification of Philippine that uses wood or timber.
Wood • Wood Joinery
According to Strength Grade Learning Objectives:
End or Lengthening Joints • Identify wood and its parts.
• Properties of Wood Edge Joints • Familiarize the classification,
Angle Joints properties, and common
Physical Properties
Miter Joints defects found on wood.
Thermal Properties
Lap Joints • Identify the different wood
Pyrolytic Properties
Dovetail Joints products and methods of
Strength/Mechanical
Mortise and Tenon preserving and treating wood.
Properties
Bridle Joint • Understand the terminologies
• Common Wood Defects • Wood Fasteners
in Carpentry and identify the
connections being utilized
Shrinkage when working with wood.
Nails
Warp
Screws • Understand the parts of a
Knot wooden construction system
Bolts and Nuts
Shake and how they are related to
Toothed Plate
Pitch Pocket each other.
Split Ring
Check
Split or Through Check • Wood Construction
Wane
Decal
Systems
Skip
Footing and Pedestal
Machine Burn
Post, Girder, and Floor System
Wall and Ceiling System
• Wood Products Truss System
Lumber
Wood Panels
6 The contents and compilation of the following pages are instruments of the profession and under the Intellectual Property Law (R.A.
8293) it shall be unlawful for anybody to copy and reproduce these manual whether in part or in whole without the written consent of
the one who prepared these manual, the author.
WOOD
A tough fibrous cellular substance that makes up
the most of the stems and branches of trees beneath Bark
the bark.
Parts of the Wood

Sapwood
a. Bark – tough external covering of the wood.
b. Cambium – reproductive tissue.

Heartwood
c. Sapwood or Alburnum – younger, softer,

living portion of wood.
d. Heartwood or Duramen – older, harder,

inactive core of a tree.
Early
Annual Ring – concentric layer of wood. wood
a. Springwood or Early wood – more porous Late
portion, develops early, large, thin-walled wood
cells.
b. Summerwood or Late wood – hard, dark, less porous portion, develops late, compact, thick-
walled cells.
CLASSIFICATION OF WOOD
A. SOFTWOOD AND HARDWOOD
a. Softwood - wood from trees having foliage b. Hardwood - wood from a broad-leaved
the remains green and functional throughout flowering tree
the year, and/or cone bearing trees.
B. ACCORDING TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF PHILIPPINE WOOD

a. Group 1:
Afu Bulong Eta Kamagong Manggachapui Saplungan
Akle Dagang Kamuning Nato Sudiang
Almaciga Dangula o Sasalit Kulilisan Palosapis Supa
Almon Dao Lauan, Red Manggasinoro Tabau
Amugis Dungon Lauan, White Maranggo Tabigi
Ananga Dungon Late Lijinai Margapali Teak
Apitong Duyok-duyok Liusin Matang Araw Tindalo
Bagtikan Ebony Lumbayao Mayapis Urung
Bakan Gana-fistola Lumbayao bato Mahogany Yakal
Balu Gisok Magasusu Molave
Banaba Gisok-Gisok Makaasim Narak
Bansalagin Guijo Malaanonang Narig
Batikulin Igem Ipil Malabunga Narra
Batitinan Kaburo Malaguijo Pagatpat
Betenghol Kalamansi Malakadios Pahutan
Betis Kalantas Malakawayan Piagau
Bitaog Kaliot Maluwai Pine, Benguet
The contents and compilation of the following pages are instruments of the profession and under the Intellectual Property Law (R.A. 7
8293) it shall be unlawful for anybody to copy and reproduce these manual whether in part or in whole without the written consent
of the one who prepared these manual, the author.
b. Group 2:
Agoho Hagakhak Malabayabas Rain Tree (Acacia)
Agoho del Monte Kamatog Malakatmon Sangilo Taba
Alupag Katmon Manggis Tamayuan
Alupag Amo Katmon Kalabaw Mangkas Tangile
Anubing Kayu-galu Mapilig Tanglin
Bagras (Amamanit) Kubi Marag Tiga
Balete Lanio Palomaria del Monte Toog
Batino Lanipau Pamitaogen Tukang Kalaw
Bayok Lanutan Panau
Binggas Loktob Philippine Chestnut
Bitanghol Dita Malabatino Pili
c. Group 3:
Amayan Binurang Kansulud Malapapaya Sandit
Anislag Biyanti Kato Malasaging Santol
Antipolo Bogo Kautuan Bangkal Malasantol Talisay
Api-api Bolon Kayataw Malatumbaga Talisay gubat
Bakawan Bugas Lago Mambingan Taluto
Balakat Bulala Lamog Matamata Tanghas
Balikbikan Bulog Langarsi Miao Tinsang Pintasi
Balobo Dalinsi Lanipau Nangka Tusi
Bangkal Gisihan Lulling Manok Pototan Unik
Baras Gubas Malaanonang Sakat
Basaing Kalingag Malacoan Sau Salakin
Batukanag Kalumpit Malakamias Salingkugi
d. Group 4 shall include all species not included in any of the three group.
C. ACCORDING TO STRENGTH GRADE (FROM NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE

PHILIPPINES)
a. High Strength Group
Agoho Malabayabas Molave Sasalit
Liusin Manggachapui Narig Yakal
b. Moderately High Strength Group

Antipolo Gatasan Katmon Makaasim
Binggas Guijo Kato Malakauayan
Bokbok Kamagong Lomarau Narra
Dao Kamatog Mahogany Puhutan
c. Medium Strength Group

Apitong Lanutan-bagyo Malugai Pine
Bagtikan Lauan Miau Salakin
Dangkalan Malaanonang Nato Vidal lanutan
Gisau Malasaging Palosapis Var. glabrecens
d. Moderately Low Strength Group

Almaciga Lingo-lingo Raintree
Bayok Mangasinoro Yemane
PROPERTIES OF WOOD
A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES – refers to the aesthetic quality Edge
of a surface of the wood, usually determined by the visible
wood grains.
Wood Grain – the direction, size, arrangement, and End
appearance of the fibers in a piece of dressed wood.
Types of Wood Grains

a. Edge or Vertical Grain – wood grain resulting from
Broad Face
quartersawing, having the annual rings forming an angle
End Grain
of 45° or more with the broad faces of a piece.
b. Flat Grain – wood grain resulting from plain-sawing, having the annual rings forming an angle of
less than 45° with the broad faces of a piece.
c. Mixed Grain – any combination of edge-grained and flat-grained lumber.
d. Diagonal Grain – wood grain having the annual rings at an angle to the length of the piece, resulting
from sawing at an angle to the axis of a log.
e. Cross Grain – wood grain having the cells and fibers running transversely or diagonally to the
length of a piece as a result of a growth characteristic.
Edge Grain Flat Grain Mixed Grain Diagonal Grain Cross Grain
f. Close Grain– wood grain characterized by narrow,

inconspicuous annual rings with little difference in pore
size between springwood and summerwood.
g. Coarse Grain– wood grain having large pores.

Close Grain Coarse Grain
h. Raised Grain– a dressed wood surface having the
denser summer wood rising above the softer
springwood
B. THERMAL PROPERTIES – refers to the property of wood to withstand temperature fluctuation.

Also, refers to the property of the wood to insulate a space from heat and cold.
C. PYROLYTIC PROPERTIES – refers to the property of wood by which it can withstand fire up to
certain degrees. Usually, pyrolytic property of wood is aided by treatments using various chemical to
produce an intumescent layer.
D. STRENGTH/MECHANICAL PROPERTIES – refers to the ability of a wood to withstand physical

deformations due to forces acting upon.
COMMON WOOD DEFECTS

A. SHRINKAGE – the dimensional contraction of a wood piece
occurring when its moisture content falls below the fiber-
saturation point. Shrinkage is very slight along the grain, but
significant across the grain.
Radial
a. Longitudinal – wood shrinkage parallel to the grain,
about 2% of radial shrinkage.
b. Tangential – wood shrinkage in a direction tangent to the

growth rings, about double that of radial shrinkage.
c. Radial - wood shrinkage perpendicular to the grain, across the growth rings.
B. WARP – any deviation from a plane or true surface

of a board or panel, usually caused by uneven drying
during the seasoning process or by a change in
moisture content. Cup
Bow
a. Cup – a curvature across the width or face of a wood piece,
measured at the point of greatest deviation from a straight line
drawn from edge to edge of the piece.
Crook
b. Bow – a curvature along the length of a wood piece, measured
at the point of greatest deviation from a straight line drawn from
end to end of the piece.
c. Crook – a curvature along the edge of a wood piece, measured

at the point of greatest deviation from a straight line drawn from
end to end of the piece. Twist
d. Twist – a warp resulting from the turning of the edges of a wood

piece in opposite directions.
C. KNOT –he base of a woody branch enclosed by a subsequent growth of

wood in the stem from which it rises. In the structural grading of a wood
piece, knots are restricted by size and location.
a. Live or Intergrown – a knot having annual rings intergrown with those
of the surrounding wood. Live knots are allowable in structural timber
within certain size limits.
b. Sound – a knot that is solid across its face, at least as hard as the
surrounding wood, and undecayed.
c. Tight or Close - a knot held firmly in place by growth or position.
d. Dead or Loose or Encased – a knot having annual rings not intergrown

with those of the surrounding wood. Encasement may be partial or
complete, but a dead knot is considered to be a defect since it can easily
loosen or be knocked out.
D. SHAKE - a separation along the grain of a wood piece, usually
between the annual rings, caused by stresses on a tree while
standing or during felling.
E. PITCH POCKET – a well-defined opening between the annual Shake

rings of a softwood, containing or having once contained solid or
liquid pitch. Pitch Pocket
F. CHECK – a lengthwise separation of wood across the annual Check

rings, caused by uneven or rapid shrinkage during the seasoning
process.
Split
G. SPLIT OR THROUGH CHECK – a check that extends

completely through a board or wood veneer.
H. WANE – the presence of bark or absence of wood at a corner or Wane

along an edge of a piece.
I. DECAY (DRY ROT OR PECKY) – the decomposition of wood by fungi and other microorganisms,
resulting in softening, loss of strength and weight, and often a change of texture and color.
J. SKIP – an area on the surface of a board or panel missed by a planning machine.
K. MACHINE BURN – a surface charring caused by overheating of the cutting blades or abrasive belts
during shaping or finishing of a material.
WOOD PRODUCTS
A. LUMBER – the timber product manufactured by sawing, resawing, passing lengthwise through a
planning machine, cross-cutting to length, and grading.
a. Processing Lumber
Final Product of Logging

Log – a length of trunk or large limb of a felled tree,
ready for sawing.
Logging
the process of felling trees grown from forests
or plantations to harvest its trunk into logs
Types of Sawing:
1. Plain Sawn or Bastard-Sawn – to saw a
squared log into board with evenly spaced
parallel cuts.
2. Quarter Sawn – to saw quartered logs
approximately at right angles to the annual
Sawing Process
rings.
the process of cutting logs to sizes a bit larger
than the final size Final Product of Sawing
Rough Lumber – lumber that is sawn, edged and
trimmed, but not surfaced.
Final Product of Surfacing

Dressed Lumber – lumber that is surfaced with a
planning machine to attain a smooth surface and
uniform size.
Types of Drying:
Surfacing Process
1. Air Drying – of or pertaining to lumber
the process of cleaning the surfaces of the
seasoned by exposure to the atmosphere.
rough lumber to specific dimensions
2. Kiln-Drying or Autoclave – of or pertaining
to lumber seasoned in a kiln under controlled
conditions of heat, air circulation, and
humidity
Final Product of Drying

1. Seasoned Lumber – of or pertaining to
lumber that has been dried to reduce its
Drying Process moisture content and improve its
serviceability.
the process of removing the moisture content
a. Surfaced Green - – of or pertaining to
of the lumber to reduce further warping and
dressed lumber having a moisture
decay
content exceeding 19% at the time of
manufacture.
b. Surfaced Dry - – of or pertaining to
Final Product dressed lumber having at a moisture
Note: Final Product may be treated further. content of 19% or less at the time of
manufacture.
b. Types of Lumber
1. Yard Lumber – softwood lumber intended for general building purposes, including boards,
dimension lumber and timbers
Thick Wide Strength grade
Board <2” ≥2”
Graded along narrow face
Dimension
Joist and Plank 2”- 4” >4

Framing Lumber
Graded along wide face

Structural or
Light Framing 2”- 4” 2”- 4” High strength not required

Decking 2”- 4” ≥4” Graded along wide face
Beams and >2” larger
Timbers
≥5” Graded along narrow face

Stringer than thick
Post and ≤2” larger
≥5” Grade for axial load
Timber than thick
2. Factory or Shop Lumber – lumber sawn or selected primarily for further manufacture, graded
according to the amount of usable wood that will produce cuttings of a specified size and
quality.
3. Appearance Lumber – lumber sawn or selected primarily for use as a finish material rather
than for strength, graded according to natural characteristics and manufacturing imperfections.
4. Parallel Strand Lumber – a structural lumber product made by bonding long, narrow wood
strands together under heat and pressure using a waterproof adhesive. Parallel strand lumber is
a proprietary product marketed under the trademark Parallum, used as beams and columns in
post-and-beam construction and for beams, headers, and lintels in light frame construction.
5. Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) – a structural lumber product made by bonding layers of
wood veneers together under heat and pressure using a waterproof adhesive. Having the grain
of all veneers run in the same longitudinal direction results in a product that is strong when
edge loaded as a beam or face loaded as a plank. Laminated veneer lumber is marketed under
various brand names, such as Microlam, and used as headers and beams or as flanges for
prefabricated wood I-joists.
6. Glue Laminated Timber (Glulam) – a structural lumber product made by laminating stress-
grade lumber with adhesive under controlled conditions, usually with the grain of all plies being
parallel. The advantages of glued-laminated timber over dimension lumber are generally higher
allowable unit stresses, improved appearance, and availability of various sectional shapes.
Glue-laminated timbers may be end-joined with scarf or finger joints to any desired length, or
edge-glued for greater width or depth.
c. Common Dimension of Lumber

Nominal Size (In) 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 Over 12
(In) ¾ 1 ½ 2 ½ 3½ 4½ 5½ 7¼ 9¼ 11 ¼ ¾ Less
Dressed Size 19 less
(mm) 19 38 64 89 114 140 184 235 286
B. WOOD PANELS
Veneer - a thin sheet of wood rotary cut, sliced, or sawn from a log
or flitch and used as a superior facing to inferior wood or bonded
together to form plywood.
Cross Band – a layer of veneer immediately adjacent to and at right

angles to the face plies in a plywood panel.
Core – the center of a plywood panel, consisting of veneers, sawn

lumber, or composition board.
Banding – the solid wood stock extending around the sides of a
veneered panel, concealing the core and facilitating the shaping of
the panel edges.
Types of Wood Panels

a. Plywood – a wood panel product made by bonding veneers together under heat and pressure,
usually with the grain at right angles to each other and symmetrical about the center ply.
b. Fiberboards – a building material made of wood or other plant fibers compressed with a binder
into rigid sheets
1. Medium Density Fiberboard or MDF– a manufactured wood product composed of wood
fibers that are mixed with resin and wax and pressed into flat panels under high temperature
and pressure. Fiberboard having a density of from 30 to 50 lb per cu ft (480 to 800 kg per cu
m); used for structural building applications, coreboards, etc.
2. Tempered Hardboard – a hardboard impregnated with a drying oil or other oxidizing resin
and baked to improve resin and baked to improve its hardness and moisture resistance.
3. Particle Board or Chip Board – a non-veneered wood panel product made by bonding small
wood particles under heat and pressure, commonly used as a core material for decorative panels
and cabinetwork, and as underlayment for floors.
4. Oriented Strand Board – a non-veneered wood panel product commonly used for sheathing
and as subflooring, made by bonding three or five layers of long, thin wood strands under heat
and pressure using a waterproof adhesive. The surface strands are aligned parallel to the long
axis of the panel, making the panel stronger along its length.
5. Wafer Board – a non-veneered panel product composed of large, thin wood flakes bonded
under heat and pressure with a waterproof adhesive. The planes of the wafers are generally
oriented parallel to the plane of the panel but their grain directions are random, making the
panel approximately equal in strength and stiffness in all directions in the plane of the panel.
WOOD PRESERVATIVES
Chemical preservatives Oil-borne preservatives New technologies
a.) Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) a.) Creosote a.) Glass Wood
b.) Alkaline Copper Quaternary (ACQ) b.) Linseed oil b.) Wood Acetylation
c.) Copper Azole (CA-B or CA-C)
d.) Borate Natural preservatives
a.) Polyphenols
Light Organic Solvent Preservatives (LOSP) b.) Tung Oil
a.) Permethrin – solignum c.) Heat Treatment
b.) Bifenthrin d.) Mud Treatment
c.) Delatmethrin
METHODS OF TREATING WOOD

A. PRESSURE-TREATED – impregnation of preservatives under pressure
a. Full-cell – Vacuum → Preservative Application → Pressure
b. Empty-cell – Preservative Application → Pressure
B. NON-PRESSURE-TREATED – coat, dip, or impregnate preservative in atmospheric pressure

Vacuum process = Vacuum → Preservative Application
C. FIRE-RETARDANT – mineral salt is impregnated under pressure to reduce flammability or

combustibility
CARPENTRY
Refers to a building trade which includes cutting, framing, and joining the timbers or woodwork
of a furniture, building or structure
A. ROUGH CARPENTRY/TIMBER WORK – construction works involving the use of rough
lumbers or timbers. Includes the construction of temporary supports involving timber and
lumbers.
a. Heavy Weight Timber Works – building construction in which all supporting and
bracing members are solid heavy timbers.
b. Light Weight Timber Works – building construction in which all supporting and
bracing members are timbers with smaller dimensions.
B. FINISH CARPENTRY – The craft of woodworking by joining pieces of wood, esp. of the
finish and trim workings of the interior of a structure, such as doors, paneling, and sashes.
WOOD JOINERY
A. END OR LENGTHENING JOINTS – any joint formed by
uniting two members end to end so as to increase their length.
a. Scarf Joint – a lengthening joint made by overlapping the
tapered, notched, or halved ends of two members and holding
them in place with bolts, straps, keys, or fishplates, to resist
tension or compression.
Ordinary End Joint Scarf Joint
b. Square Splice – a halved scarf joint used esp. to resist
tension, having a thicker and a thinner section for each
member, the thicker one being on the end.
c. Finger Joint – a lengthening joint formed by interlacing

finger-like projections on the ends of the joined members.
Square Splice Finger Joint
d. Fish Joint – a lengthening joint in which the abutting

members are held in alignment and strengthened by
fishplates.
Fishplate – a plate bolted to each of two abutting members.
Fish Joint
B. EDGE JOINTS – any joint formed by uniting two members
edge to edge so as to increase their width.
a. `Tongue and Groove – a joint made by fitting a raised area
or tongue on the edge of one member into a corresponding
groove in the edge of another member to produce a flush
surface.
b. Spline or Feather – a thin strip of material inserted into the

grooved edges of two members to make a butt joint between Tongue and Groove Spline or Feather
them.
c. Butterfly Wedge – a fastener in the form of a double

dovetail for joining two members at their edges.
d. Butt Joint – any of various joints formed by abutting the

Butterfly Wedge Butt Joint
surfaces of two members squarely together without
overlapping.
e. Flush Joint – any joint finished even or level with the

surrounding surfaces.
C. ANGLE JOINTS – any joint formed by uniting two members at

Ordinary Angle Joint Dado Joint
a corner so as to change direction.
a. Dado or House Joint – a joint made by inserting the end or
edge of one member into a corresponding dado in the other.
b. Stopped Dado – a dado that is not cut across the full width
of a member.
c. Rabbet Joint – a joint between rabbeted parts. Stopped dado Rabbet Joint
D. MITER JOINTS – a joint between two members meeting at an Quirk
angle, made by cutting each of the butting surfaces to an angle
equal to half the angle of junction.
Miter – an oblique surface formed so as to butt against another
oblique surface to be joined with it.
Quirk – an acute angle or groove separating one element from Shoulder Miter
another.
a. Shoulder Miter – a miter joint having a raised surface to
limit motion between the joined parts.
Ordinary Miter Joint
b. Tongued Miter – a miter joint that incorporates a tongue and

Tongued Miter
groove.
E. LAP JOINTS – any of various joints formed by overlapping the

ends or edges of two members.
a. End-Lap Joint – an angle formed by halving each member
for a length equal to the width of the other. Ordinary Lap Joint End-Lap Joint
b. Cross-Lap Joint – a halved joint formed by two crossing

members.
c. Mitered Halving – an end-lap joint incorporating a miter on Cross-Lap Joint Mitered Halving
one face.
F. DOVETAIL JOINTS – a joint formed by one or more dovetails

fitting tightly within corresponding mortises.
a. Common Dovetail – a corner dovetail joint visible on both
Common Dovetail Lap Dovetail
faces.
b. Lap Dovetail/Half-Blind Joint – a corner dovetail joint

visible on one face only.
c. Secret or Miter Dovetail – a corner dovetail joint showing Secret or Miter Dovetail
Dovetail Halving
only the line of a miter.
d. Dovetail Halving – a halved joint made by fitting a dovetail

at the end of one member into a corresponding mortise in the
second member.
Tenon
G. MORTISE AND TENON – any of various joints between two
members made by housing a tenon in a mortise. Mortise
a. Mortise – a notch or hole, usually rectangular cut into a piece to

receive a tenon of the same dimensions. Open Mortise
Types of Mortises
1. Open or Slip or Slot Mortise – a mortise open on three sides. Blind Mortise
2. Blind or Stopped Mortise – a mortise that does not pass
completely through a member.
3. Chase Mortise – a blind mortise having one inclined narrow Chase Mortise
side so that a tenon can be slid into it sideways.
b. Tenon – a projection formed on the end of a member for
insertion into a mortise of the same dimensions.
1. Through Tenon – a tenon that extends completely
through or beyond the piece into which its
corresponding mortise is cut.
2. Stub Tenon – a short tenon for fitting into a blind
mortise. Through Tenon Stub Tenon
3. Undercut Tenon – a tenon having its shoulder cut

at an angle to ensure that it bears on the mortised
piece.
4. Haunched Tenon – a tenon that is narrower at the
tip than at the root
Undercut Tenon Haunched Tenon
c. Tusk – a beveled shoulder for strengthening a
tenon.
Tusk
d. Root – the widened portion of a tenon in the
plane of the shoulders.
Root
e. Shoulder – the end surface from which a tenon

Shoulder
projects.
H. BRIDLE JOINT – a joint formed by fitting the end of one member, notched to
form two parallel tenons, into two gains cut into the edge of a second member. Bridle Joint
WOOD FASTENERS
A. NAILS – straight, slender piece of metal having one end pointed and the other enlarged and flattened
for hammering.
Parts of a Nail
Head Type of Points
The top most part of a nail where the a. Round – an acute, conical point
hammer is struck on a nail or spike.
Shank b. Diamond – an acute, pyramidal

The straight, narrow part of a nail or point on a nail or spike.
bolt, between the head and the point
c. Chisel – a point on a nail or
spike formed by two flat
Point inclined sides meeting at a
The end of the nail that penetrates sharp angle.
the wood or any other material
Types of Nails
a. Wire Nails – a nail made by cutting and shaping a piece
of round or elliptical wire.
1. Common Nail (CWN) – a nail having a slender Common Nail
shank, a flat head and a diamond point.
2. Box Nail – a nail having a flat head and a shank more
slender than a common nail of the same length. Box Nail
3. Casing Nail – a nail having a small conical head and
a shank more slender than a common nail of the same
Casing Nail
length, used in finish work in which the head may
remain visible.
4. Finishing Nail – a nail having a slender shank and a
Finishing Nail
small, barrel-shaped head that is driven slightly below
the surface and covered with putty or the like.
5. Double Headed Nail (Form Nail or Scaffold Nail)–
a nail used in building temporary structures, such as Double Headed Nail
scaffolding and formwork, having a flange on its
shank to prevent it from being driven in all the way
and to leave the head for free for pulling.
6. Concrete/Masonry Nail – a hardened-steel nail Concrete/Masonry Nail
having a fluted or threaded shank and a diamond point
for hammering into concrete or masonry.
7. Flooring Nail – a nail for fastening floor boards, Flooring Nail
having a small conical head, a mechanically
deformed shank, and a blunt diamond point.
8. Ring-Shank Nail – a nail having a series of
Ring-Shank Nail
concentric grooves on its shank for increased holding
power.
9. Roofing Nail – a nail having a barbed, threaded, or
cement-coated shank and a broad, flat head for
Roofing Nail
fastening shingles or the like.
b. Cut Nail – a nail having a tapering rectangular shank with a blunt point, made by cutting from a
rolled sheet of iron or steel.
c. Spike – a heavy nail for fastening together heavy, timbers, 4 to 14 in (102 to 356 mm) long and
proportionally thicker than a common nail.
Driftbolt or Driftpin – a spike having a round shank, driven into predrilled holes to fasten heavy
timbers together.
d. Staple – a U-shaped piece of metal or heavy wire with pointed ends, driven into a surface to secure
sheet material or to hold a hasp, pin, or bolt.
e. Corrugated Fastener or Wiggle Nail – a fastener consisting of a piece of corrugated sheet steel
with one wavy edge sharpened, used for uniting two pieces of wood, as in miter joint.
Cut Nail
Driftbolt
Staple
Wiggle Nail
Nailing Techniques
Face Nail Toe Nail End Nail

to fasten by nailing to secure by nailing obliquely to the to fasten by nailing into the end
perpendicular to the face surfaces being joined. Alternate of a board parallel to the grain of
of the work. nails may be driven at opposite the wood. End-nailing provides
angles to provide increased holding poor resistance to withdrawal.
power.
Blind Nail Set Clinch

to secure by nailing in such a to sink a nailhead slightly to secure a nail or screw in
way that nailheads are not below the surface with a nail position by hammering down
visible on the face of the work. set. the protruding point.
Nailing Schedule for Various Timber Components
Connection Nailing Technique Nailing Schedule
1. Joist to sill or girder Toenail 3-65 mm
2. Bridging to joist Toenail each end 2-65 mm
3. 25 m x 150 mm subfloor or less to each joist Face nail 2-65 mm
4. Wider than 25 mm x 150 mm subfloor to each
Face nail 3-65 mm
joist
5. 50 mm subfloor to joist or girder Blind and face nail 2-90 mm
Typical face nail 90 mm at 400 mm O.C.
6. Sole plate to joist or blocking
At braced wall panels 3-90 mm per 400 mm
7. Top plate to stud End nail 2-90 mm
Toenail
8. Stud to sole plate 4-65 mm, or 2-90mm,
End nail
9. Double studs Face nail 90 mm at 600 mm O.C.
Typical face nail 90 mm at 400 mm O.C.
10. Double top plates
Lap splice 8-90 mm
11. Blocking between joists or rafters to top plate Toenail 3-65 mm
12. Rim joist to top plate Toenail 65 mm at 150 mm O.C.
13. Top plates, laps and intersections Face nail 2-90 mm
90 mm at 400 mm O.C.
14. Continuous header, two pieces
along edge
15. Ceiling joists to plate, Toenail 3-65 mm
16. Continuous header to stud Toenail 4-65 mm
17. Ceiling joists, laps over partitions Face nail 3-90 mm
18. Ceiling joists to parallel rafters Face nail 3-90 mm
19. Rafter to plate Toenail 3-65 mm
20. 25 mm brace to each stud and plate Face nail 3-90 mm
21. 25 mm x 200 mm sheathing or less to each
Face nail 2-65 mm
bearing
22. Wider than 25 mm x 200 mm sheathing to each
Face nail 3-65 mm
bearing
23. Built-up corner studs 90 mm at 600 mm O.C.
100 mm at 800 mm O.C. at
24. Built-up girder and beams
top and bottom
25. 50 mm planks 2-90 mm at each bearing
Connection Nailing Schedule Connection Nailing Schedule
26. Wood structural panels and 27. Panel siding (to
particleboard: framing):
Subfloor and wall 12 mm or less 50 mm
sheathing (to framing): 16 mm 65 mm
12 mm and less 28. Fiberboard
16 mm – 20 mm 50 mm sheathing:
22 mm – 25 mm 65 mm or 50 mm 12 mm 10 mm x 40 mm
28 mm – 32 mm 65 mm 50 mm
Combination subfloor- 75 mm or 65 mm 10 mm x 30 mm
underlayment (to framing):
20 mm and less 50 mm 20 mm 10 mm x 40 mm
22 mm – 25 mm 65 mm 65 mm,
30 mm – 32 mm 75 mm or 65 mm 10 mm x 30 mm
29. Interior panelling
6 mm 40 mm
10 mm 50 mm
B. SCREWS – a metal fastener having tapered, helically threaded shank and a slotted head, designed to
be driven into wood or the like by turning, as with a screwdriver.
Parts of a Screw
Head
Thread – the helical or spiral ridge of a screw, nut, or bolt.
Pitch – the distance between two corresponding points on adjacent threads of a
screw, nut, or bolt.
Countersink – to enlarge the upper part of a drilled hole so that the head of screw
or bolt will lie flush with or below the surface.
Pilot Hole – a guiding hole for a nail or screw, or for drilling a larger-size hole.
Types of Heads
a. Flat Head – a b. Oval Head – a c. Round or Button d. Truss Head – a
screw head having screw head having Head – a screw screw or bolt head
a flat upper surface a shallow, head having a having a shallow,
and a conical spherical shape shallow, spherical spherical shape
bearing surface. with a conical shape with a flat with a flat bearing
bearing surface. bearing surface. surface.
e. Panhead – a screw f. Fillister Head – a g. Bugle Head – a

or rivet head cylindrical screw screw head having
having a cylindrical head having a a flat upper surface
shape with a rounded slightly domed upper and an underside shaped
shoulder. surface and a flat bearing like the bell of a bugle.
surface.
Types of Slots
a. Slotted Head b. Phillips Head c. Allen Head – d. Square or e. Security
– a screw head – a screw a screw head Robertson Head – a
having a single head having having an Head – a screw head
slot, driven by two partial axial screw head designed to
a flat-tipped slots crossing hexagonal having a resist removal
screwdriver. at right recess, driven square recess, with a flat-
angles, driven by an Allen driven by a tipped or
by a Phillips wrench. square drive Phillips
screwdriver. or Robertson screwdriver.
screwdriver.
Types of Screws
a. Wood Screw – a screw having e. Cap Screw – a metal
a slotted head and a threaded fastener for machine
point that permits it to form its parts, having a straight,
own mating threads when threaded shank held by
driven into wood with a threads tapped in the
screwdriver. hole into which it is
b. Self-tapping or Tapping screwed.
Screw – a coarse-threaded f. Sheet-metal Screw – a
screw designed to tap its coarse-threaded screw
corresponding female thread for fastening sheet
as it is driven. metal and other thin
c. Lag or Coach Screw (Lag material.
Bolt) – a heavy, coarse- g. Setscrew – a screw,
threaded screw having a often without a head,
square or hexagonal head threaded through a hole
driven by a wrench, used in in one part tightly upon
areas inaccessible to the or into another part to
placement of a nut or where an prevent relative
exceptionally long bolt would movement.
be needed to penetrate a joint h. Thumbscrew – a
fully. screw having a
d. Machine Screw – a metal flattened knurled head
fastener used with a nut or designed to be turned
driven into a tapped hole, by the thumb and
having a straight, threaded forefinger.
shank and a slotted or Phillips i. Screw Eye – a screw
head for turning with a having a ring-shaped
screwdriver. head.
C. BOLTS AND NUTS
Bolt – threaded metal pin or rod, usually having a head at one end, designed to be inserted through
holes in assembled parts and secured by a mating nut.
Types of Bolt Heads

a. Square Head – square shape b. Hex Head – hexagonal shape
designed to be turned by a designed to be turned by a
wrench. wrench.
Types of Bolts
a. Carriage Bolt – a bolt d. J-bolt – a J-shaped
having a rounded head, a metal rod threaded at
flat bearing surface, and a one end to receive a
square shoulder for nut.
preventing rotation, used
where the head may be e. U-bolt – a metal rod
inaccessible during bent in the shape of a
tightening. U and threaded at
each end.
b. Machine Bolt – a bolt
having a flat bearing f. Eye Bolt – a bolt
surface and a square or having a ring-shaped
hexagonal head for turning head to receive a
with a wrench. hook or rope.
c. Stove Bolt – a small,

coarse-threaded machine
screw.
g. Anchor Bolt
1. Expansion Bolt – an anchor bolt having a split casing that expands
mechanically to engage the sides of a hole drilled in masonry or Expansion Bolt
concrete.
2. Molly – trademark for a brand of expansion bolt having a split,
sleeve-like sheathe threaded so that turning the bolt draws the ends
of the sheath together and spreads the sides to engage a hole drilled
in masonry or the inner surface of a hollow wall.
3. Toggle Bolt – an anchor bolt having two hinged wings that close
against a spring when passing through a predrilled hole and open
as they emerge to engage the inner surface of a hollow wall.
4. Lewis Bolt – an anchor bolt having a wedge-shaped and around
which concrete or lead is poured to hold it.
5. Fox Bolt – an anchor bolt having a split end to receive a foxtail
wedge as it is screwed into a blind hole. Molly
Lewis Bolt
Toggle Bolt Fox Bolt
Washer – a perforated disk of a. Lock Washer – a washer specially
metal, rubber, or plastic, used constructed to prevent a nut from shaking
under the head of a nut or bolt loose.
or at a joint to distribute
pressure, prevent leakage, or b. Load-indicating Washer – a washer having
relieve friction. small projections that are progressively
flattened as a bolt is tightened, the gap between
the head or nut and the washer indicating the
tension in the bolt.
Nut – a square or hexagonal metal block perforated with a threaded hole to fit around and secure a bolt
or screw.
a. Lock nut – constructed to b. Cap or Acorn Nut – c. Wing or Thumb nut – two
provide extra friction hexagonal base and a flat projecting pieces that
between itself and a screw domed top to cover the provide grip for tightening
or bolt. threaded end of a screw. with a thumb and forefinger.
Bolt Devices
a. Turnbuckle – a metal link or sleeve b. Clevis – a U-shaped fastener
internally threaded at each end, used secured by a bolt or pin
for coupling and tightening two through holes in the end of the
parts, such as the threaded ends of two arms.
two rods or stays.
D. TOOTHED PLATE – a sheet-metal punched to produce a closely

spaced grid of protruding teeth, used as a splice plate in the
manufacture of light wood trusses.
E. SPLIT RING – a timber connector consisting of a metal ring inserted

into corresponding grooves cut into the faces of the joining members
and held in place by a single bolt. The tongue-and-groove split in the
ring permits it to deform slightly under loading and maintain bearing at
all surfaces, while the beveled cross section eases insertion and ensures
a tight-fitting joint after the ring is fully seated in the grooves.
FOOTING AND PEDESTAL
Lateral Ties
Horizontal straps used to hold
RC Pedestal down the vertical bars and counter
A column that has a height of act shear stress on columns or
less than that of the floor to pedestal.
floor height. USE: Ø10mm Grade 40 REBARS,
USE: 0.25 M. X 0.25M Square spaced 5 at 50mm, rest at
100mm, O.C.; Ga. 16 G.I.
TIE WIRE for Ties.
Vertical Bars
RC Footing Main supporting bars.
USE: 1.20 X 1.20 X USE: 4-Ø16mm
0.25 M. THK. Grade 40
REBARS,
Footing Mat Bars

Used to support tensional
force acting upon the
footing.
USE: 5-Ø16mm Grade 40
REBARS, spaced
EQUALLY, O.C.,
Standard Hooks, B.W.,
Bends, and Splices
90° Hook or Bend
13d + D/2
Cement
REINFORCED CONCRETE (RC)
d
12d
D Calcine mixture of clay and

limestone, finely pulverized
180° Hook or Bend
Aggregates
Inert, hard, mineral material that
D+2d
D contributes to the internal strength,

d
weight, and fire-resistivity of
4D concrete
Water
5D + D/2 Determines compressive strength
and workability
Lap Splice Cement
Compressive Strength = Water
300 mm
d (Min) Reinforcing Bars
Used to compensate for the lack
of tensile strength of concrete
For:
Grade 40 and 50 = 20d
Grade 60 = 24d
Grade 70 = 30d
POST, GIRDER, AND FLOOR SYSTEM (Light and Heavy Timber)
Wooden Post
Floor Joist Carries the loads from girders.
Carries the load from walls and USE: From 6” x 6” LAUAN, KD, S4S,
flooring. PERMETHRIN TREATED
USE: From 2” x 6” LAUAN, KD,
S2S, PERMETHRIN
TREATED, spaced at 300
mm O.C. (max)
Floor Bridging
Used to reduce lateral
movement and bending of
the joist.
USE: (SEE JOIST)
End Girder
Carries partial load
from floor joist.
Main Girders USE: (SEE MAIN
Carries majority of the loads GIRDER)
from the floor joist.
USE: from 2-2” x 10” LAUAN,
KD, S2S, PERMETHRIN
TREATED Pedestal
Wooden Post
Termite Shield
USE: Ga. 18 STAINLESS
STEEL
Wooden Post
Machine Bolts Floor Joist

USE: 2-Ø16mm MACHINE
BOLT WITH NUT
AND WASHER
Main Girder
Post Strap Machine Bolts

USE: 50 mm x 750mm x USE: 2-Ø16mm MACHINE
5mm FLAT BAR, BOLT WITH NUT
PREPAINTED AND WASHER
Pedestal Floor Joist to Girder to Wooden

Post Connection Detail
Wooden Post to Concrete
Pedestal Connection Detail
WALL AND CEILING SYSTEM

Ceiling Hanger Intermediate Ceiling Joist Ceiling
Carries the load from the ceiling Secondary carrying member of Overhead cover.
joist. ceiling. Stabilize main ceiling USE: ¼” THK.
USE: from 2” x 3” LAUAN, KD, joists. PLYWOOD
S4S, PERMETHRIN TREATED USE: (Same as Main Ceiling
Joist)
Interior Walling
Main Ceiling Joist USE: ½” THK
Top Plate PLYWOOD
Top most portion of wall frame Main carrying member of the
USE: From 2-2” x 3” LAUAN, ceiling
KD, S4S, PERMETHRIN USE: from 2” x 2” LAUAN, KD,
TREATED S4S, PERMETHRIN TREATED,
spaced at 600 mm O.C. (Max)
Wooden Jamb
USE: From 2” x 6”
LAUAN, KD,
PERMETHRIN
TREATED.
Flooring
Horizontal cover that carries the
Sole Plate weight from walls and users.
Bottom most portion of wall frame. USE: From 1” x 6” LAUAN, KD,
USE: from 2” x 3” LAUAN, KD, T & G.
PERMETHRIN TREATED.
Vertical Studs
Horizontal Stud Main vertical support of wall.
Secondary support for wall. USE: From 2” x 3” LAUAN, KD, S4S,
USE: (Same as Vertical Studs) PERMETHRIN TREATED,
Spaced at 600mm O.C. (max)
ROOF FRAMING SYSTEM

Truss Cross Bracing Stretcher
USE: from 2-2”x 6” LAUAN, KD, Counter acts movements of
S2S, SOLIGNUM the truss
TREATED
USE: from 2” x 6” LAUAN,
Truss KD, S2S,
SOLIGNUM
TREATED
Roof Girts
Carries the load from the
trusses or rafters.
USE: from 2-2” x 10” LAUAN, KD,

S2S, SOLIGNUM TREATED
Fascia Board
A board to protect the
framework from weather and
to carry the gutter.
USE: ½” THK MARINE
PLYWOOD
End/Flashing Purlin
A purlin primarily used as a
nailer to fasten the flashing.
USE: (See Purlins)
Roof Purlins
Rafters USE: from 2” x 3”
USE: from 2” x 10” LAUAN, LAUAN, KD, S2S,
KD, S4S, SOLIGNUM Wood Cleat SOLIGNUM
TREATED Used to support the purlins. TREATED, spaced
USE: from 2” x 2” LAUAN, KD, at 600mm (max)
S2S, SOLIGNUM
TREATED
Top Chord
USE: from 2” x 8” LAUAN, Collar Plate
KD, S4S, SOLIGNUM Used to hold the top chords and
TREATED king post together
USE: from 2” x 4” LAUAN, KD,

Wood Block S4S, SOLIGNUM
Used to fasten the top chord TREATED
and web members.
USE: (see Web Member)
Bottom Chord
USE: from 2-2” x 10” LAUAN, King Post Web Members
KD, S4S, SOLIGNUM USE: (see Top Chord) USE: from 2” x 4” LAUAN,
TREATED KD, S4S, SOLIGNUM
TREATED
Roofing
Flashing Purlins
Purlin used to attach flashing
and other roof accessories.
USE: (see Purlins)
Fascia Frame
Used to support the fascia
End Gutter board.
Soffit
Ceiling of roof eaves
Soffit Vents USE: ½” THK MARINE
Allows air in between the roof and ceiling. PLYWOOD
USE: from 1” x 2” LAUAN, KD,S4S,
PERMETHRIN TREATED with 2mm
WELDED WIRE MESH Or INSECT
SCREEN Detail At End Gutter
Concealed
Flashing Purlins Gutter
End Flashing
Fascia Frame
Breather Soffit
Detail At Concealed Gutter
Roof Accessories
USE: Ga. 24 G.I. Sheet, Prepainted, Preformed
Ridge Roll/ Hip At Wall At Rake At Fascia

Flashing End Flashings
End Gutter/ Inside Gutter Valley Gutter

Gutter at Fascia
REINFORCED CONCRETE TO WOOD FRAME
RC Roof Beam
RC Column
Masonry Wall
RC Slab
RC Beam
Dowel Bars
Wooden Ledger
Carries the wooden horizontal
Floor Joist member.
USE: from 2” x 4” LAUAN, KD,
S4S, PERMETHRIN
TREATED
Wooden Ledger Anchor Bolt

Holds down the wood to the concrete.
USE: Ø16mm x 350mm ANCHOR BOLT,
Spaced @ 600mm O.C. (max)
Book References:
Ching, Francis D.K., A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, Second Edition, 2014
Ching, Francis D.K., Building Construction Illustrated, Fifth Edition, 2014
Harris, Cyril M., Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, Fourth Edition, 2006
Allen, Edward & Iano, Joseph, Fundamentals of Building Construction, Fifth Edition, 2009
National Structural Code of the Philippines
Web References:

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CEng 112n: Building Technologies

Lesson 02: Lesson Summary:

WOOD and WOOD WORKING topics on wood and wood

Parts of the Wood

b. Cambium – reproductive tissue.

c. Sapwood or Alburnum – younger, softer,

d. Heartwood or Duramen – older, harder,

B. ACCORDING TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF PHILIPPINE WOOD

C. ACCORDING TO STRENGTH GRADE (FROM NATIONAL STRUCTURAL CODE OF THE

b. Moderately High Strength Group

c. Medium Strength Group

d. Moderately Low Strength Group

Types of Wood Grains

c. Mixed Grain – any combination of edge-grained and flat-grained lumber.

f. Close Grain– wood grain characterized by narrow,

g. Coarse Grain– wood grain having large pores.

B. THERMAL PROPERTIES – refers to the property of wood to withstand temperature fluctuation.

D. STRENGTH/MECHANICAL PROPERTIES – refers to the ability of a wood to withstand physical

COMMON WOOD DEFECTS

b. Tangential – wood shrinkage in a direction tangent to the

B. WARP – any deviation from a plane or true surface

c. Crook – a curvature along the edge of a wood piece, measured

d. Twist – a warp resulting from the turning of the edges of a wood

C. KNOT –he base of a woody branch enclosed by a subsequent growth of

c. Tight or Close - a knot held firmly in place by growth or position.

d. Dead or Loose or Encased – a knot having annual rings not intergrown

E. PITCH POCKET – a well-defined opening between the annual Shake

F. CHECK – a lengthwise separation of wood across the annual Check

G. SPLIT OR THROUGH CHECK – a check that extends

H. WANE – the presence of bark or absence of wood at a corner or Wane

J. SKIP – an area on the surface of a board or panel missed by a planning machine.

Final Product of Logging

Final Product of Surfacing

Final Product of Drying

Joist and Plank 2”- 4” >4

Graded along wide face

Light Framing 2”- 4” 2”- 4” High strength not required

≥5” Graded along narrow face

c. Common Dimension of Lumber

Cross Band – a layer of veneer immediately adjacent to and at right

Core – the center of a plywood panel, consisting of veneers, sawn

Types of Wood Panels

METHODS OF TREATING WOOD

b. Empty-cell – Preservative Application → Pressure

B. NON-PRESSURE-TREATED – coat, dip, or impregnate preservative in atmospheric pressure

C. FIRE-RETARDANT – mineral salt is impregnated under pressure to reduce flammability or

c. Finger Joint – a lengthening joint formed by interlacing

d. Fish Joint – a lengthening joint in which the abutting

b. Spline or Feather – a thin strip of material inserted into the

c. Butterfly Wedge – a fastener in the form of a double

d. Butt Joint – any of various joints formed by abutting the

e. Flush Joint – any joint finished even or level with the

C. ANGLE JOINTS – any joint formed by uniting two members at

b. Tongued Miter – a miter joint that incorporates a tongue and

E. LAP JOINTS – any of various joints formed by overlapping the

b. Cross-Lap Joint – a halved joint formed by two crossing

F. DOVETAIL JOINTS – a joint formed by one or more dovetails

b. Lap Dovetail/Half-Blind Joint – a corner dovetail joint

d. Dovetail Halving – a halved joint made by fitting a dovetail

a. Mortise – a notch or hole, usually rectangular cut into a piece to

3. Undercut Tenon – a tenon having its shoulder cut

e. Shoulder – the end surface from which a tenon

Shank b. Diamond – an acute, pyramidal