BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 2
(WOOD CONSTRUCTION)
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in
the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It
is an organic material – a natural composite of cellulose
fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a
matrix of lines that resists compression.
These three types are:
Softwoods: Softwood is wood from gymnosperm trees
such as pines and spruces. Softwoods are not
necessarily softer than hardwoods. In both groups,
there is an enormous variation in actual wood hardness.
Softwoods are generally most used by the construction
industry and are also used to produce paper pulp and
card products.
Hardwoods: Hardwoods are produced by angiosperm
trees that reproduce by flowers and have broad leaves.
Hardwood from deciduous species, such as oak,
normally shows annual growth rings, but these may be
absent in some tropical hardwoods.
Hardwoods have a more complex structure than
softwoods and are often much slower growing as a
result. The dominant feature separating "hardwoods"
from softwoods is the presence of pores, or vessels.
As the name suggests, the wood from these trees is
generally harder than that of softwoods, but there are
significant exceptions.
Engineered wood: also called mass timber, composite
wood, man-made wood, or manufactured board,
includes a range of derivative wood products which are
manufactured by binding or fixing the strands, particles,
fibers, or veneers or boards of wood, together with
adhesives, or other methods of fixation to form
composite material.
Engineered wood products are used in a variety of
applications, from home construction to commercial
buildings to industrial products. The products can be
used for joists and beams that replace steel in many
building projects.
In the Philippines, hardwood is taken from:
• molave,
• kamagong,
• narra,
• yakal,
• and tanguile trees.
These, especially tanguile wood, can be made into
exterior application like for the window frames, walls,
floor, doors, and other durable pieces of furniture.
MOLAVE
One of the hardest local woods, molave has a fine
texture that makes it smooth to the touch. It's available
in pale yellow to pinkish-brownish tone with a lighter
sapwood (outer region), and mostly straight grain. It has
no distinct odor.
Ideal for: window frames, shipbuilding, structural
posts, railroad tracks, and other outdoor applications
KAMAGONG
Also known as Philippine Ebony, kamagong is a wood
unique to the country. With a black heartwood (inner
region) and gray sapwood, this produces really
dramatic, dark timber hence the name. The grain is
often grayish and has strong, dark brown streaks.
Ideal for: Small, decorative pieces, accent pieces and
combat tools like arnis sticks and eskrima
NARRA
This very popular tropical wood has tones that range
from yellow to red. The grain (texture and alignment of
wood fiber) is often interlocked and wavy, which
creates interesting flame and ribbon figures when
quartersawn or flat sawn, which makes it a beautiful
finishing material. Texture can be anywhere from
average-fine to average-coarse. The wood itself is
lustrous and has an attractive odor. Narra is classified as
endangered and vulnerable here, and in Malaysia.
Ideal for: furnishings, floor planks, wall panels
TANGUILE
A moderately hard reddish wood, tanguile is one of the
seven local woods often referred to as Philippine
Mahogany. This abundant wood type boasts of fine
ribbon or straight grain. It's relatively soft and easy to
work on, but resilient enough for outdoor construction.
Ideal for: interior finishes, cabinets
YAKAL
This resinous wood with yellow to golden-red tones is
another local mahogany type. A high-grade timber,
yakal can tolerate harsh hot and cold weathers.
Ideal for: furniture, surface finishes, small weapons,
and outdoor constructions
Conventional Types of Wood Joinery
• Basic Butt
• Mitered Butt
• Biscuit Joint
• Half-Lap
• Box Joint
• Rabbet Joint
• Dad
• Tongue and Groove
• Mortise and Tenon
BASIC BUTT JOINT
A butt joint is a technique in which two pieces of
material are joined by simply placing their ends
together without any special shaping. The name 'butt
joint' comes from the way the material is joined
together. The butt joint is the simplest joint to make
since it merely involves cutting the wood to the
appropriate length and butting them together. It is also
the weakest because unless some form of
reinforcement is used it relies upon glue alone to hold it
together. Because the orientation of the wood usually
presents only one end to a long grain gluing surface, the
resulting joint is inherently weak.
MITERED BUTT JOINT
A mitre joint (often miter in American English) is a joint
made by cutting each of two parts to be joined, across
the main surface, usually at a 45° angle, to form a
corner, usually a 90° angle. It is called beveling when
the angled cut is done on the side, although the
resulting joint is still a mitre joint.
For woodworking, a disadvantage of a mitre joint is its
weakness, but it can be strengthened with a spline (a
thin wafer of wood inserted into a slot, usually arranged
with the long grain of the spline across the short grain
of the frame timber).
BISCUIT JOINT
A joint made by gluing one or more wood biscuits in
between two boards Where a timber post supports a
roof joist, the two are mitred and glued together with a
biscuit joint.
HALF-LAP JOINT
• Half Lap
• Mitered Half Lap
• Cross Lap
• Dovetail Crossed Lap
A lap joint or overlap joint is a joint in which the
members overlap. A lap joint may be a full lap or half
lap. In a full lap, no material is removed from either of
the members that will be joined, resulting in a joint
which is the combined thickness of the two members.
In a half lap joint or halving joint, material is removed
from both of the members so that the resulting joint is
the thickness of the thickest member. Most commonly
in half lap joints, the members are of the same
thickness and half the thickness of each is removed.
BOX JOINT
A box joint, is a woodworking joint made by cutting a
set of complementary, interlocking profiles in two
pieces of wood, which are then joined (usually) at right
angles, usually glued.
The glued box joint has a high glued surface area
resulting in a strong bond, on a similar principle to a
finger joint.
Box joints are used for corners of boxes or box-like
constructions, hence the name. The joint does not have
the same interlocking properties as a dovetail joint, but
is much simpler to make, and can be mass-produced
fairly easily.
RABBET JOINT
A rabbet (American English) or rebate (British English) is
a recess or groove cut into the edge of a piece of
machinable material, usually wood. When viewed in
cross-section, a rabbet is two-sided and open to the
edge or end of the surface into which it is cut.
DADO JOINT
The dado joint is one of the strongest woodworking
joints you can make. A dado joint is made from a three-
sided channel cut across the grain of one work piece.
Dado joints are often used to build cabinets and
bookshelves,
TONGUE AND GROOVE JOINT
Tongue and groove is a method of fitting similar objects
together, edge to edge, used mainly with wood, in
flooring, parquetry, panelling, and similar constructions.
Tongue and groove joints allow two flat pieces to be
joined strongly together to make a single flat surface.
MORTISE AND TENON JOINT
A mortise and tenon is a type of joint that is made up of
two parts. The tenon portion of the joint works as a
peg, and the mortis is the hole or slot into which the
tenon is inserted. A mortise and tenon is a popular type
of joint that is used to connect two pieces of wood.
There are three types of bolted timber connectors:
• Tooth plate connectors - Tooth plate connectors are
made from cold rolled band steel or hot dipped
galvanized mild steel. The tooth plate connectors are
used in laterally loaded timber-to-timber and steel-to-
timber joints. They are pressed into the timber
members to be connected.
• Split ring connectors - Split ring timber connectors
(also known as timber rings or Teco rings) are round,
metal rings that are inserted into precut grooves
between two overlapping timber members. Split rings
get their name from a split tongue and slot in the
middle of the ring that allows the ring to grow and
contract with the timber around it.
• Shear plate connectors - The shear plate wood
connector is intended primarily for wood-to-steel or
wood-to-wood connections in demountable structures
when used in pairs. Shear plates spread the load and
reduce the number of bolts required.
JAPANESE WOOD CONSTRUCTION
Japanese carpentry was developed more than a
millennium ago through Chinese architectural
influences such as Ancient Chinese wooden architecture
and uses woodworking joints. It involves building
wooden furniture without the use of nails, screws, glue
or electric tools.
Wagoya type traditional roof framing, a post-and-lintel
type of framing.
Yogoya type traditional roof framing, called western
style.
The tools commonly used by Japanese carpenters are
divided into a few basic families, within which there are
found a multitude of variations and specializations
geared toward particular tasks.
There are two main kinds of cutting teeth on Japanese
saws: crosscut (横挽き, yokobiki) and rip (縦挽き
tatebiki). The rip and crosscut are combined in one
blade, known as a ryoba (両刃, lit. 'dual edge')
Japanese plane (鉋, kanna), is most commonly a
wooden block, or dai (台) containing a laminated blade,
sub-blade, and securing pin. In the Japanese plane, the
blade is fixed in position primarily by the plane's
abutments that are cut in the sides of the dai. This is
similar to a still manufactured type of European
wooden plane, in which the blade is fixed in place by
tapping down upon a wooden wedge. Unlike a western
plane, the support bed for the blade is not a flat surface
in a Japanese plane - rather it is convex.
The blade itself is tapered in thickness so as to wedge
tightly into the dai when tapped down into place. The
blade is also tapered in width to allow its projection to
be adjusted by tapping it from side to side, so that a
uniform shaving thickness can be attained. Japanese
planes are generally operated by pulling rather than
pushing, and work can be done in the seated position or
using the whole body for more power
• Japanese chisel (鑿, nomi). There are bench chisels,
paring chisels, striking chisels, heavy timber chisels and
slicks, and myriad others for specialized applications.
Like the planes, the blades are of laminated hard
steel/soft steel construction. Bevel angle varies from 20 ̊
to 35 ̊ typically, with mortising and heavy chisels
featuring steep angles, and paring chisels having
shallower angles. It is common in Japan to work with
softwoods, so many chisels are made with that in mind,
and require the bevels be steepened if employed for
harder woods.
Sumitsubo (and sumi-sashi, wooden brushes).
Inkpot (墨壺, sumitsubo). The sumitsubo is used for
marking long straight lines onto various surfaces. A
thread (tsuboito) is tied to a rounded piece of wood
with a needle fixed at the end (karuko). The other end
of the thread is passed through the small opening at the
end of the sumitsubo (itoguchi), through the depression
containing ink (ike) and wound around a spool (itomaki-
guruma). The ink is stored in the ike soaked in silk
wadding. Silk threads are used as tsuboito. To draw a
line, the sumitsubo is held in the left hand and the
karuko's needle is fixed onto the surface determining
the position of one end of the thread.
Individual framing members are kept at different
moisture contents prior to being assembled. This results
in a self-tightening joint as the individual members dry
out after assembly.
In the case of the typical Japanese lock joints it is the
square pegs that are kept at a lower moisture content
than the main members and/or utilize species that react
differently to moisture. Other techniques involve the
timing of cutting the joint – either well in advance or
shortly prior to assembly. Once the pieces have
equalized the pegs have swollen relative to the joint
members and tighten the joint.
Aside from charring, smoked timber can also be found
in many old buildings for external as well as internal
applications. Yoshidake Okoshi is a privately owned and
operated heritage timber-framed building with a
traditionally thatched roof. Some of the government-
imposed heritage conditions, which can be very
onerous for significant heritage buildings, include that
the open fireplace is continued to be operated in order
to keep the exposed timber roof structure and
thatching treated with smoke against insects, fungi or
moisture damage.
Joints used in the construction of buildings or bridges
are primarily designed to form soft-moment
connections within the structural frame. This is also true
for many joints used in traditional joinery.
The complexity of the various joint types aim to:
• Maximise the surface area between the
connected members
• Mitigate and/or utilise the effects of timber
movement (swelling shrinking due to changing
moisture content)
• Create homogeneous connections without the
use of steel connectors
• Facilitate workflow during the assembly
sequence
• Allow disassembly for repair or relocation of
structures
kanawatsugi 金輪継
An oblique, housed (dadoed), rabbeted, T-shaped, half-
blind, tenoned scarf joint. Because both the tenon and
mortise are blind, the joint cannot be slipped together
from the side, as in an oblique, housed, rabbeted, scarf
joint *okkake daisentsugi 追掛大栓継. The oblique
surface on the mortised half of the indented part is
decreased by the depth of the rabbet. Therefore, the
end with the inverted T-tenon on the corresponding
piece must be inserted in a lengthwise direction.
Then a joining draw pin komisen 込栓 (see *sen 栓) is
driven through the opening provided in the center to
lock the joints. Sometimes two keys *shachi 車知 are
used in place of a draw pin to strengthen the joint. This
joint is commonly used in foundation footings *dodai
土台, wall plates *daiwa 台輪, the beam used for the
bottom tracks for sliding doors or window *shikigeta
敷桁, and in eave purlins *dashigeta 出桁. The
improvement in carpenter's tools in the Edo period
made it possible to fashion complex joints such as this.
While the tatami, or ‘jo’ is closely related to structural
grids, proportions and standard room sized, it has never
functioned as a true unifying module for either
construction or building design.
Domestic Framing Methods
The above detail shows how, rather than being fixed or
doweled to the footing the, bottom detail of the post is
precisely scribed and shaped to the natural form of the
stone. This allows the frame to rock and move on the
footing.
Conventional Japanese Framing from 1950 onwards saw
the introduction of diagonal stiffeners / sheer walls and
metal fasteners, together with other construction
methods brought from the west.
Traditional post and beam connections were modified
in order to integrate engineered metal fasteners and
connectors which replaced timber pegs and lock joints.
As the fabrication of pre-cut framing members became
increasingly automised joint details were adapted to
suit the machining process and tooling.
Traditional post and beam connections were modified
in order to integrate engineered metal fasteners and
connectors which replaced timber pegs and lock joints.
As the fabrication of pre-cut framing members became
increasingly automised joint details were adapted to
suit machining processes and tooling.
A modern version of this technique has found an
application in the installation of CLT floor and wall
panels (specific application for visually exposed CLT
panels). In this adaptation, the tie has been split
lengthwise into a two-part tenon and the mortise is
split over the two CLT boards to be joined.
Cross Laminated Timber
Tokyo SkyTree – Telecommunication Tower
• Architect: Nikken Sekkei
• Date of construction: 2012
• Location: Tokyo, Japan
• Building type: Television transmitter
• Design: 6344m tall
• Structure: steel truss, centre column connected
with oil dampers
With the design of Tokyo Sky Tree television transmitter
and observation tower Nikken Sekkei took inspiration
from the traditional five-story Japanese pagoda
(example: Horyu-ji Pagoda built j. 609) and its central
dampening column (shimbashira seishin, or centre
column vibration control).
At a height of 375m
Flexible region: the core column and steel tower
framing are connected with an oil damper.
At a height of 125m
Rigid region: the core column and steel tower framing
are fixed with steel members.
Core column: reinforced concrete shell
The central column (or shimbashira) does not physically
support any of the pagoda’s stories but instead acts as a
counterweight about which the rest of the building’s
structure can vibrate.
Nikken Sekkei applied this principle as the ‘shimbashira
seishin’ (center column vibration control) with the core
column and surrounding steel frame connected by a
flexible oil damper.
The temple that lent inspiration to the structural
concept of the Tokyo Sky Tree is the Horyu Ji Temple.
Horyu Ji Temle
Architect: N/A
Date of construction: app. 603 – 1603
Location: Nara, Japan
Building type: Temple
Design: 5 storey pagoda (32.25 Metres / 122 feet)
Structure: Central wooden pillar; timber; Japanese
carpentry
Steel Construction
How steel is used in buildings and infrastructure
The possibilities for using steel in buildings and
infrastructure are limitless. The most common
applications are listed below.
For buildings:
• Structural sections: these provide a strong, stiff
frame for the building and make up 25% of the
steel use in buildings.
• Reinforcing bars: these add tensile strength and
stiffness to concrete and make up 44% of steel
use in buildings. Steel is used because it binds
well to concrete, has a similar thermal
expansion coefficient and is strong and
relatively cost-effective. Reinforced concrete is
also used to provide deep foundations and
basements and is currently the world’s primary
building material.
• Sheet products: 31% is in sheet products such
as roofing, purlins, internal walls, ceilings,
cladding, and insulating panels for exterior
walls.
• Non-structural steel: steel is also found in many
non-structural applications in buildings, such as
heating and cooling equipment and interior
ducting.
• Internal fixtures and fittings such as rails,
shelving and stairs are also made of steel.
For infrastructure:
• Transport networks: steel is required for
bridges, tunnels, rail track and in constructing
buildings such as fueling stations, train stations,
ports and airports. About 60% of steel use in
this application is as rebar and the rest is
sections, plates and rail track.
• Utilities (fuel, water, power): over 50% of the
steel used for this application is in underground
 pipelines to distribute water to and from 9. Fast on-site build for prefabricated buildings.
housing, and to distribute gas. The rest is mainly 10. Durable.
rebar for power stations and pumping houses.
DESIGN OF ROOF TRUSSES
Benefits of using steel in construction Steel:
Roof Trusses
1. Is reusable and endlessly recyclable.
• Trusses are triangular frame works, consisting
2. Contains at least 25% recycled steel.
of axially loaded members.
3. Enables energy efficiency in buildings and
• They are more efficient in resisting external
construction projects.
loads as the cross-section of all the members
4. Strong, requiring fewer beams and providing
are nearly uniformly stressed.
more usable open space.
• They are extensively used for larger spans.
5. Light, requiring reduced foundations.
6. Less material implies resource saving and a Materials for Roofing
lesser impact on the environment.
7. Flexible in combination with other materials. • Corrugated sheeting
8. Earthquake resistant due to steel’s ductility. • Roof decking

Decking for sloping roof: Sheeting – Insulation board – Purlin – Top chord of roof truss

Flat roof construction: Felt – Insulation board – Decking – Girder or Joist – Ceiling

Fastening for Sheeting

Side Lap Corrugated Sheet

Types of Roof Truss

• Pitched roof trusses

• Parallel chord trusses
• Trapezoid trusses

King Post Truss

Queen Post Truss

Different Types of Truss

• Pratt Truss
• Howe Truss
• Fink Truss
• Fan Truss
• Fink Fan Truss - Mansard Truss
• Warren Truss

Typical Truss Connection Detail

Truss Members

Truss Members

• Lighter Loads – Rolled steel angles, Tee sections, Hollow circular/rectangular structural tubes.
• Heavy Loads – heavier rolled steel sections, such as channels.
• Long Span Bridge Trusses - Built-up sections, channels, angles and plates.

Truss Connections

• Members of trusses can be joined by:

- Riveting
- Bolting
 - Welding
• Due to involved procedure and highly skilled labour requirement, riveting is not common these
days.
• High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolting and welding have become more common.

Truss Connections

• Apex Connection
• Support Connection

Weld Symbols and Steel Connection Details

The eight elements which may appear in a welding symbol are: reference line, arrow, basic weld
symbols, dimensions and other data, supplementary symbols, finish symbols, tail and specification and
process or other reference.

Reference Line: This is the basis of the welding symbol. All other elements are oriented with respect to
this line. The arrow is affixed to one end and a tail, when necessary, is affixed to the other.

Arrow: This connects the reference line to one side of the joint in the case of groove, fillet, flange, and
flash or upset welding symbols. This side of the joint is known as the arrow side of the joint. The
opposite side is known as the other side of the joint. In the case of plug, slot, projection, and seam
welding symbols, the arrow connects the reference line to the outer surface of one of the members of
the joint at the center line of the weld. In this case the member to which the arrow points is the arrow
side member: the other member is the other side member. In the case of bevel and Jgroove weld
symbols, a two-directional arrow pointing toward a member indicates that the member is to be
chamfered.
Basic Weld Symbols: These designate the type of welding to be performed. The basic symbols which are
shown in the table Basic Weld Symbols are placed approximately in the center of the reference line,
either above or below it or on both sides of it as shown in above figure. Welds on the arrow side of the
joint are shown by placing the weld symbols on the side of the reference line towards the reader (lower
side). Welds on the other side of the joint are shown by placing the weld symbols on the side of the
reference line away from the reader (upper side).

Supplementary Symbols: These convey additional information relative to the extent of the welding,
where the welding is to be performed, and the contour of the weld bead. The “weld-all-around” and
“field” symbols are placed at the end of the reference line at the base of the arrow as shown in first
figure and the table Supplementary Weld Symbols.

Dimensions: These include the size, length, spacing, etc., of the weld or welds. The size of the weld is
given to the left of the basic weld symbol and the length to the right. If the length is followed by a dash
and another number, this number indicates the center-to-center spacing of intermittent welds. Other
pertinent information such as groove angles, included angle of countersink for plug welds and the
designation of the number of spot or projection welds are also located above or below the weld symbol.
The number designating the number of spot or projection welds is always enclosed in parentheses.

Contour and Finish Symbols: The contour symbol is placed above or below the weld symbol. The finish
symbol always appears above or below the contour symbol. The following finish symbols indicate the
method, not the degrees of finish: C—chipping; G—grinding; M—machining; R—rolling; and H—
hammering.

Tail: The tail which appears on the end of the reference line opposite to the arrow end is used when a
specification, process, or other reference is made in the welding symbol. When no specification,
process, or other reference is used with a welding symbol, the tail may be omitted.
Basic Weld Symbols
Wood Construction Connection Details
Wood Beam to Column Connection

Purlin to Beam Connection

Floor Structure
Roof Components