Isip o Talino

Philippine Christian University
Sampaloc 1, Dasmariñas City, Cavite 4114

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
S.Y. 2022-2023
MODULE IN GENERAL MATHEMATICS (GRADE 11)

QUARTER 2 - WEEK 6 (JANUARY 9-13, 2023)
LESSON 6: PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC, TAUTOLOGY, FALLACY AND CONTINGENCY
Overview
When most people say ‘logic’, they mean either propositional logic or first-order predicate logic.
However, the precise definition is quite broad, and literally hundreds of logics have been studied by
philosophers, computer scientists and mathematicians.
The simplest, and most abstract logic we can study is called propositional logic. Propositional logic, also
known as sentential logic and statement logic, is the branch of logic that studies ways of joining and/or modifying
entire propositions, statements, or sentences to form more complicated propositions, statements, or sentences,
as well as the logical relationships and properties that are derived from these methods of combining or altering
statements. In propositional logic, the simplest statements are considered as indivisible units, and hence,
propositional logic does not study those logical properties and relations that depend upon parts of statements
that are not themselves statements on their own, such as the subject and predicate of a statement.
Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. Define propositional logic
2. Illustrates and symbolizes proposition
3. Distinguish between simple and compound propositions
4. Performs the different types of operations on propositions
5. Determines the truth values of propositions
6. Illustrates the different forms of conditional propositions.
7. Illustrates tautologies and fallacies
Disclaimer: This module is adapted and modified from the source materials listed in the references list. This is an exclusive
property of Philippine Christian University-Dasmariñas SHS and is provided only to enrolled students for their academic use.
This module is provided for free by the school through softcopy and/or printed media. Reproduction of this module without
official permission is prohibited.
1
Test Yourself
Which of the following are examples of a proposition?
a) “Crocodiles are smaller than Alligators.”
b) “What time is it?”
c) “Pass the salt, please.”
d) “If Elvis Presley is alive, then I’m the Pope.”
e) “Fresca® is the bee's knees.”
Study these term
 Proposition – is a declarative sentence that is either true or false; it must be one or the other, and it
cannot be both.
 Compound proposition - is a proposition formed from simpler proposition using logical connectors or
some combination of logical connectors.
 Conditional statements - are those statements where a hypothesis is followed by a conclusion.
 Tautology- – is a compound statement which is true for every value of individual statements. A
statement which is true and cannot be false.
 Fallacy- the opposite of tautology is contradiction or fallacy. A compound statement which is false and
cannot be true. It is the use of invalid or otherwise faulty reasoning.
 Contingency- a compound proposition which has both some true and some false values for every value
of its propositional variables.
Discussion
Propositions are usually denoted by small letters. For example, the proposition
p: Everyone should study logic

may read as
p is the proposition “Everyone should study logic.”
If a sequence of propositions is considered, we denote the propositions by 𝑝1 ,
Example: Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not.
p: Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
q: Find a number which divides your age.
2
r: My seatmate will get a perfect score in the logic exam.
t: 3+2 =5
v: If you are a Grade 11 student , then you are a Filipino.
Solution:
p: This is a declarative sentence, and Mindanao is an island in the Philippines. Hence p is a proposition.
q: This is an imperative sentence, so it is not a proposition.
r: The statement is a declarative sentence, but whether it is true or not it will only be known after the logic exam.
Nonetheless, it can either be true or false, but not both. Hence r is a proposition.
t: The given equation is a mathematical sentence. Translated into English, the equation reads “the sum of three
and two is five”, which is a declarative sentence. It is also a true statement. Hence t is a true proposition.
v: Although v is a declarative sentence, but it is not true. There are also Grade 11 students of other nationalities.
It is not a proposition.
Propositional logic, also known as sentential logic, is that branch of logic that studies ways of combining
or altering statements or propositions to form more complicated statements or propositions. Propositional logic
largely involves studying logical connectives such as the words “and” and “or” and the rules determining the
truth-values of the propositions they are used to join, as well as what these rules mean for the validity of
arguments, and such logical relationships between statements as being consistent or inconsistent with one
another, as well as logical properties of propositions, such as being tautologically true, being contingent, and
being self-contradictory.
Now, the study of propositions is boring. We therefore now introduce several connectives which will
allow us to build up compound propositions.
A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simpler proposition using logical connectors or
some combination of logical connectors. Some logical connectors involving propositions p and/or q may be
expressed as follows:
not p
p and q
p or q
if p, then q
A proposition is simple if it cannot be broken down any further into other component propositions.
3
Example:
Simple: Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.
144 is a perfect square.
My seatmate will get a perfect score in the logic exam.
3+2 =5
Compound: The year 2016 is a leap year and the equation 𝑥 2 + 1 has no real solutions.
Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.
If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a Senior Citizen’s
card, and if you are entitled to a Senior Citizen’s card, then you are more than
60 years old.
It is not the case that it is Monday today.
Logical Connectors
Since a proposition has two possible truth values, a proposition 𝑝 would have the following truth table.
𝑝
T
F
Truth tables can also be used to display various combinations of the truth values of two propositions 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞.
The rows of the table will correspond to each truth value combination of 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞, so there will be 22 = 4 rows.
The truth table for propositions 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are as follows:
𝑝 𝑞
T T
T F
F T
F F
Similarly, suppose 𝑝, 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 are propositions. Then the truth table involving the given propositions has 23 = 8
rows, as shown below.
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
T T T
T T F
4
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
In general, a truth table involving 𝑛 propositions has 2𝑛 rows.
a. Negation - simple propositions are usually negated by either the insertion or deletion of the word “not.”
The symbol ∼ denotes not. Given a statement p, the sentence ∼ p is read not p and is defined through
its truth table
𝑝 ~𝑝
T F
F T
Example:
p: “It is snowing”.
∼ p: “It is not snowing”
q: 𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)/(𝑥 + 2) is a polynomial function

∼ q: It is not true that 𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)/(𝑥 + 2) is a polynomial function or
𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)/(𝑥 + 2) is not a polynomial function
b. A conjunction is a compound proposition which consists of two propositions joined by the connective
“and”. The propositions 𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒒 is denoted by 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 and is defined through its truth table
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
The conjunction 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 is true only when both conjuncts 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are true, as shown in its truth table.
Example:
p: Seven is greater than zero.
q: Twenty is an even number.
𝒑 ∧ 𝒒: Seven is greater than zero and twenty is an even number.
p: Timothy’s average is at least 92 and

q: Timothy is getting an A for the course.
5
𝒑 ∧ 𝒒: Timothy’s average is at least 92 and he is getting an A for the course.
c. A disjunction is a compound proposition which consists of 2 propositions joined by the connective “or.”
The propositions 𝒑 𝒐𝒓 𝒒 is denoted by 𝒑 ∨ 𝒒 and is defined through its truth table
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
The above truth table shows us that the disjunction 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 is false only when both disjuncts 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 are
false.
Example:
p: Ann is on the softball team.
q: Paul is on the football team.
𝒑 ∨ 𝒒: Ann is on the softball team or Paul is on the football team
p: Victor has a date with Liza.
q: Janree is sleeping.
r: Eumir is eating.
(𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ∨ (𝒑 ∧ 𝒓): “Either Victor has a date with Liza and Janree is sleeping, or Victor has a date with
Liza and Eumir is eating.”
d. A conditional proposition is a compound proposition which consists of 2 propositions joined by the

connective “If …then …”.
- p → q is read “If p then q” or “p implies q”, and is defined through its truth table
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 → 𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F F
The above truth table shows us that the conditional 𝑝 → 𝑞 is false only when hypothesis 𝑝 is true and
conclusion 𝑞 is false.
Example:
p: I love math
6
q: I am an engineer
p → q: If I love math, then I am an engineer.
p: Geebee is in Grade 11
q: Geebee is a senior high school student.
p → q: If Geebee is in Grade 11, then she is a senior high school student.
e. A biconditional proposition is a compound proposition which consists of 2 propositions joined by the

connective phrase “if and only if.”
they read "p if and only if q" and are denoted p ↔ q or "p iff q" and is defined through its truth table
𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
The above truth table shows us that the conditional 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is true only if the truth values are the same.
Example:
p: Classes are suspended
q: It’s raining cats and dogs
p ↔q: Classes are suspended if and only if it’s raining cats and dogs.
p: Geebee is in Grade 11
q: Geebee is a senior high school student.
p ↔ q: Geebee is in Grade 11 if and only if she is a senior high school student.
Conditional Statements
Conditional statements are those statements where a hypothesis is followed by a conclusion. It is also
known as an " If-then" statement. If the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is false, then the conditional
statement is false. Likewise, if the hypothesis is false the whole statement is false.
Suppose 𝑝 and 𝑞 are propositions. From the conditional proposition, we derive three other conditional
statements, namely its
a. Converse: 𝑞 → 𝑝
7
b. Contrapositive: ~𝑞 → ~𝑝
c. Inverse: ~𝑝 → ~𝑞
Examples:
Conditional (𝑝 → 𝑞): : If Geebee is in Grade 11, then she is a senior high school student.
State its (a) converse, (b) contrapositive, and (c) inverse statement.
a. Converse (𝑞 → 𝑝): “If Geebee is a senior high school student,

then she is in Grade 11.”
b. Contrapositive (~𝑞 → ~𝑝): “If Geebee is not a senior high school student,
then she is not in Grade 11.”
c. Inverse (~𝑝 → ~𝑞): “If Geebee is not in Grade 11, then she is not a senior
high school student.”
Let 𝑝 → 𝑞 be the political slogan: “If there are no corrupt people, then there are no poor people.” State the
converse, contrapositive, and the inverse of 𝑝 → 𝑞.
a. Converse (𝑞 → 𝑝): “If there are no poor people, then there are no corrupt people.”
b. Contrapositive (~𝑞 → ~𝑝): “If there are poor people, then there are corrupt
people.”
c. Inverse (~𝑝 → ~𝑞): “If there are corrupt people, then there are poor people.”
TAUTOLOGY, FALLACY AND CONTINGENCY
A tautology in math and in logic is a compound statement (premise and conclusion) that always produce
truth. No matter what the individual parts are, the results is a true statement. A tautology is always true and
cannot be false. The opposite of tautology is a contradiction or sometimes it is called fallacy which is the
statement is always false and cannot be true.
A contingency is a compound proposition which has both some true and some false values for every
value of its propositional variables.
Example 1.
What do you notice about each sentence below?
1. A number is even, or a number is not even.

2. Michelle Reyes passes Math or Michelle Reyes does not pass Math.
3. A Triangle is isosceles, or a triangle is not isosceles.
- Each sentence in Example 1 is the disjunction of a statement and its negation. Each of these
statements can be written in a symbolic form as p V ~p. recall that a disjunction is false if and only if
8
both statements are false; otherwise it is true. By this definition, p V ~p is always true, even when
the statement p is false or statement ~p is false.
This is illustrated in the truth table below.
P ~p p V ~p
True False True
False True True
Solution:
The compound statement p V ~p consists of the individual statements p and ~p. in the truth table above,
p V ~p is always true, regardless of the truth value of the individual statements. Therefore, we conclude that p V
~p is a TAUTOLOGY.
Definition: A compound statement that is always true regardless of the truth value of the individual statements
is defined to be TAUTOLOGY.
Example 2.
Is (p ^ q) → p a Tautology?
p q p^q (p ^ q) → p
True True True True
True False True True
False True False True
False False False True
Solution:
The compound statement (p ^ q) → p consists of individual statements p, q and p ^ q. the truth table
above shows that (p ^ q) → p is true regardless of the truth value of the individual statements. Therefore, we
conclude that (p ^ q) →p is a TAUTOLOGY.
Example 3.
Is (p v q) ^ [(~p) ^ (~q)] a Fallacy?
p q p vq ~p ~q ~p ^ ~q (p v q) ^ [(~p) ^ (~q)]
True True True False False False False
True False True False True False False
False True True True False False False
False False False True True True False
9
Solution:
As you can see every value of (p v q) ^ [(~p) ^ (~q)] is False, it is a FALLACY.
Definition: A compound statement that is always false regardless of the truth value of the individual statements
is defined to be FALLACY/CONTRADICTION.
Example 4.
Is ~A ^ B → ~(A V B) a Fallacy?
A ~A B ~A ^ B AvB ~(A v B) ~A ^ B → ~(A V B)
True False True False True False True
True False False False True False True
False True True True True False False
False True False False False True True
Solution:
As you can see from the above truth tables ~A ^ B → ~(A V B) can be true or false for all statements.
Therefore, we can conclude that ~A ^ B → ~(A V B) is a CONTINGENCY.
Example 5.
Is (A v B) ^ (~A)
A B AvB ~A (A v B) ^ (~A)
True True True False False
True False True False False
False True True True true
False False False True False
Solution:
As you can see every value of (A v B) ^ (~A) has both true and false, therefore it is CONTINGENCY.
Definition: A compound statement that has both true and false values in the truth table is defined to be
CONTINGENCY.
Note:
If you will also notice in Example 4, ~A ^ B → ~ (A V B) has both true and false. Therefore, we can conclude
that it also CONTINGENCY.
10
Activity #9 (Written Work 6)
LOGIC
Name: ______________________________ Date/Week No: _______________
Strand and Section: __________________ Score: _______________________
A. Determine whether the following statements are propositions. (1pt. each)
1. Please close the door.

2. 2 ≤ 1.
3. If a triangle has a right angle, then the triangle is called a right triangle.
4. Either a student takes a mathematics elective next semester, or he takes a
business elective next year.
5. 𝑥 + 2 = 11.
6. Circle the correct answer
B. Let 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 be the propositions 𝒑: “Victor has a date with Liza.”, 𝒒: “Janree is sleeping”, 𝒓: “Eumir is eating”,
𝒔: “Annie has a stomachache.”, 𝒕: “Annie misses the exam.”, 𝒖: “Annie receives a passing grade for the subject.”
Express the following statements in English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be. (2pts. each)
1. “Either Victor has a date with Liza or Janree is sleeping, or Eumir is eating.”
2. “Either Victor has a date with Liza, or Janree is sleeping, and Eumir is eating.”
3. 𝑞 ∨ ~𝑟
4. 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟)
5. “If Annie has a stomach ache, then she misses the exam and does not receive a
passing grade for the subject.”
C. Determine the converse, contrapositive and the inverse of the following conditional
propositions. (2pts each answer)
1. “If it is consumed in large volumes, then chocolate can be harmful to one’s health.”
2. “If Sheila will decide to enter through the front door, then she will be greeted by a
large group of press people.”
D. Determine the truth values of the propositions 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 and classify if it is a Fallacy, Contradiction, or
Contingency. (11 pts each.)
1. (𝑝 ∨ (∼ 𝑞)) → 𝑞
2. ∼ (𝑝 → 𝑞) ^ ∼ 𝑝
11
References
General Mathematics: Learmer’s Material page 240- 299

Smith, Stanley., et. Al. (2003). Algebra 2 and Trigonometry. Prentice Hall
Rosen, Kenneth H. (2008). College Algebra and Trigonometry. Addison Wesley Publishing Company.
Rosen, Kenneth H. (2008). Discrete Mathematics and Its application. New York: Mc Graw Hill Company
https://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/people/michael.wooldridge/teaching/soft-eng/lect07.pdf
https://iep.utm.edu/prop-log/
Prepared by: Checked by: Noted by:
Eloise Wilma Jaime Molina Jerome Louie Mojica Mario S. Mecate, Ph.D.
Subject Teachers Subject Lead Teacher-Mathematics 11 AVP, Basic Education/Principal
12

Isip o Talino

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Isip o Talino

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Philippine Christian University

Sampaloc 1, Dasmariñas City, Cavite 4114

MODULE IN GENERAL MATHEMATICS (GRADE 11)

LESSON 6: PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC, TAUTOLOGY, FALLACY AND CONTINGENCY

b) “What time is it?”

c) “Pass the salt, please.”

d) “If Elvis Presley is alive, then I’m the Pope.”

e) “Fresca® is the bee's knees.”

Study these term

p: Everyone should study logic

If a sequence of propositions is considered, we denote the propositions by 𝑝1 ,

Example: Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not.

p: Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.

q: Find a number which divides your age.

v: If you are a Grade 11 student , then you are a Filipino.

q: This is an imperative sentence, so it is not a proposition.

Simple: Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.

144 is a perfect square.

My seatmate will get a perfect score in the logic exam.

Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.

It is not the case that it is Monday today.

In general, a truth table involving 𝑛 propositions has 2𝑛 rows.

q: 𝑝(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)/(𝑥 + 2) is a polynomial function

𝒑 ∧ 𝒒: Seven is greater than zero and twenty is an even number.

p: Timothy’s average is at least 92 and

𝒑 ∨ 𝒒: Ann is on the softball team or Paul is on the football team

p: Victor has a date with Liza.

d. A conditional proposition is a compound proposition which consists of 2 propositions joined by the

p → q: If I love math, then I am an engineer.

q: Geebee is a senior high school student.

p → q: If Geebee is in Grade 11, then she is a senior high school student.

e. A biconditional proposition is a compound proposition which consists of 2 propositions joined by the

q: It’s raining cats and dogs

q: Geebee is a senior high school student.

p ↔ q: Geebee is in Grade 11 if and only if she is a senior high school student.

a. Converse (𝑞 → 𝑝): “If Geebee is a senior high school student,

TAUTOLOGY, FALLACY AND CONTINGENCY

1. A number is even, or a number is not even.

This is illustrated in the truth table below.

True False True

False True True

True True True False False False False

True False True False True False False

False True True True False False False

False False False True True True False

True False True False True False True

True False False False True False True

False True True True True False False

False True False False False True True

True True True False False

True False True False False

False True True True true

False False False True False

A. Determine whether the following statements are propositions. (1pt. each)

1. Please close the door.

General Mathematics: Learmer’s Material page 240- 299

Prepared by: Checked by: Noted by:

You might also like