SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING: written explanation

By Suprihadi
English Education Department Universitas Muria Kudus

First of all you have to understand and should be your mindsets that:
1. Not all statistics or numbers which are physically different are always statistically different
or significantly different.
2. To know whether or not some numbers are significantly different from each other, we have
to do a hypothesis testing or significance testing.
3. The term significant in hypothesis testing, or in statistics in general, means meaningful or
important.
Whether or not two numbers are significantly different does not depend on the distance
between the two numbers.
Example: A distance between Rp. 1.000.000,- and Rp. 5.000.000,- for a rich person, is not
significant because having Rp. 1.000.000,- and Rp. 5.000.000,- is not different,
but
Your score of 85 is significantly different from 84 although the distance is only 1. This is
because those who get 85 will get A while those who get 84 will get AB.
4. A research can be conducted if there is a problem or there are problems. Without any
problem there will be no research, because the general purpose of a research is to solve a
problem.
Example:
If the reading comprehension of the students of SMA X is low, you can see it as:
a. a problem because, for example, the ability to read is very important to get knowledge
b. not a problem at all because, for example, the students can learn to read by themselves
Whether a certain phenomenon is seen as a problem or not depends, among others, on: a)
the significance or importance if the problem is solved, and b) the knowledge of the
researcher.
5. In a research, the problem is usually called research question, problem formulation, or
statement of the problem (although it is called statement but the real form of the sentence
is question).
6. There must be a problem in a research but there is not always a hypothesis in a research: a
research may not have a hypothesis.

IMPORTANT THINGS TO UNDERSTAND IN RELATION WITH THE CONCEPT OF HYPOTHESIS AND

HYPOTHESIS TESTING
A. Origin and Definition of the word HYPOTHESIS
1. Origin
The word hypothesis comes from Late Latin or Greek words hypo, which means under
or weak, and thesis, which means truth, so that the word hypothesis can be defined as
under the truth or an assumption or a prediction of a truth. It can be a real truth, thesis,
if it is supported by empirical data or facts.

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 The plural form of hypothesis is hypotheses
2. Definitions
Further, more complete definitions of hypothesis
a. A hyphotesis is a statement about the relationship between variables that, while
logically derived from a theory, is much more specific and exact (Healey, 2009)
b. A statement about the researcher’s expectations relative to a relationship between
variables within the problem (Ary et.al., 1979).
c. A hypothesis is an educated prediction that can be tested.
A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction. It describes in concrete terms what
you expect will happen in a certain circumstance.
(Lisa Roundy: https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-hypothesis-definition-
lesson-quiz.html).
d. A hypothesis is an assumption, an idea that is proposed for the sake of argument so
that it can be tested to see if it might be true (Meriam Webster Dictionary)
e. Hipotesis atau anggapan dasar adalah jawaban sementara terhadap masalah yang
masih bersifat praduga karena masih harus dibuktikan kebenarannya. Dugaan
jawaban tersebut merupakan kebenaran yang sifatnya sementara, yang akan diuji
kebenarannya dengan data yang dikumpulkan melalui penelitian.

The words in bold are the key words in the definitions.

B. Why and when we use a HYPOTHESIS

1. A hypothesis is made after the researcher finds and formulates the problem and
reviewing the literature.
2. A hypothesis functions as guidance for the researcher to collect the relevant data which
support his hypothesis.
Example 1 (1 variable or descriptive hypothesis):
Problem: A teacher noticed that his students had difficulties to answer the
questions of the reading texts he gave.
Hypothesis: The reading comprehension of the students of SMA X is low.
Solution: His hypothesis must be tested, because a hypothesis is 1) jawaban
sementara terhadap masalah, or 2) an assumption, an idea that is
proposed for the sake of argument so that it can be tested to see if it
might be true, or 3)
an educated prediction that can be tested.
To test his hypothesis then:
a. He collects the data which are relevant to his hypothesis, that is the
reading comprehension of the students of SMA X. This can be done by
looking at the documents of the students’ reading comprehension, if
any, or by testing the students’ reading comprehension.
b. He analizes the document or the result of the reading test to find the
Mean. The Mean, for instance, is 70.

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 c. He makes criteria about level of reading comprehension achievement,
for example: (this is only an example. Please find the more valid
one)
Mean level of reading comprehension achievement
81 - 100 Very high
61 - 80 High
41 - 60 Fair
21 - 40 Low
≥20 Very low
Adapted from Arkunto (1989).

d. He makes conclusion whether his hypothesis is true (accepted) or

false (rejected). Because the Mean is 70, so his hypothesis that the
reading comprehension of the students of SMA X is low is false or
rejected. The data show that the reading comprehension of the
students of SMA X is, according to the criteria that have been
determined, high, because the Mean is 70.

Example 2 (2 variables):
Problem: A teacher noticed that the speaking skills of his students were not
satisfactory. He further noticed that they seemed to be ashamed when
they were asked to come forward to speak. He thought that his way of
teaching using Technique X might be boring and monotonous. Therefore,
he decided to change his way of teaching with Technique Y so as to
increase the speaking skills of hi students.
Hypothesis: 1. The speaking skills of the students of SMA 10 taught by using
Technique Y are better than the speaking skills of the students of
SMA 10 taught by using Technique X. (in the second statement the
speaking skills of the students of SMA 10 can be changed with those,
which is grammatically better)
or
2. The speaking skills of the students of SMA 10 taught by using
Technique X are different from the speaking skills of the students of
SMA 10 taught by using Technique Y. (the speaking skills of the
students of SMA 10 can be changed with those, which is
grammatically better)
Note:
Hypothesis no. 1 is called directional hypothesis while hypothesis no. 2 is
called non-directional hypothesis. In non-directional hypothesis a
researcher only says different, symbolized by the mathematical symbol ≠,
which may mean better (>) or worse (<). The choice between 1 and 2

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 depends on the researcher’s belief or “bravery” based on his experiences
and the available data.
The choice between 1 and 2 then leads to the type of hypothesis testing,
whether it is one-tailed or two-tailed test.
Solution: He teaches the students of SMA 10 by using Technique Y, or makes an
experiment, for a certain time, because he believes that Technique Y will
increase the speaking skills of the students.
After a certain time, he then tests the speaking skills of the students and
compares the results with the speaking skills of the students taught by
using Technique X (the previous speaking scores).
The process of comparing is called hypothesis testing or significance
testing, which will be explained afterwards.
C. Types of hypothesis
1. Based on the form and function
a. Research hypothesis or Alternative hypothesis (symbolized as Ha): is a hypothesis
which is proposed by the researcher and will be tested using null hypothesis
The research hypothesis can be more than one. If it happens, they are expressed
with H-sub-1, 2, 3, etc.: H1, H2, H3, etc.
b. Null hypothesis (symbolized as H0 H-sub-zero): a hypothesis which is used to test the
significance of the research hypothesis

2. Based on the expected finding:

a. Directional hypothesis: is a hypothesis that specifies the direction of the expected
findings.
Examples:
1) The writing skills of Class A is better (or worse) than the writing skills of Class B.
2) The number of traffic accident in 2020 is smaller (or greater) than the number of
traffic accident in 2019
3) There is a positive correlation between vocabulary mastery and reading
comprehension.
b. Non-directional hypothesis: is a hypothesis that does not specify the direction of the
expected findings
Examples:
1) The writing skills of Class A are different from the writing skills of Class B.
2) The speaking skills of the students of SMA 10 taught by using Technique X are
different from the speaking skills of the students of SMA 10 taught by using
Technique Y.
3) There is a correlation between vocabulary mastery and reading comprehension.

D. Hypothesis testing

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 Hypothesis testing is also called significance testing or test of significance. This is done to
find out whether the relationship between or among variables is significant.

1. Types of hypothesis testing (test of significance) based on the sampling distribution

a. Z Test = Test of significance of the difference between Means with large samples
(≥100): PPT 9A slide 2 and , PPT 8, which refers to Chapter 8
b. T Test = Test of significance of the difference between Means with small samples
(<100): PPT 9A slide 2 and PPT 9C
c. F Test = Test of significance among Means (at least 3): will not be the material for
Introduction to Statistics
d. X2 Test (Chi-square Test) = Test of significance between variables in nominal level
e. r Test = Test of significance of r Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient
The choice of the sampling distribution depends on the purpose of the research
and the data available.

2. Types of hypothesis testing based on the researcher’s expectation about the population
from which the sample was selected. Learn PPT 8 slide 19-20 and pages 188 – etc. of the
book.
a. One-tailed hypothesis testing: use only one side/tail (right side or left side) to be the
critical region
b. Two-tailed hypothesis testing: use both sides/tails (right side and left side) to be the
critical regions
Note:
In X2 Test, there is only one-tailed test using the right tail
ESTABLISHING THE CRITICAL REGION, ONE-TAILED TESTS VS TWO-TAILED TESTS at α
= 0.05 USING Z DISTRIBUTION (PPT 8 slide 21 and page 191 of the book)

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 Critical Regions

Two-Tailed Test
(Non-Directional

The blue-shaded areas are what so called critical regions and the point of the
intersection between the vertical lines and the horizontal lines on those areas are the
beginnings of the critical values (In Figure 8.5 above are +1.65 and -1.65).
Those types of hypothesis relate with the classifications based on the expected finding,
those are directional and non-directional hypotheses: one-tailed test is directional while
two-tailed test is non-directional.
3. How to write hypotheses in hypothesis testing

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 a. The research hypothesis proposed by the researcher, if any, has usually been written
after the literature review.
b. Those hypotheses are written in sentences.
c. In hypothesis testing, hypotheses are usually written in symbols.
d. Because in hypothesis testing we use null hypothesis, in hypothesis testing both
kinds of hypotheses are usually written in symbols.
e. In Hypothesis Testing I and II, the symbols used are:

Examples:
1) Research hypothesis:
written in sentence
The listening ability of the students taught by using audio visual media is better
than that taught by using audio media.
written in symbol
Ha: 𝑋1 > 𝑋2
𝑋1 = Mean of the listening ability of the students taught by using audio visual
media
𝑋2 = Mean of the listening ability of the students taught by using audio media
2) Research hypothesis:
written in sentence
The mortality rate this year is less than that of last year.
written in symbol
Ha: 𝑋1 < 𝑋2
𝑋1 = Mean the mortality rate this year
𝑋2 = Mean of the mortality rate last year
3) Research hypothesis:
written in sentence
The writing skills of Class A are different from the writing skills of Class B.
written in symbol
Ha: 𝑋1 ≠ 𝑋2
𝑋1 = Mean of the writing skills of Class A
𝑋2 = Mean of the writing skills of Class B

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 4) Research hypothesis
written in sentence
The learning styles of the students of EED UMK depend on the gender of the
students.
The above hypothesis needs Chi Square Test of significance (X2 test). In X2 test the
hypothesis is usually not written in mathematical symbols but in a sentence which
describes the dependency relationship between the two variables.
written in symbol
Ha: learning styles and gender are not independent (are dependent)
5) Research hypothesis:
written in sentence
There is a significant correlation between vocabulary mastery of the students of
EED UMK and their reading comprehension.
written in symbol
rxy ≠ 0
x = the vocabulary mastery of the students of EED UMK
y = the reading comprehension of the students of EED UMK

4. How to do a hypothesis testing

Healey (2009) offers a very good model of hypothesis testing called THE FIVE-STEP
MODEL FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING (p 185; PPT 8 slides 9 etc.). The model is the same,
but the contents are different between Hypothesis Testing I & II and Hypothesis Testing
IV and r Test of significance. This model can be used for organizing all hypothesis testing
(Healey, 2009: 185)

Step 1 : Making assumptions and meeting test requirements

Step 2 : Stating the null hypothesis
Step 3 : Selecting the sampling distribution and establishing the critical region
Step 4 : Computing the test statistic
Step 5 : Making decision and interpreting the results of the test

Step 1. Making Assumptions and Meeting Test Requirements.

In this step the researcher must state three assumptions about the testing situation and
the variables involved that have to be fulfilled: 1) the sample is random; 2) the level of
measurement of the data/variable is interval-ration; 3) the sampling distribution is
normal. The three assumptions are stated in abbreviated form as a mathematical model
for the test.
Examples:
1. For significance test of the difference between means (Hypothesis Testing I and II)

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 Model:
Random sampling
Level of measurement is interval-ratio
Sampling distribution is normal

2. For X2 test of significance (Hypothesis Testing IV)

Model:
Independent random samples
Level of measurement is nominal

3. For r test of significance (correlational research)

Model:
Random sampling
Level of measurement is interval-ratio
Bivariate normal distribution
Linear relationship
Homoscedasticity
Sampling distribution is normal
Step 2. Stating the Null Hypothesis
The null hypothesis is the central element in hypothesis testing because the entire
process is aimed at rejecting or failing to reject the H0.
Ussually the resesearcher believes of his research hypothesis and wants to reject the
null hypothesis. In the five-step model, the reseracher’s belief in Hypothesis Testing and
II is stated in a research hypothesis in several ways (see PPT 8 slide 19 or page 6 point
3e)
Examples:
1. For significance test of the difference between means (Hypothesis Testing I and II)
In Hypothesis Testing I & II, the null hypothesis is always a statement of “no
difference”, which is symbolized by the mathematical symbol =. Its exact form will
vary depending on the test being conducted.
H0: 𝑋1 = 𝑋2
(Ha: 𝑋 1 > 𝑋 2)
2. For X2 test of significance (Hypothesis Testing IV)
H0: The two variables are independent
(Ha: the two variables are dependent)

3. For r test of significance (correlational research)

H0: rxy = 0
(Ha: rxy ≠ 0)

Step 3. Selecting the sampling distribution and establishing the critical region
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 1. With Z distribution:
Sampling distribution = z distribution
α = 0.05, two-tailed test
Z (critical) = ± 1.96
With Z distribution, the Z (critical) has been determined and standardized depending
on the level of the alpha (α). Z (critical) is also called Z (table) to compare with
Z(obtained)
FINDING CRITICAL Z SCORES

For more detail, learn PPT 8 slides 19-20 and page 190 of your statistics book.
2. With t distribution:
Sampling distribution = t distribution
α = 0.05, one-tailed test
Degrees of freedom = (N1+N2) – 2 = …
t (critical) = ….
The degree of freedom (df) depends on the number of the sample (N1 and N2), and
the values of t(critical) depends on the α level and the df. In the example in your
statistics book (data on page 214), the α level is 0.05, the df is (42 + 37)-2 = 77. T
(critical) is also called t (table), because it is taken from table of t distribution.
3. With X2 distribution:
Sampling distribution = X2 distribution
α = 0.05
Degrees of freedom = (r – 1)(c – 1) = … (1)
X2 (critical) = …. (3.841)

The degree of freedom (df) in chi square (X2) test of significance is determined by
the formula (r – 1)(c – 1), for which r refers to number of the row while c refers to
the number of the column (Learn Hypothesis Testing IV). The value of X2 (critical) is
the intersection between the alpha level (α) and the degree of freedom (df).
The example on page 264 Table 11.3 indicates that the number of the row is 2 and
the number of the column is also 2. Therefore, the df is (2 – 1)(2 – 1) = 1, so that the
critical value of α 0.05 and df 1 is 3.841.

Distribution of Chi Square (X2)

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 4. With r distribution:
Sampling distribution = r distribution
α = 0.05, two-tailed test
Degrees of freedom = N – 2 = … (20 – 2) = 18
r (critical) = … (0.444)
N = the number of pairs

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 In correlational researches the relationship between variable X and variable Y
indicates that the value of X varies in line with the value of Y. Based on the variation
of the relationship, there are 3 possible correlations between X and Y.

a. Positive correlation : when the value of X increases, the value of Y also

increases
b. Negative correlation: when the value of X increases, the value of Y decreases or

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 when the value of X decreases, the value of Y increases
c. No correlation : when the variation of X and Y has no plot: when the
value of X increases, the value of Y sometimes decreases but sometimes
increases
In hypothesis testing, whether the correlation of X and Y is positive or negative
determines the type of the test, whether it is one-tailed test (directional) or two-
tailed test (non-directional).
Examples:
Hypothesis Type of hypothesis testing
There is a significant positive correlation between A One-tailed test using the right
and B (upper) tail
There is a significant negative correlation between One-tailed test using the left
A and B (lower) tail
There is a significant correlation between A and B Two-tailed test

Step 4. Computing the test statistics

This is the easiest step in hypothesis testing and in statistics in general. However, of
course, you must have basic mathematical skills such as adding, subtracting, multiplying,
dividing, pulling up root, especially the square root (e.g. √16 = 4). We should not
memorize the formulas for the computations, because we are not statisticians.
1. With Z distribution:
a. In Hypothesis Testing I

(PPT 8 slide 15 or Formula 8.1 on page 184)

b. In Hypothesis Testing II
X1 X2
Formula 9.2 Z (obtained ) 
 X X

Formula 9.4

(PPT 9B or Formula 9.2 and 9.4 on page 210 for

more detail explanation)

2. With t distribution:
The formula to compute the value of t(obtained): refer to PPT 9C slides 15-18 and page
215 Formula 9.5 and 9.6.

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 Dede-numerator

Before we can use the formula above, we have to calculate the standard error of the
difference between two means or the de-numerator (number below the line in a
fraction) first using the following formula:

SS  SS  1 1 
= n  n  2  n  n 
1 2

1 2 1 2

SS1 = Sum-square of sample 1

SS2 = Sum-square of sample 2
n1 = the number of sample 1
n2 = the number of sample 2

3. With X2 distribution:
The formula to calculate the X2(obtained) is as follows (refer to PPT 10 to use this
formula)
  fo  fe 2 
X 2  


 fe 

4. With r distribution:
r = relationship
a. The formula to calculate Pearson Product Moment coefficient correlation rxy for
interval-ratio data is as follows (refer to PPT 11 slides 9-16 to use this formula).

We can also use t distribution for testing Pearson’s r for significance (see pp.380-
381).
b. The formula to calculate Spearman rho (rank) Correlation Coefficient for ordinal data
(refer to PPT 11 slides 17-26 to use this formula).

6 D 2
  1
N ( N 2  1)

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 = The Spearman rho correlation coefficient
= the sums of the squares of the difference
N = the number of cases

Step 5. Making decision and interpreting the results of the test

This is the most difficult step in hypothesis testing. Making wrong decision and
interpretation will lead to wrong and bias results of a research.
1. With Z distribution:
2. With t distribution:
3. With X2 distribution:
4. With r distribution:

5. Choosing between Hypothesis Testing I and Hypothesis Testing II

In Hypothesis Testing I (the one-sample case), the concern is with the testing of the
difference between a sample value and a population value, while In Hypothesis Testing
II (the two-sample case), the concern is with the testing of the difference between two
separate populations

E. Related Concepts to hypothesis testing that should be learnt

1. The concept of level of significance (α) and degree of freedom (df): learn my feedback
for Assignment 1 & 2
2. Reading tables of sampling distributions to determine the critical values. Therefore,
these tables are usually called tables of critical values:
a. Table of z distribution: Table 8.2 and Table 8.3 p 190 or on PPT 8
b. Table of t distribution: Appendix B of your statistics book
c. Table of Chi Square (X2) distribution: Appendix C of your statistics book
d. Table of r distribution as follows (because there is none in your statistics book)
e. In determining the critical values we have to:
a. Determine the type of the hypothesis testing: one-tailed or two-tailed (except for X2
distribution in which there is no concept of one and two-tailed test of significance)
b. The alpha (α) level: 0.10, 0.05, 0.025, or else
c. The degree of freedom (df).
d. The intersection of the level of significance (α) and the degree of freedom is the
critical value.
Example:
0.497 is the critical value of r distribution for one-tailed test with α 0.05 and degree of
freedom (df) 10, because 0.497 is the intersection of α 0.05 and degree of freedom (df)
10.

Tets of significance directed and non-directed

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Types of test of significance
Critical region

EXPLANATION OF HYPOTHESTING 1
FINAL REMARKS

an idea or explanation for something that is based on known facts but has not yet been proved
(Cambridge Dictionary: https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/hypothesis)

A tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences

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