Review of Related Literature on Effects of Poor Surface Drainage Structure

Drainage is simply defined as the natural or artificial removal of surface and subsurface water from a
catchment area. The surface drainage in roads is defined as a process of removing runoff water from road
surface and directing it towards a drain to be disposed of away from road in a water course or open area ( O'
Flaherty, 2013). They must be properly designed, built, and maintained. O’Flaherty stated that the drainage
system is an integral component of road pavement and therefore its design cannot be undertaken in isolation
from the road geometric design. When a road fails, whether it's asphalt, concrete, or gravel, inadequate
drainage often is a major factor. Poor designs can direct water back onto the road or keep it from drainage
away. Many researchers demonstrate that poor drainage can adversely affect pavement performance.
(Rokade et al., 2013) reported that inadequate drainage leads to a major cause of pavement distress.

It is very essential to have adequate drainage in the design of highways to function properly since it affects
the highway’s serviceability and usable life. Collier (2013) in his study emphasized that a rainwater drainage
system should be designed to collect and convey runoff water generated within a catchment area during and
after rainfall events, for safe discharge into a receiving watercourse. Additionally, Finn et al (2014) stated that
drains are normally located and shaped to minimize the potential traffic hazards and accommodate the
anticipated surface water flows. Suitable drainage dimensioning always contributes to the bearing capacity of
the pavement and to road lifetime.

Requirements of Adequate Drainage structure

In a research on drainage on roads by Singh, Navpreet and Nitin (2014), a well-designed and well
maintained road drainage is important in order to: minimize the environmental impact of road runoff on the
receiving water environment, ensure the speedy removal of surface water to enhance safety and minimize
disruption to road users and to maximize the longevity of the road surface and associated infrastructures. Ger
Finn, et al (2014) designed the guidelines for road drainage which stressed that drainage is a basic
consideration in the establishment of road geometry and in general this means that the drainage should meet
the following: cross falls should be a minimum of 2.5% on carriageways, with increased cross falls of up to
5.0% on hard shoulders draining to filter drains; longitudinal gradients should not be less than 0.5% on kerbed
roads; flat on areas should be avoided and consideration of surface water drainage is particularly important at
rollovers, roundabouts, and junctions; outfall levels must be achievable; the spacing of road gullies should be
sufficient to remove surface water whilst achieving an acceptable width of channel flow.

According to Bath & North East Somerset Council (2016), Highway drainage should fulfill the following
objectives: prevent flooding, ponding and seepage, and keep the carriageway, cycleway and footway as free of
standing water as possible; ensure surface water falling on the highway enters the drainage system or natural
watercourse as speedily as possible; keep the underlying road structure as dry as possible; prevent injury or
damage caused by hazardous surface water; prevent highway surface water
flooding adjacent properties and preventing blockages in associated highway drainage systems with
consequential flooding.

Effects of poor drainage structure

Bad drainage has damage and loss in serviceability of both rigid and flexible types of pavements much
greater when the structural section contains free water. The quality of drainage is an important parameter
which affects the performance of the highway pavement. Warati and Demissie, 2015 states that road surface
drainage to be inadequate due insufficient road file, insufficient drainage structures provision, improper
maintenance and lack of proper interconnections between the road and drainage infrastructures thereby
resulting in damages to road surface material and flooding in the area.

Getachew et al (2015) based their research on the assessment of the effect of urban road surface
drainage. They: assessed the pavement damage due to improper drainage, identified areas most prone to
flooding problems, assessed the existing condition of road and surface drainage infrastructure, examined the
impacts of road surface drainage structures integration on road performance and related social as well as
environment issues. They generally, observed that the road surface drainage found to be inadequate due to
insufficient road profile, insufficient drainage structures provision, improper maintenance and lack of proper
interconnections between the road and drainage infrastructures thereby resulting in the damages to road
surface material and flooding in the area.
 Owuama et al (2014) studied Sustainable Drainage System for Road Networking, the research was aimed
at suggesting an alternative and sustainable drainage system which is a trenchless drain comprising
absorption unit and grass cover. It was found that the technology would provide a cheap, aesthetic and
effective method of disposing road surface runoff with minimal distress to users and minimal damage to the
environment. It was concluded that trenchless drains dispose of accumulated surface water easily and
introduces aesthetics to the environs, and an antidote to mosquito breeding which consequently reduces the
incidence of malaria.

According to the review, poor drainage facilities on highway structures have many devastating effects on
the economy of users, as both functional and structural failures due to poor drainage increase travel time,
reducing productivity of a community or nation. Due to illnesses such as Malaria fever caused by mosquito
breeding in stagnant water around poorly drained pavements in residential areas, there is an increase in the
number of accidents resulting in death of many etc. Poor drainage conditions have a negative impact on roads.
It contributes to road failure in a variety of ways. A proper road drainage system extends the life of the road.
However, a faulty drainage system leads to the failure of the road at its early edge. Therefore effective road
drainage should be taken into consideration during construction of roads. Thus, proper design, construction
and maintenance practices should be adopted to keep roads drained.

References:

C.A. O’Flaherty, Surface drainage for roads. Chapter 7, Highways, 4th Ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,
UK, 2013, pp. 185–209.

G. Finn, D. Buckley, K. Kelly, J. McDaid, D. Mullaney, J. Power, Guidelines for Road Drainage, Technical
Document, Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government, 2014.

Getachew KebedeWarati, Tamene AdugnaDemissie. Assessment of the Effect of Urban Road Surface
Drainage: A Case Study at GinjoGuduruKebele of Jimma Town. International Journal of Science,
Technology and Society. Vol. 3, No. 4, 2015, pp. 164-173. doi: 710.11648/j.ijsts.20150304.20

J. Collier, Stormwater Drainage Manual Wanchi, Hong Kong: Drainage Services Department, 43/F Revenue
Tower, Sgloucester Road, 2013.

Owuama C. O, Uja E, & Kingsley C. O. (2014). Sustainable Drainage System for Road
Networking. International Journal of Innovation, Management and Technology, 5(2), 83-86.

Singh, R. R., Navpreet, K. and Er.Nitin, G. (2014). Drainage on roads. International Journal of
Progresses in Civil Engineering. Vol. 1(1). Pp. 2394 – 4684

Warati, G. K., & Demissie, T. A. (2015). Assessment of the effect of urban road surface drainage: a case study
at Ginjo Guduru Kebele of Jimma Town. International Journal of Science, Technology and Society (IJSTS),
3(4), 164-173.