Breakout Prevention: William H. Emling, General Manager-Process and Product Development, Millcraft SMS

Chapter 19
Breakout Prevention
William H. Emling, General Manager—Process and Product Development, Millcraft SMS
Services LLC
19.1 Introduction
Undoubtedly, a breakout is the most detrimental event associated with the continuous casting
process. In addition to being serious safety hazards, breakouts also result in lost production time
and significant yield penalties. When these factors are considered in conjunction with the
inevitable damage to the casting machine, it can be estimated that a “typical” breakout for a con-
ventional slab caster can result in costs approaching US$200,000.100 This loss of revenue is ample
justification for the development of breakout detection and prevention strategies, which can poten-
tially provide full payback by successfully detecting a single breakout.
Breakouts incurred in smaller cast sections may not be as costly; nevertheless, they are equally as
undesirable. While real-time breakout alarm systems are mostly referenced for conventional slab
casters, bloom and billet producers have utilized mold instrumentation to enhance lubrication and
heat transfer, and to improve surface quality. Information acquired from these studies has, in turn,
led to reduced occurrences of breakouts. Recently, breakout prevention systems for thin-slab cast-
ers have emerged and have shown much promise.
The objective of this chapter is to review the various methods that have been proposed for the
detection and prevention of breakouts caused either by a progressive decline in mold heat removal
or by a rapid deterioration of mold lubrication. While the physical mechanisms by which these
types of breakouts occur are reviewed, the focus of this chapter is placed on the instrumentation
required to monitor mold heat transfer and lubrication, and the control logic used to alert caster
operators of an impending breakout. The relative advantages or disadvantages of each system will
be discussed.
19.2 Review of Mold Heat Transfer

Within the entire field of continuous casting, the mold must be regarded as the heart of the oper-
ation. The efficiency of heat extraction in the mold is ultimately responsible for the surface qual-
ity of the cast product and the productivity of the machine. If the rate of heat removal from the
strand is excessive and/or uneven, thermally-induced stresses will result and may ultimately cause
longitudinal cracks in the newly solidified shell. This phenomenon has been reviewed in detail by
Brimacombe and Sorimachi1 and by Nakato et al.2 In contrast to the difficulties associated with
excessive heat removal, insufficient heat removal can lead to a relatively weak shell, which may
bulge or tear upon exiting the mold. It is thus apparent that mold thermal monitoring can provide
valuable information to ensure that an optimal heat flow is maintained.
Copyright © 2003, The AISE Steel Foundation, Pittsburgh, PA. All rights reserved. 1
Casting Volume
The transfer of heat between the strand and the mold wall can be affected by a variety of casting
parameters. While this section briefly acknowledges these parameters, the interested reader may
refer to Refs. 3–9 for a thorough discussion on the relationship between casting parameters, heat
flow and shell growth. The casting variables, which directly affect mold heat transfer, include:
• Air gap formation: Due to shrinkage of the strand during solidification, a gap
forms between the shell and the mold wall. While it is the function of the liquefied
mold flux to displace the air and thus facilitate heat transfer, the thermal barrier pre-
sented by the air gap can account for as much as 80% of the resistance to heat
between the strand and the cooling water.10
• Mold flux crystallization: Since heat is removed more efficiently through the liq-
uid flux layer than it is through the solidified layer adjacent to the mold wall, heat
transfer is increased as crystallization temperature decreases. This relationship is
illustrated in Fig. 19.1.11
• Mold flux viscosity: As suggested by Fig. 19.1, the viscosity of the liquid flux is
inversely related to heat transfer. Presumably, the improved fluidity of low-viscos-
ity mold slags allows for a more complete filling of the air gap. Experimental inves-
tigations have shown that mold fluxes with a viscosity of 3.2 poise (measured at
1300°C) provide approximately 15% lower heat transfer than fluxes with a viscos-
ity of 1.5 poise.
With respect to the relationship between mold fluxes and heat transfer, it
must be noted that increased heat transfer is not always desirable. This is particu-
larly true during the casting of peritectic carbon grades, which require retarded heat
extraction rates to prevent cracking. For example, Mahapatra et al.9 noted that dur-
ing the casting of 0.17–0.23% carbon grades, an increase in mold flux viscosity
decreased heat removal rates and consequently reduced the frequency of slab crack-
ing by 90%.
A similar relationship between excessive heat transfer and longitudinal cor-
ner cracking in low-carbon aluminum-killed steels exists, as shown in Fig. 19.2.9
The intimate and complex relationship between mold flux characteristics and heat
transfer is addressed in detail by Kyoden et al.,11 Ogibayashi et al.,12 Tsai and Mas-
tervich,13 and Emi.14
• Steel chemistry: As illustrated in Fig. 19.3,15 mold heat transfer reaches a minimum
for 0.10 %-carbon steels. The reduced heat flow for these steel grades can be attrib-
uted to the shrinkage of the shell as it undergoes the δ to γ phase transformation.
1900
Heat flux (kW/m2)
1775
1650
Fig. 19.1 Mold flux crystallization tem-
perature can influence the rate of mold
heat transfer. From Ref. 11. viscosity (at 1300˚C)
1525
1.0 - 1.5 poise
3.2 poise
1400
800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150
Crystallization temp. (˚C)
2 Copyright © 2003, The AISE Steel Foundation, Pittsburgh, PA. All rights reserved.
Breakout Prevention
1600
1500
Heat flux (kW/m2)
1400 Fig. 19.2 Longitudinal corner cracking

can result from excessive mold heat
transfer. From Ref. 9.
1300
1200
0.85 0.90 0.95 1.0 1.05
Casting speed (m/min)
Thus, under identical casting conditions, 0.10 %-carbon grades will have thinner
shells upon exiting the mold than either low- or high-carbon grades.
• Casting speed: Increases in casting speed result in a higher throughput of steel
through the mold, and, therefore, the heat flow is increased. Typical values indicate
that a 0.1-in/mm increase in speed causes an increased mold heat flux (kW/m2) of
approximately 5%.5,16 If, however, the heat transfer is expressed in terms of total
heat energy removed per kilogram (kcal/kg) of steel cast, then the increased speed
will result in a decrease of the total heat removal.
• Oscillation frequency: The oscillation frequency has a significant effect on heat
transfer. Increasing the frequency by 50% (e.g., from 120 to 180 cpm) results in
approximately 15% higher heat flux.16
• Superheat: Raising the liquid steel’s superheat by 20°C increases the heat transfer
through the mold wall 6–8%.16 While this effect may be negligible considering the
small variation in superheats observed in practice, the superheat does directly
impact shell strength, since it must be eliminated before solidification can begin.
1850
Mold heat flux (kW/m2)
1650
Fig. 19.3 Carbon content influences the

efficiency of mold heat transfer. From Ref.
1450 15.
study at pilot plant
bench-scale caster study
1250
0 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Carbon, wt%
Casting Volume
Therefore, increased superheat will ultimately be manifested as a reduced shell

thickness.
• Mold taper: Due to the relatively poor contact efficiency between the narrow faces
of a slab casting mold and the strand, these faces remove 4–5% less heat than the
broad faces during steady state operation.17 The heat removal efficiency is even
lower when casting medium-carbon (peritectic) grades.
• SEN clogging: Preferential clogging in only one port of a submerged entry nozzle
results in biased flow toward one narrow face. This flow pattern causes non-uniform
heat removal and may ultimately lead to increased thermal stresses and uneven shell
growth; which may, in turn, result in surface cracking or strand rupture.18
19.3 Breakout Prevention Schemes Using Heat Transfer

Relationships
Perhaps the most direct method of determining mold heat transfer is to simply monitor the tem-
perature differential (∆T) between the inlet and the outlet cooling water flows for each mold face.
However, as discussed by Shipman and Gilles,19 this direct approach can be misleading. For exam-
ple, during steady-state operation, the water temperature differential is inversely proportional to the
water flow rate. Therefore, random variations and drifting of water flow rates could imply heat
removal problems that may not exist. Also, the fact that water flow rates per unit area are often
higher on mold narrow faces can complicate direct comparisons of mold wall heat transfer effi-
ciencies.
From another perspective, if the water flow rate is maintained constant and the mold size is
changed to expose more of the mold surface to the liquid steel, then both the ∆T and the heat flux
will change. Under these circumstances, an extensive series of calibration curves would be
required to transform ∆T values into meaningful heat flow measurements. For these reasons, it is
evident that direct monitoring of inlet and outlet cooling water temperature differentials is not an
effective method of quantifying mold heat transfer.
A more appropriate method of predicting heat transfer-related breakouts is to monitor the amount
of heat removed through the mold walls. Based on historical data, a minimum heat removal crite-
rion can then be determined such that an adequate shell thickness is established prior to strand
withdrawal.
The total heat removal that occurs in the mold is the cumulative effect of the elimination of super-
heat, the evolution of heat of fusion, and the sensible heat losses that are incurred beyond solidifi-
cation. While each of these individual components can be defined algebraically, it is only necessary
to monitor the total heat removal in order to detect the potential for breakout. The heat removal can
be defined either as the “specific heat removal” that is measured in the units calories/kg of steel
cast, or as the “heat flux” through the mold wall that is measured in terms of calories/m2-second,
or kW/m2. The heat flux (QA), or time-heat removal per unit area of mold surface, is mathemati-
cally defined as:
Cp rw w DT
QA = (Eq. 19.1)
A
where:
QA = heat removal per unit area (cal/cm2-sec; kW/m2)
Cp = specific heat of water (1.0 cal/g-°C)
ρw = density of water (1 g/cm3)
Breakout Prevention
100
heat
removal
Relative mold heat removal, %
80
Casting speed, m/min.

breakout
60
Fig. 19.4 Decline of heat removal preced-
ing a steady-state casting breakout. From
40 2.0 Ref. 17.
speed
1.5
20 1.0
0.5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40
Time, min.
w = cooling water flow rate (l/sec)

∆T = cooling water inlet to outlet temperature differential (°C)
A = exposed mold face area (cm2)
Equation 19.1 determines the heat flux for each mold face as a function of the cooling water tem-
perature differential and flow rate, and the area of the mold face. For accurate interpretation of the
mold performance, it is essential that the heat flux for each mold face be determined and moni-
tored separately. This is necessary because the total mold heat transfer may be greater than the
minimum acceptable value—even though the heat flux for one individual face may be dangerously
low. These circumstances could occur, for instance, during breakouts due to a loss of mold taper.
The value of the heat flux parameter QA provides an indication of the heat removal efficiency to
the strand operator and allows him to take corrective action (reduce the casting speed) if neces-
sary. An excellent example of the ability of a heat flux-monitoring scheme to predict breakouts,
caused by sufficient shell growth, is presented in Fig. 19.4.17
This figure illustrates that, unlike the rapid onset of sticker-type breakouts, insufficient heat trans-
fer-induced breakouts are preceded by a period of several minutes in which the heat removal grad-
ually declines. This characteristic, which was recognized as early as 1972 by Koenig,20 allows for
the early detection of their occurrence by simply monitoring water inlet and outlet temperatures
and water flow rates as required by equation 19.1. The gradual onset also defines the boundary
conditions for a computer-controlled breakout detection system. In particular, the data acquisition
system need only employ a relatively slow scan/update rate, but its control logic must be capable
of monitoring the heat removal trend for as much as a full hour at a time. A complete description
of the remote measurement sensors and control logic used by Bethlehem Steel Corp. is provided
in their U.S. patent.19
The heat flux data generated by the evaluation of equation 19.1 can either be interpreted in
absolute values or as normalized heat flux values relative to steady-state operation. In either case,
the heat flux data must be assimilated into a database to determine the minimum permissible heat
removal, in order to ensure adequate shell strength at mold exit. As described in Gilles’ paper,17
the interpretation of heat flux data from previous breakouts at Bethlehem Steel has resulted in the
establishment of a minimum heat removal criterion for the prevention of breakouts. The relation-
ship employed by the control system at Bethlehem is based on the minimum required mold heat
removal per length of mold wall perimeter. The relationship used is:
È a Vc Cp DT w t r Vc ˘
Qmin = F Í + ˙
Î 60 120 (w + t) ˚ (Eq. 19.2)
Casting Volume
where:
Qmin = minimum mold heat removal (kW/m)
F = correction factor as described in text
a = constant derived through analysis of previous breakouts (a = 110.7)
Vc = casting speed (m/min)
Cp = specific heat of liquid steel (0.19 cal/g-°C)
∆T = liquid steel superheat (Ttundish – Tliquidus, °C)
w = mold width (cm)
t = mold thickness (cm)
ρ = liquid steel density (g/cm3)
The correction factor (F) is an experimentally-derived parameter that accounts for the contact effi-
ciency between the strand and the mold wall, Thus, F depends upon the steel grade (carbon con-
tent) and the mold face being considered (compensation for inherently less contact and lower heat
transfer efficiencies on the narrow faces). In this context, the correction factor also incorporates a
conversion to allow Qmin to be presented in kW/m instead of kCal/m-sec.
Evaluation of equation 19.2 as a function of casting speed provides a plot of the form shown in Fig.
19.5.5,17 This relationship ultimately informs the strand operator of the maximum possible casting
speed for a given rate of mold heat removal to ensure that a sufficiently strong solidification shell
will be formed.
19.4 Requirements for Alternative Techniques of

Breakout Prevention
While continuous monitoring of mold heat removal can provide an effective means of detecting the
gradual development of breakout conditions, the response time is insufficient to indicate a rapid
onset of steel shell ripping or tearing. As the continuous casting process has matured, the distribu-
tion in the types of breakouts incurred has changed dramatically from heat transfer-related to the
present-day predominance of mold sticking (see Table 19.1).22
A recent focus for steelmakers has been the direct linking of casting and primary rolling opera-
tions. To attain the necessary productivity and strand surface temperatures, emphasis has ultimately
1500
Mold heat removal, qmin (kW/m)
1250
Fig. 19.5 For a given casting speed, a 1000

minimum mold heat removal term can
be calculated. From Ref. 17. computed minimum
750
500
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Casting speed, m/min.
Breakout Prevention
Table 19.1 Types of Breakouts and Their Predominance
Breakout Type Predominance Phenomenon
Shell sticking 79% The shell constrained by the mold ruptures at the
meniscus portion, and the molten steel flows out
of the ruptured portion immediately under the mold.
Cracks 17% The thin portions of the shell caused by the delay of
solidification in slab corners or oscillation marks
rupture immediately under the mold.
Scum entrapment 4% The thin portions of the shell caused by the delay of
solidification due to scum entrapment rupture
immediately under the mold.
been placed on high-speed casting. As casting speeds are increased to meet these objectives, shell
thickness (and thus strength) is reduced; and copper surface temperatures have increased. Oscilla-
tion modes have also been developed for these higher speeds to ensure adequate mold flux con-
sumption at frequencies in excess of 200 cpm. New generations of lubricants, having high melting
rates, low viscosity and/or low crystallization tendencies have been developed.23–25
With high-productivity casting, new mold copper alloys and surface plating have become neces-
sary both to improve the useful life of the coppers and to prevent star cracking of the strand sur-
face.26 Switching from AgCu to CrZrCu mold alloys can add approximately 40°C to mold hot face
temperatures, and coating the mold surface with a multilayer plating can contribute an additional
44°C.27 These relationships are critical since, when hot-face temperatures exceed 350°C, strand-
to-copper sticking has been shown to occur.25 Furthermore, many of today’s high-productivity
machines routinely exchange tundishes or submerged entry nozzles “on the fly” during normal
operations. These transient operations inevitably lead to unstable periods of casting speed and
mold level control. The process of lubrication is thus severely strained, enhancing the probability
of sticking.28
In the case of plate grade casters, which are typically required to cast at low throughput rates for
metallurgical reasons, sticking is often associated with poor performance of the mold flux.29 This
is also true for higher-carbon steels cast in slab, bloom and billet molds—which are typically cast
at relatively low temperatures due to their lower liquidus temperatures.
The mechanism of sticking and the instrumentation and control strategies employed to detect stick-
ers are reviewed in the following section.
19.4.1 Proposed Mechanisms for Sticking

The literature contains several explanations for mold sticking. For instance, Nippon Steel30
reported detecting a carburized structure in the steel shell near the origination point of the sticker.
It is believed that this structure forms because of direct contact with unmelted mold flux at initial
solidification. The presence of molten metal at the meniscus, which has a high carbon concen-
tration (and, thus, a low melting temperature) prohibits proper shell growth and repair during the
negative stripping cycle. Small holes have been observed in the surface of the stuck shell (possibly
the sites of entrapped solid mold flux or CO evolution during solidification30). Tsuneoka et al. and
Sorimachi et al.32 have detected evidence of copper or nickel diffusion to the surface of the shell,
resulting from direct contact with the mold wall.
Wolf33 and Dauby et a1.34 refer to the delicate balance between lubrication and the oscillation para-
meters. The mold flux melting rate must be fast enough to generate a sufficient reservoir of liquid
Casting Volume
mold slag
flux rim
mold
hot spot
Fig. 19.6 Schematic illustra-

tion of the initiation of stick-
ing as proposed by Mimura.
From Ref. 31.
liquid
steel shell
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
slag, which is continuously drained during the positive stripping time. Hence, the design of the
oscillation practice should consider the mold flux’s melting characteristics, and vice versa.
Work conducted by Mimura at the University of British Columbia31 concluded that mold level
rises, such as those that occur during transient speed operations, can promote the initiation of a
sticker. Fig. 19.6 shows that if the meniscus rises, a notch begins to form in the shell due to the
interfacial tension between the shell and the mold flux rim. Subsequently, when the flux rim moves
downward, it contacts the shell at a position above the notch, and the shell sticks to the mold flux
rim. During the following upstroke motion of the mold, tensile forces on the shell cause a rupture
at the deep notch, which is the hottest and weakest point of the strand. To minimize this effect,
Mimura proposed using a low-melting-point mold flux and maintaining a deep flux pool.
Emi14 has proposed yet another theory for the formation of a sticker. As illustrated in Fig. 19.7, this
theory suggests that if the solid flux rim becomes large enough, a rise in the meniscus level causes
contact with the flux rim and results in an obstruction to the infiltration of molten flux. Further,
Emi maintains that the flux rim becomes buoyant, separating from the solid film next to the mold
wall. This action subsequently allows direct contact between liquid steel and the mold wall.
The previous explanations relate to situations in which there is a loss of liquid lubrication between
the shell and the mold. In contrast, Emling et al.35 described a different mechanism for sticking,
caused by liquid steel penetration into the gap between the narrow and broad faces of the mold.
Despite dynamic clamping systems, repeated width changing can lead to excessive abrasion or
scratching of mold coppers, resulting in larger openings. On occasion, when filling the mold sub-
sequent to a tundish change, liquid steel can splash or flow into the corner gap. A small fin can
form, restricting strand withdrawal. Eventually, the shell rips, allowing additional liquid steel to
penetrate the gap. Each time the shell rips and more steel enters the gap, resistance to withdrawal
increases. Ultimately, the rupture can reach the bottom of the mold, resulting in a breakout. These
“hanger” breakouts are characterized by rapid, sharp tears and can occur despite having excellent
lubrication and oscillation conditions. This type of breakout has also been described by Delhalle et
al.16 and Mukai et al.30 and has likewise been attributed to steel seepage into the mold corners.
Breakout Prevention
mold
flux rim
mold slag
liquid
steel shell
Fig. 19.7 Schematic illustration of the initiation of sticking as proposed by Emi. From Ref. 14.
Fig. 19.8 illustrates the typical appearance of a sticking-related breakout shell. The defect is char-
acterized by a V-shaped oscillation mark pattern that emanates from the initiation point. As a result
of the accelerated ripping and healing process, the pitch of the oscillation marks on the skin is
markedly reduced.36 As indicated in Fig. 19.8, the sticker can originate on the broad face (Type I)
or near the narrow face corner (Type II).
Since sticker-type breakouts are the most common, the literature includes considerable reference
to mold instrumentation for the detection of the effectiveness of mold lubrication. The application
of friction monitoring and thermal monitoring for this purpose is reviewed in the following sec-
tions.
Type I Type II
Fig. 19.8 Schematic representation of broad face and narrow sticking breakout shells. From Ref. 36.
Casting Volume
F F F
visc. po % taper
vis wde ld
co r
sit mo er
y steel grade tap
Fig. 19.9 The degree of friction (F)
mold friction can be influ- mold related to speed
F man F
enced by several casting
auto level casting
parameters. From Ref. parameters
39. time n speed
tio st
cil
la super heat cle eel
os an
F F F
1530˚C
neg. strip temp. Al2O3 in powder
19.5 Friction Monitoring Schemes

The concept of monitoring mold friction to detect and thus prevent breakouts stems from the basic
relation that increased friction between the strand and mold is caused by poor lubrication. In turn,
insufficient lubrication is the predominant source of poor surface quality and, in the extreme case,
sticker-type breakouts. As with mold heat transfer, mold friction is affected by a variety of casting
parameters.37,38 These relationships have been addressed in detail in previous publications105 and
will be only briefly reviewed here.
The casting parameters that directly affect the friction generated between the strand and the oscil-
lating mold are presented in Fig. 19.9, which is derived from work performed by the Centre de
Recherches Metallurgiques (CRM).39 The individual frames in the figure indicate the manner in
which friction measurement is affected by mold flux behavior, steel grade, steel cleanliness, cast-
ing speed, mold taper, superheat in the mold, mold oscillation and mold level control.
• Mold flux viscosity: The friction incurred between the strand and the mold is inti-
mately related to the viscosity and crystallization temperature of the mold flux. Typ-
ically, friction increases with decreasing viscosity and increasing crystallization
temperature.
• Steel grade: As is the case with mold heat transfer3,40,41 shrinkage associated with
the δ to γ phase transformation reduces mold and strand contact and therefore
reduces mold friction.
• Mold taper: Due to variation in the contact area and clamping pressure on the
strand, mold friction increases with increasing taper.
• Casting speed: For a given mold flux composition, there exists an optimum cast-
ing speed where the friction is minimized (lubrication is maximized).
• Steel cleanliness: Increased alumina contents in the liquid steel ultimately result in
alumina pickup in the mold flux. Since alumina pickup affects both the viscosity
and crystallization temperature of mold fluxes, steel cleanliness can have a direct
effect on mold friction.
Breakout Prevention
• Mold superheat: Mairy et a1.39 have shown that mold friction increases markedly
as superheat decreases. The relative friction at metal temperatures of 1526°C is
approximately three times greater than that observed at 1537°C. The instantaneous
variation in mold friction is also greater at lower metal temperatures.
• Oscillation: During the negative stripping phase of the oscillation cycle, the differ-
ence in speed between the strand and the mold wall creates a shear stress across the
lubrication film. The mold friction level therefore increases as the negative stripping
ratio increases.36
• Mold level control: Because the flow of liquid mold flux into the gap is less effi-
cient in the presence of mold level fluctuations, maintaining a quiet mold surface
can reduce mold friction.
Since mold friction is dependent on such a large number of casting parameters, efforts to correlate
friction readings to specific casting conditions are complicated. Indeed, Scheller et al.42 have indi-
cated that they have been unable to establish a relationship between mold friction and slab surface
quality. Similar difficulties arise when attempting to predict breakout conditions.
Mold friction can be monitored either by accelerometers or load cells attached directly to the mold,
or by strain gauges located on the oscillator shaft. These devices are discussed individually in the
following sections.
19.5.1 Accelerometers
Perhaps the most widely known use of accelerometers for mold friction monitoring is the ML Tek-
tor system developed at CRM.37,39,43,44 This accelerometer-based friction monitoring system cen-
ters around a piezoelectric transducer attached directly to the mold wall. The system works like
this: The mechanical vibrations transmitted through the mold are convened to discrete electrical
pulses by the accelerometer. These electrical signals are, in turn, assimilated by a computerized
data acquisition facility. The signal generated by the accelerometer is directly related to friction
and, after some data processing, yields a relative friction factor (F). This factor ranges from 0 to
100%.
While the ML Tektor has been extensively used to evaluate the suitability of mold fluxes and other
casting parameters, the system has achieved only limited success at breakout detection. Specifi-
cally, the system is capable of detecting breakouts caused by gradual increases in friction (due to
excessive A12O3 pickup in the mold flux). However, it is generally unable to detect the rapid onset
of a sticker and provide the operator with sufficient warning to prevent the breakout. While auto-
mated control can improve the response time to sticking conditions, the accelerometer-based sys-
tems are as yet unable to detect a high enough percentage of stickers.
Nippon Steel’s system can monitor the effect of a variety of casting parameters. However, the fric-
tion monitoring alone is able to predict only 60% of observed sticker breakouts. For this reason,
some companies employ both thermocouple instrumentation and accelerometers to obtain the
potential benefits of each. In the final analysis, it is evident that accelerometer systems are cur-
rently less effective at detecting sticker-type breakouts than thermocouple-based systems. How-
ever, when the ML Tektor was first introduced in the late 1970s, it was the only available breakout
detection system, and as such was revolutionary in scope.
AK Steel has reported the use of accelerometers on the oscillator assembly for predictive moni-
toring. Special seismic accelerometers are also used to monitor mold wobble.103
Thin slab casters at Nucor and Steel Dynamics have also been reported to be using sophisticated
accelerometer systems on oscillators to avoid conditions leading to breakouts.114,118
Casting Volume
water jacket
4 2
wide face
narrow
Fig. 19.10 Load cell location in the
Bethlehem Steel Sparrows Point mold
face
assembly. From Ref. 21. copper
3 1
load cells (1-4)
19.5.2 Load Cells

In contrast to accelerometers, which can be located directly on the vertical mold wall, load cells
must be located beneath the mold. Bethlehem Steel Sparrows Point,21 U. S. Steel–Gary Works,45
NKK–Keihin Works46 and AK Steel103 have conducted production casting with load cells mounted
between the mold and the oscillator table. A schematic illustration of the load cell placement in the
Bethlehem mold is provided in Fig. 19.10. Ispat Inland47 has employed a similar four-point con-
figuration on its pilot scale caster. Conversely, at the caster at Kawasaki Steel’s Chiba Works,48 sin-
gle load cell has been located on each of the two supporting arms beneath the oscillating table.
In order to determine the mold friction force from load cell measurements, it is necessary to know
the force required to oscillate the mold both when it is empty and during steady-state casting con-
ditions. The instantaneous frictional force is then determined as the difference between the dynam-
ically measured casting load and the unloaded condition. The total mold frictional force is the
direct sum of forces obtained from each load cell. A detailed quantitative derivation of load cell
friction measurements is provided by Nakato et al.48 One can also measure mold friction through
the application of Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) of load cell signals measured during casting,
and under cold oscillation conditions.104
Operationally, load cell monitoring of mold friction is advantageous due to the reproducibility of
data, low maintenance requirement and sensitivity deviations in stroke of as little as 100 mm.45
Regardless of these positive characteristics, the load cell approach is not sufficiently sensitive to
sticker-type breakouts to be used without the support of thermal monitoring.
Since load cells are highly dependent on the behavior of the mold flux,49 many load cell applica-
tions are restricted to the evaluation of casting parameters and the mechanical performance of the
machine rather than to the detection of breakouts. Indeed, experiments conducted on the Inland
Steel pilot scale caster have shown that mold friction monitoring conducted by load cells cannot
“reliably be used to indicate the initiation or propagation of (sticker-type) breakouts”.47 This state-
ment is substantiated by others50 who find that the detection of rapid-onset type stickers is less than
70%, and the false alarm rate is greater than 30%.
Breakout Prevention
LVDT
eccentric
pin
instrumented pin
mold
table
pin
strain
gauge
bridges thermocouple
Fig. 19.11 Schematic illustration of strain gauges and displacement transducers installed in the Bethlehem Burns Harbor
mold table oscillator. From Ref. 104.
19.5.3 Strain Gauges

In contrast to accelerometers and load cells, strain gauges (extensometers) are characterized by
being located in the oscillator shaft. While this remote location provides ease of installation and
protection from the hostile environment of the mold area, it simultaneously dampens the sensitiv-
ity and, in the presence of bearing wear or slight misalignment of the oscillator, may distort the
absolute mold friction.29,51
Strain gauges, which measure small (~100 µm) deformations caused by tension, compression, bend-
ing or twisting, have been employed at Kawasaki Steel’s Chiba Works51 and Sollac’s Fos Works.16
The strain gauges are used to monitor casting parameters and to detect the onset of breakouts.
More recently, Bethlehem Steel installed strain
gauges in two pins connecting the mold table to
the oscillator arms, as illustrated in Fig. 19.11. vc = 0.85 m/min
Mold-slab friction forces were obtained from the upper limit η = 0.09
pin forces.104
lower limit
The response of strain gauges to steady-state and
abnormal casting conditions is shown in Fig. vc = 0.75 m/min
19.12.52 During steady-state operation, the η = 0.24
dynamically measured oscillation wave is in measured wave
phase with the “standard” calibration wave. It
also is of approximately the same amplitude. standard
However, five minutes before a breakout occurs, wave
the measured oscillation wave becomes out of Fig. 19.12 Contrast in strain gauge signals from steady
phase with the calibration wave, and it decreases state, and increased friction conditions. From Ref. 52.
in relative amplitude.
Casting Volume
Similar results have been reported with CRM’s MO Tektor.39 While this example illustrates that
mold friction monitoring by means of a strain gauge is capable of detecting breakouts that develop
gradually (due to alumina pickup in the mold flux), it does not demonstrate the potential to pro-
vide an indication of rapidly developing stickers. Indeed, strain gauge-based systems have the
same limitation as accelerometers and load cells for predicting sticker-type breakouts: mold fric-
tion sensors are not sensitive enough to predict the occurrence of stickers. Additionally, due to the
remote location of strain gauges and the corresponding dampening of friction signals, strain
gauges are particularly prone to false breakout alarms.16
While friction monitoring has helped steelmakers to ascertain the events that can contribute to
sticking, the interaction of these events has made it very difficult to develop simple algorithms for
sticker detection and prevention.16,22,23 Signals can be misleading, resulting in costly false alarm-
ing (damage to machine, yield loss due to downgrading or cropping, and loss of operator confi-
dence). These devices give only a global view of the lubrication effectiveness, which ultimately
impairs the establishment of direct relationships between friction and strand quality.53
19.6 Thermal Monitoring Schemes

The relationship between sticker-type breakouts and increased heat flux through the mold adjacent
to the sticker was recognized as early as 1954 by Savage and Pritchard.54 However, it was not until
the 1970s, with the widespread development of continuous casting and the availability of sophis-
ticated microprocessors for collecting and analyzing specific temperature inputs, that sticker
breakout detection by thermal analysis became a reality. Continuous monitoring of temperature in
specific regions of the mold provides the necessary resolution for a timely alarm algorithm. The
temperature-based detection system works on the principle that a localized heat transfer variation
can be easily recognized. As shown in Fig. 19.13,55 the following actions occur sequentially:
1. A portion of the strand adheres to the mold wall near the meniscus. The thin shell
tears due to the continuing withdrawal of the strand.
2. As molten metal fills the gap caused by the ripping, there is direct contact with the
mold wall. A new shell is immediately formed at this location.
newly
meniscus solidified
shell
stuck
shell
thermocouple
mold (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
withdrawn breakout
shell
(4)
Temperature
(2)
(1) (3) (5)
Time
Fig. 19.13 The propagation of a mold sticker as observed by temperature sensors. From Ref. 55.
Breakout Prevention
3. This new and very thin shell is subsequently broken as described above, due to the
opposing forces of the upward oscillation stroke and the downward withdrawal. As
before, another thin shell is formed due to the inflow of molten metal.
4. This sequence is repeated continuously as a function of the oscillation frequency.
The tear, often referred to as the “pseudo-meniscus,” gradually moves down the
mold, causing a significant increase in temperature to be sensed as it passes a tem-
perature sensor. The speed of this movement has been variously reported at 50–95%
of the casting speed (due to the differences in steel chemistry, speed, oscillation
parameters, etc.).35,47,56
5. The portion of the strand above the tear is not withdrawn and therefore increases in
thickness due to the high amount of heat transfer. As this relatively thick portion of
the shell passes the sensor, a rapid decline in mold temperature is sensed.
If the characteristic temperature trace illustrated in Fig. 19.13 can be recognized at one or more
locations in the mold, an alarm can be activated, and the operator can take corrective action to pre-
vent the breakout.
By lowering the casting speed to an amount corresponding to a critical heal time (tn), the stuck por-
tion of the shell moving down with the mold interferes with the moving piece for an extended
period of time, thereby allowing rewelding of the two pieces. If the tn time is long enough, shell
thickness (and thus the mechanical strength) near the tear can increase. Simultaneously, the stuck
portion of the shell contracts, thus detaching from the mold wall. The stuck portion can then be
removed with the strand, without fear of rupture upon the
upward motion of the mold.57
While not the subject of this review, it should be noted that
temperature-based systems have also been expanded to
detect slag entrapment and surface cracks, which can ulti- heat flux
mately lead to breakouts.16,35,42,58,59 sensor
19.6.1 Heat Flux Sensors

Kawasaki Steel60 reported the development of a heat flux
sensor (Fig. 19.14), mounted flush to the cold face of the
mold and therefore not requiring the drilling of holes in the
mold assembly. As shown in Fig. 19.15, the housing around
the actual sensing face of the heat flux meter was present
to ensure that the only heat flux that reached the sensor was
that which traveled through the mold wall. Since the sensor
was constructed of a material which has essentially the Fig. 19.14 Schematic illustration of a heat flux
sensor placed in a mold water channel. From
same thermal conductivity as the mold wall, the heat flux Ref. 60.
measured by the sensor provided a direct indication of the
heat flux through the mold wall.
The heat flux sensor provided heat removal data in a manner similar to temperature measurements
determined by thermocouples embedded in the mold wall. The algebraic relationship used to derive
heat flux data was expressed as:
Ê kˆ
Q A = Á ˜ DT (Eq. 19.3)
Ë d¯
where:
QA = heat flux (kW/m2)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m–°C)
Casting Volume
d = distance between any two temper-

ature measurement points (m) mold wall
∆T = temperature differential between

measurement points (°C)
solidifying shell
In contrast to the uncertainty of the distance
dimension (d) when using thermocouple
data, the heat flux sensor reading was based insulative
housing HEAT FLOW
on the accurately known thickness of the
sensor plate. Since the thickness and ther-
mal conductivity were known, the heat flux heat flux
could be determined from the electrically sensor
measured temperature difference between
the sensor plates provided on the front and
rear surfaces of the heat resistor plate. By
virtue of design, the heat flux sensor was
not sensitive to variations in mounting.
Fig. 19.15 Expanded view of a heat flux sensor. From Ref. 60.
Operationally, the heat flux sensors, which
measured 5–20 mm in length and width,
were placed around the perimeter of the mold in two or three horizontal rows similar to the sen-
sor deployment scheme used in thermocouple-based breakout detection systems. In the Kawasaki
patent disclosure,60 it was recommended that the sensors be positioned either in each, or every
other, water channel around the perimeter of the mold, and two or three sensors installed at every
100–200 mm in height. The speed of response of the sensors to thermal deviations was less than
one second, which provided for sufficient flexibility in defining a control logic scan rate. An exam-
ple of the detection and recovery of a sticker upon decreasing strand withdrawal speed is illus-
trated in Fig. 19.16.
19.6.2 Embedded Thermocouples

The first reference to the use of thermocouples for breakout detection appears to be the Japanese
patent application No. 51(1976)-151624.61 In this reference, temperatures from two adjacent
planes of thermocouples were required to be in an inverted state and of a certain magnitude before
an alarm was given. Another early Japanese patent application, No. 55(1980)-84259, required that
the temperature inversion of a single pair of thermocouple be greater than a fixed amplitude.62
5000
4000
Heat flux
(kW/m2)
alarm
3000 level
2000
Fig. 19.16 Detection and recovery of a
sticker condition using heat flux sensors. 1000
From Ref. 60. Time
2.3
Casting speed
(m/min)
1.4
0.5
Time
Breakout Prevention
While various companies have subsequently developed such systems utilizing significantly differ-
ent algorithms, the basis for each system continues to rely upon the thermal effect of the sticking
on the mold coppers. Embedding of thermocouples into holes in the copper plate may shorten the
long-term service life of the mold. They may be difficult to remove or reinstall when refurbishing
the mold.
The literature contains references to two main classes of thermocouples for copper temperature
monitoring: those formed intrinsically when a dissimilar metal such as the nickel-copper alloy
constantan contacts the mold copper, and extrinsic—those encased in an impervious sheath (e.g.,
a stainless steel sheath encasing both thermocouple wires and their hot junction). Both types
require intimate contact with the copper to yield measurable voltages; however, 100% contact
must be maintained with the intrinsic variety.
19.6.2.1 Intrinsic Thermocouples
Babcock et a1.63 have described a device that included a tubular Teflon housing mounted in a
tapped opening in the outer wall of the mold frame (see Fig. 19.17). An insulating sleeve was
placed around the contact point with the copper to ensure the desired single point contact. The rod
was approximately 3 mm in diameter to provide sufficient rigidity without obstructing water pas-
sage. It was mechanically held in place with a flange, and O-ring seals were used to prevent water
leakage at the tapped opening.63
Spring-loaded or butt-jointed thermocouples, however, can lose positive contact with the copper
plates, and the millivolt signal can be intermittent. Mahapatra et al.9 described the use of a stubby,
0.76-mm-diameter constantan wire for the thermocouple junction (see Fig. 19.18). A bead was
formed at the tip of the wire with a torch and then filed flat. The electrically insulated wire was
then inserted into a threaded copper plug that, in turn, was screwed into a tapped, flat-bottom hole
in the mold copper. The thermocouples were located 6 mm from the hot face. During a seven-day
test, approximately 15% of the thermocouples failed, most likely due to thermal deflection of the
copper causing open junctions.
mold jacket
water slot
copper
Fig. 19.17 Thermocouple installation described by Babcock et al. From Ref. 63.
Casting Volume
mold copper
cooling
water channel
liquid
steel copper plug
Fig. 19.18 Mahapatra’s ther-

Constantan
6 mm thermocouple
mocouple apparatus. From
Ref. 9.
steel shell
Welding guarantees positive contact, and the configuration is much simpler. A constantan rod may
be welded to the copper plate by a stud welder, a direct current (DC) welder with an additional
timer and clamping device, or by a capacitive discharge welder. One welding lead is typically con-
nected to the constantan rod, and the common terminal is connected to the copper plate. When
energized for a short duration, the copper-constantan interface is fused in the bottom of the hole,
thereby making the hot junction. As each weld operation tends to anneal and soften the copper in
the vicinity of the weld, care must be taken to adopt a practice utilizing the minimum power nec-
essary for making an acceptable weld.64 If welded in place, the weld must typically be broken prior
to removing the mold jacket for machining or plating of the copper. The weld area must be cleaned
and redressed prior to rewelding.65
19.6.2.2 Sheathed (Extrinsic) Thermocouples
In 1965, Mannesmann66 reported the embedding of NiCr:Ni thermocouples for measuring heat flux
distribution in a slab mold. The thermocouples were inserted through drilled passages in a direc-
tion parallel to the strand at various distances from the meniscus. Tests were also conducted at the
Mannesmann Research Institute using iron:constantan thermocouples in an experimental billet
mold.
At Bethlehem Steel,21 sheathed copper:constantan thermocouples are located in 2-mm-diameter
holes drilled vertically in the copper (which is considerably easier on a vertical mold), and the hot
junction tips are cemented in place with high-temperature thermally-conductive epoxy. As shown
in Fig. 19.19, the measuring junction of the thermocouples was located 16 mm from the hot face.
Sollac used sheathed chromel:alumel thermocouples.59 Kawasaki measured temperatures by
exchangeable sheath-type thermocouples fixed by spring loading onto the cold face of the copper
through hollowed water jacket fixing bolts (see Fig. 19.20). This obviated the need to specially
machine the mold plate or water jacket. The pitch of the thermocouples was therefore determined
by the distance between the bolts.67 At British Steel, thermocouples were installed either from the
back of the mold through holes drilled into the fixing bolts or through holes drilled vertically down
from the top of the copper plate.58
Breakout Prevention
thermocouple
9.5 mm
16 mm
Fig. 19.19 Bethlehem Steel

55 mm instrumented mold using verti-
cally installed thermocouples.
From Ref. 21.
35 mm 25 mm
copper
top view
19.6.2.3 Thermocouple Installation Techniques

If thermocouples are introduced from the back side of the copper plates, parallel to the direction
of heat flow,104 installation is relatively easy. Since they are installed parallel to the path of heat
flow, however, they can actually affect the flow and, thus, result in inaccurate temperature mea-
surements. Thermocouples welded from the back can occasionally have weld failures, and back-
mounted thermocouples screwed into position can have accuracy problems.103
Another method of installation involves thermocouple installation from the top or bottom of the
copper, in a direction perpendicular to the direction of heat flow. This method is more costly, due
to the difficult drilling and installation techniques. It also involves more difficult handling of ther-
mocouple lead wires; although, if installed from the top, terminations will be outside of the harsh
environment of the spray chamber. Temperature information is more precise and is the preferred
method for determining the heat flux from one position to another. Stress concentration, created by
the drilling of installation hole, can lead to a shortened copper life.103
mold
Fig. 19.20 The Kawasaki Steel

spring-loaded thermocouple installa-
cooling box
tion. From Ref. 67.
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
bolt
thermo-couple
Casting Volume
Conax connector
water jacket
8 ft. lead thermocouple

type K thermocouple
wire K-24-EE40
0.05 x 0.08 in.
tube 5/16 in. O.D. x 3/32 in. I.D.
12.25 in.
back-up plate
Fig. 19.21 AK Steel utilizes

pressed-in plug extrinsic
thermocouples. From Ref.
103.
copper adapter
-conductive grease mold copper
-tight tolerances
Pressed-in plugs, installed from the back of the mold and encased in a copper adapter machined
to tight tolerances, have reportedly minimized the influence to the heat flow.103
An example of this type of installation is shown in Fig. 19.21.
19.7 Thermocouple Location and Control Logic

The algorithms used for the alarm logic are the keys to the success or failure of a breakout pre-
vention system. Software development must be site-specific, requiring tuning for changes in oper-
ating practices. Particular attention must be given to minimizing the occurrence of false alarms.
Indeed, J. den Hartog has stated that “it is less difficult to detect a sticker than to avoid false
alarms.”57
Saucedo and Blazek have shown that the time variation of overall mold heat transfer rates is inef-
fective in detecting sticker-type breakouts.47,91 However, by incorporating individual horizontal
water channels into each mold face, heat transfer profiles could be derived as a function of posi-
tion down the mold length. These profiles could indicate the formation and propagation of sticker-
type breakouts.
The mold heat transfer configuration investigated at Ispat Inland’s pilot-scale caster utilized two dis-
tinct methods of detection and relatively simple logic requiring no special tuning for specific grades
or casting conditions.92 Contrary to a conventional slab casting mold, the 27 water cooling slots in
the pilot caster’s 83-mm square billet mold were arranged horizontally instead of vertically. The
slots near the meniscus had individual water supplies, which allowed monitoring of the peak mold
heat transfer rate. The mold cooling water temperatures were monitored by resistance temperature
measuring devices (RTDs), and the water flow rates were continuously monitored by electronic
Breakout Prevention
flow meters. In addition, mold 300

temperatures were recorded
along the length of the mold with 130 mm
260 1
16 embedded thermocouples, for 1 2
Mold temp., (˚C)

which the scanning rate was 0.2
3
sec. 220
2 90 mm
The orientation of the embedded narrow
thermocouples in the mold pro- 180 face
3
vides the foundation for the
alarm logic. At a given position
140
in the mold perimeter, steelmak- casting speed: 1.60 m/min
ers have installed banks of one to
three thermocouples. The vari- 100
3 sec
ous techniques are reviewed in Time
the following paragraphs.
Fig. 19.22 The Nippon Steel system employing three thermocouples located
in a plane. From Ref. 68.
19.7.1 Planes of Three
Thermocouples
At Nippon Steel’s Oita works, a system was developed in 1981 that utilized planes of two ther-
mocouples for the narrow faces, and three for the wide faces (see Fig. 19.22).68 Thermocouples
were less than 15 mm from the hot face of the mold, thus ensuring a thermal response within 0.7
sec.42 The Sollac Fos16 and Sumitomo Metals69,70 systems have also utilized three levels of ther-
mocouples.
The Nippon Steel “mold diagnostic system” predicted and distinguished the types of breakout-sen-
sitive events by describing mold flux lubrication and interpreting the air gap formed between the
shell and mold.71 In 1983, Matsushita56 determined that the hot spot was descending at 35–85% of
the casting speed (this was later refined to 60–90%). Matsushita stated that the magnitude and rate
of temperature rise caused by the tear vary greatly and could not be used as a parameter to predict
and prevent sticking breakouts.72 Control logic was developed using Fourier transformation of the
temperature transitions. Pattern recognition for sticking, slag entrapment and crack formation (lon-
gitudinal corner and transverse narrow face cracks) was utilized for the alarm algorithms.22
Sumitomo Metals has emphasized the reduction of false alarms by improving the thermocouple
installation procedure (to reduce the signal-to-noise ratio) and optimizing the timeliness of the
alarm (repositioning the thermocouples and developing improved algorithms).73
19.7.2 Planes of Two Thermocouples

The vast majority of references cited describe systems based on detection with two thermocouples
in a vertical plane. Sollac commissioned such a system, which originally included four to six
thermocouple planes, in October 1982 at Florange.59,74 Sollac’s system was based on the determi-
nation of a temperature difference between the top and bottom thermocouples. Fig. 19.23 describes
the system, which set an alarm condition when the temperature difference was lower than a thresh-
old value.75
Hoogovens utilized several planes of two thermocouples, which were analyzed once per second.76
The number of planes depended on the physical dimensions of the mold, mold level operating prac-
tices, casting speed and available reaction speed.57
The system developed at LTV Steel77 utilized several planes of two thermocouples. Developed in
1985, the system utilized vertical detection of sticking with two thermocouples in a plane.78,79 This
Casting Volume
Temp, ˚C
1 2 3
Time, sec Time, sec Time, sec

Temp, ˚C
4 5 6
Time, sec Time, sec Time, sec

Fig. 19.23 The Sollac system employing two thermocouples located in a plane. From Ref. 59.
method was preferred due to its ability to maintain alarm capability in the event of thermocouple
failure by developing alarm algorithms based on the history of a single temperature trace. Relying
on vertical detection, however, made the temperature differential between top and bottom thermo-
couples an integral part of the software code. Fig. 19.24 shows a predicted and prevented breakout.
With an increase or decrease in the fluctuation level of the individual temperature traces, the
required differential between top and bottom thermocouples changes.80 The LTV system looked at
relative rather than absolute temperatures and utilized a dynamic “adjustment” routine that contin-
uously maintained an acceptable differential, based on the relative fluctuation of the temperature
traces.81 In the absence of this feature, a sticking condition would occasionally not be detected due
to excessive temperature differentials. Conversely, when the temperatures of the top and bottom
thermocouples were similar, the
400 200
frequency of false alarms became
unacceptably high.
Speed (in/min) / Level (in)
320 160 Embedded thermocouples can pro-

top thermocouple (˚F)
vide for the development of alarm
bottom algorithms, targeted for “hanger”
Temp, ˚F
240 thermocouple (˚F) 120

type breakouts. Fig. 19.25 shows a
typical “steel-in-corner” alarm.
160 80 Note that the repeated tearing of the
casting
speed (ipm) shell can be observed in the top
mold level
80 (inches) 40 thermocouple trace, but rehealing
has taken place prior to the rupture
passing the bottom thermocouple.
0 0
0 60 120 180 240 300 Eventually, the tear becomes severe
enough that it cannot be rehealed,
Time, sec
and can be observed by the bottom
Fig. 19.24 A predicted and prevented sticker breakout from the LTV Steel
thermocouple.
system. From Ref. 35.
Breakout Prevention
Wilson82 and Luppold83 de-

scribed a system incorporating
400 200
12 sets of two thermocouples. A top thermocouple (˚F)
third set of probes, located near
the mold bottom, monitored 320 160
Speed (in/min)/Level (in)

mold temperature at the start of
a cast as the dummy bar exited,
Temp, ˚F
240 bottom 120
checking for a hot spot. thermocouple (˚F)
Thornton and Hunter reported
160 80
that British Steel at Llanwern mold level
utilized 32 thermocouples (16 (inches)
planes of two), while Scun- 80 casting 40
thorpe had 44 thermocouples speed (ipm)
(22 planes of two).58 Occasional
0 0
temperature fluctuations in 0 60 120 180 240 300
broad-face planes, located just
Time, sec.
outside the narrow face, have
Fig. 19.25 Typical thermocouple trace from a "steel-in-corner" alarm. From
corresponded to increased cor-
Ref. 35.
ner gaps and slight finning at the
slab edge.
19.7.3 Horizontal Thermocouple Analysis

In 1981, Murase84 described some initial embedded thermocouple work at Kawasaki Steel. Tem-
peratures were measured at four locations around the perimeter of a 17 x 17-mm square billet
mold. The velocity of the sticker propagation at a position 100 mm from the meniscus was deter-
mined. Since the thermocouples could be located closer to the hot face than the heat flux sensors
mentioned previously, the thermal response could be slightly improved.
Murase’s work appeared to have led to the development of Kawasaki Steel’s system based on the
concept of detection at adjacent positions on a horizontal line, perpendicular to the casting direc-
tion.85 Several thermocouples were positioned in a circumferential manner, with only one sensor
in the vertical direction. Using an elementary trigonometric analysis of the stuck portion of the
shell, it could be proven that the propagation speed of a typical sticker is faster in the perpendicular
direction than in the direction parallel to casting withdrawal.55 Thus, for a given distance between
thermocouples, this method would be favored. The alarm algorithm was described as relatively
simple, making it easy to apply to different shop environments.55 For each thermocouple position,
a rate of temperature change (referred to as a temperature variation speed) was determined. If this
speed exceeded the average temperature variation speed at any one point by more than a critical
amount, an alarm was set. The Kawasaki system is shown schematically in Fig. 19.26.
The Kawasaki Steel method could tolerate changes in casting speed, nonuniformities in the mold
flux layer thickness and the formation of an air gap without yielding a false alarm. By locating all
thermocouples at the same elevation, the influence of the variation of meniscus position could also
be minimized. Itoyama et al.67 determined that, since the sticker will propagate simultaneously on
both sides of the origination point, a faulty thermocouple could be somewhat tolerated (since the
sensors on the opposite side of the origination could detect the temperature variation).
19.7.4 Alarm Response

Upon detecting the initiation of a sticker, the initial systems required the operator to manually
decrease or stop the casting speed.35,60,75,86 Consequently, there was a time delay between the alarm
Casting Volume
and the action taken by the

speed
control operator. Often it was
found that while the sys-
tem successfully predicted
avg temp diff the breakout, the manual
derivation response was inadequate,
and a breakout occurred
discriminator
despite the alarm. The
temp diff desire to promote quicker
derivation response led to automatic
actuation of the stopper
rod or tundish slidegate
and cast speed.55,62,82,87,88
Im meniscus More recently, techniques
have been developed to
slow the casting speed but
L ϖ
not completely stop the
β
strand. When using stopper
Lp rods or three-plate tundish
slidegates, the mold level
does not have to be low-
casting direction ered. With a two-plate
Fig. 19.26 The Kawasaki Steel system of horizontal detection. From Ref. 85. gate, however, the level
may have to be dropped
due to the shell shrinkage
restricting the movement of the submerged-entry nozzle when resuming withdrawal. In the event
that corner penetration is detected, a clear view of the mold corner is required. Automatic reramp-
ing features have also been added.89,90
Nippon Steel reported the reduction of casting speed automatically to a level determined by the
original casting speed and the position in the mold where the sticker was alarmed. Based on these
two factors, a speed was selected to ensure that a critical negative stripping or heal time (tn) could
be attained.62
Sollac has discussed adjusting the healing cycle to composition-dependent solidification and creep
behavior.90,110 The reduction of speed was controlled as a function of creep strength due to con-
cern for inter-roll bulging, which would hinder subsequent strand withdrawal. Healing speed and
healing time were primarily dependent on the freezing range of the steel, which was affected by
the degree of solute microsegregation. The presence of ferrite minimized microsegregation, so
they defined a “ferritic potential” related to the carbon equivalent for the peritectic reaction. Upon
restart, the rate of return to cruising speed was based on shell ductility, creep resistance and his-
toric sticking frequency.
LTV Steel used a computer console to inform the operator of statistically determined steady-state
mold conditions. By monitoring casting speed, mold level and temperature fluctuation, the screen
informed the operator of the status of mold lubrication. This “intelligent” system enabled the oper-
ator to maintain consistent mold conditions during speed ramping, thus promoting enhanced lubri-
cation.81
An example of sticker-type breakout initiation, detection and subsequent recovery is demonstrated
in Fig. 19.27 from the Ispat Inland pilot billet caster.47,91 As indicated by the heat transfer peak in
the top frame, the sticker was initiated near the meniscus at a cast time of approximately 79 sec-
onds. The sticker propagated downward through the mold until the peak heat transfer value indi-
cated that the sticker was approximately 23 cm from the top of the mold (plot for cast time equals
Breakout Prevention
initiation 79
liquid level
88
98
Heat transfer rate
Temperature
catch 107
Time, sec
liquid level
110
113
recovery
117
Fig. 19.27 A sticker breakout
successfully "caught" by the 121
Inland Steel pilot system. From
Ref. 92. normality
127
0 9 18 27 36 45 0 9 18 27 36 45
Distance from top of mold, cm
110 seconds). During the traverse to this position, the casting speed was reduced to 0.4 m/minute
from 0.8 m/minute. Beginning at the 107-second mark, the sticker was “caught”(propagation speed
is greatly reduced). As the shell healed, the heat transfer rate returned to normal steady-state con-
ditions. Effective warning of sticker-type breakouts was achieved on this caster at speeds of 2.4
m/minute, even though the mold length was only 457 mm.
To adequately direct link the casting and rolling processes and to minimize yield losses, however,
false alarm rates must be kept to a minimum. More thermocouples generally mean more false
alarms.117 Thermocouple-based systems employing crossover or slop logic could benefit by incor-
porating planes of three thermocouples to reduce false alarms by verifying or validating alarm cri-
teria. Removing the requirement for crossover and relying on the time of propagation of the sticker
has been shown by Nippon Steel to successfully reduce the false alarm rate to 0.08% per heat,
while still preventing 100% of potential sticker breakouts.22 Kawasaki Steel’s system of horizontal
detection has also prevented all potential sticker breakouts, with a false alarm rate of 0.02% per
heat.55
19.8 Expanding the Systems Beyond Breakout

Prevention
Equipping molds with the aforementioned sensors can provide steelmakers with dynamic on-line
information for process control and quality application; it can also provide maintenance and design
engineers with valuable diagnostic data. Slab casters utilizing thermal monitoring systems for
sticker detection have developed additional applications for the systems. Bloom casters have been
reported to have sticker-type breakouts,99 but the occurrences have been infrequent enough to jus-
tify investment in sticker detection. Instrumenting molds with thermocouples, however, has been
routinely carried out to aid in optimization of mold fluxes and oscillation practices. The literature
also contains some examples of the use of thermocouples for sticker detection for billet casting of
rounds.101,115,116 Steelmakers have expanded on the use of these thermocouples to develop new gen-
erations of mold fluxes for rounds production. Fluxes having higher melting points and reduced
basicities have been shown to yield more stable thermal profiles.
Casting Volume
12 In 1979, Gray and Mart-

son93 documented the use
stopper argon flow increased of more than 300 embed-
ded thermocouples in a
Temp. variability index
8 slab mold for studying the

effects of casting fluxes
and heat flux distribution.
The quality of the informa-
4 tion obtained then
prompted British Steel
Corp. to develop on-line
mold thermal monitoring
0
systems. Initial work was
done in 1985 for the round
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
bloom caster at Clydesdale
Elapsed time, min
Works.53 Molds equipped
Fig. 19.28 The "Temperature Variability Index" alerted operators to an insufficient with up to 80 thermocou-
argon flow condition. From Ref. 29.
ples were used during the
development stage. An on-
line system was installed in 1986, incorporating the use of 16 thermocouples—a column of four
per face.
In addition to breakout detection, a “Temperature Variability Index” was determined by averaging
the standard deviation of each temperature 80 mm below the meniscus (scanned once per second).
Using this index, it was possible to characterize events such as leaky or misaligned submerged-
entry nozzles, insufficient argon flow (see Fig. 19.28) and inadequate mold flux lubrication.29 The
development of similar systems for slab caster application was initiated at Llanwern in 1988 and
at Scunthorpe in 1989.29,58,94 Llanwern cast strip products at high casting speeds, while Scunthorpe
produced plate mill grades. In addition to the variability index, the minimum and maximum val-
ues for each plate were displayed to the operator.
Miyashita et al.95 studied the mechanism of formation of longitudinal cracking by measuring the
fluctuation and distribution of temperatures measured 10 mm from the mold hot face. The fluctu-
ation rate of temperatures at positions near the mold bottom provided a measure of the uniformity
of mold flux inflow. Likewise,
Koyama et al.96 showed that for
specific operating conditions, 40
there existed a minimum mold
temperature fluctuation at a spe-
cific product of mold flux vis- 30
mold temp. ∆ T (˚C)
cosity times casting speed (see

Fluctuation of
Fig. 19.29). This information

was used to develop mold fluxes,
20
which contributed to more stable
lubrication.
By embedding 114 thermocou-
10
ples in the mold walls, Mahapa-
9
tra et al. determined axial
temperature profiles, which were
later transformed into steady- 0
0 2 4 6
state heat flux profiles using a ηv (poise m/min)
two-dimensional finite differ- Fig. 19.29 Mold flux selection can be optimized by observing temperature fluc-
ence model. Information gained tuations. From Ref. 96.
Breakout Prevention
allowed for analysis of the effect of steel composition, SEN design and submergence depth, mold
flux consumption and casting speed.
Gilles et al.21 equipped a test mold with approximately 174 thermocouples, and friction sensors to
test the suitability of commercially available mold fluxes for high-speed casting (up to 2.1 m/min).
Four load cells were located under the water jacket near the mold ends. A redesigned mold copper
plate was developed to reduce hot-face temperatures below 350°C to avoid strand-to-copper stick-
ing25 and to prevent heat cracks or distortion of the chrome zirconium coppers.
Nichols97 described the instrumentation of a mold with 74 thermocouples located at positions 6
mm or 11 mm from the hot face. A study was made of the effect of casting parameters on mold
heat transfer. Temperature variability as a function of thermocouple position around the mold
perimeter was not related to casting speed or steel grade, but suggested mold cooling or fluid flow
irregularity.
Sobolewski et al.27 reviewed three campaigns conducted with an instrumented mold having 71
thermocouples. The initial campaign was a “baseline” test of the standard mold cooling system.
Results from this campaign indicated that the mold was typically operating at or above 350°C; and
cooling water temperatures (95–100°C), which can lead to nucleate boiling of the water and scale
buildup in the cooling slots, were measured. During the second and third campaigns, several mea-
sures were taken to increase the cooling effectiveness. The magnitude and variation of calculated
hot-face temperatures were shown to be progressively reduced (Fig. 19.30).
Bellomo106 described the need to develop complementary control systems using the thermocouple
based systems. For example, submerged-entry nozzle breakage has been immediately detected by
analyzing temperature traces at different positions. Partial blockage of submerged-entry nozzle
ports has also been revealed by interpretation of narrow-face thermocouples. Mold flux perfor-
mance monitoring with the use of thermocouples was also discussed.
Jenkins et al.108 described the detection of longitudinal surface depressions in blooms, using a
series of six type K thermocouples arranged in two columns. They found that, by shifting the tem-
perature traces in time, according to the casting speed, a periodicity in the temperature signals was
noted—corresponding to the temporary drop in mold temperatures as the depression passed each
thermocouple. This cycle was found to be in exact harmony with low-frequency mold level fluc-
tuations. This observation led to the conclusion that the defects formed due to overflow of the slag
rim at peaks of these level variations. By installing an enhanced mold-level control system, signif-
icant surface quality improvement was realized.
550
542
2 sigma upper range
Calc. hot face temp. (˚C)
450 452
recommended
mean max hot face
363 temp.
361 340 Fig. 19.30 Mold hot-face temperatures
350
337 have been progressively reduced by
327
incorporating design changes. From Ref.
311 313 27.
2 sigma lower range
250
grade: LCAK
width: 1072−1803 mm
speed 1.2−1.3 m/min
150
I II III
Campaign
Casting Volume
Kang et al.107 mentioned several additional applications for thermocouple systems. Mold-flux
melting behavior and mold-level control effectiveness could be monitored with thermocouples
positioned just below the meniscus region. Air gap formation could be ascertained from thermo-
couples 110 mm from the bottom of the mold copper. Formation of longitudinal cracks was also
observed.
19.9 Outlook for Breakout Prevention

With further development of “no-man casting” in the coming years, mold instrumentation will be
expanded to include expert systems, such as dynamic mold flux feeding based on thermal condi-
tions near the meniscus. In fact, Bellomo et al.98 have recently described the development of an
artificial neural network system for the prediction of surface defects in stainless steel. This work
is an extension of earlier work conducted with the Sollac-licensed system.109 Mold thermocouple
“elaboration” is used as the primary input. Fig. 19.31 shows the architecture for the system, which
is aimed at real-time selection of slab conditioning strategy prior to exit of the caster. Comparable
performance to statistical models was cited, with further development needed to reduce false alarm
frequency. This example is one of several aimed at actually achieving the concept of the “intelli-
gent mold,” a phrase coined by Brimacombe in his Howe Memorial Lecture at the 1993 Iron &
Steel Society Conference.119
Madill et al.99 published information regarding mold thermal monitoring for medium thickness
casting of 130-mm slabs at Tuscaloosa Steel. Prevention of sticking breakouts has been achieved.
Due to an increase in sticker movement speed, alarm algorithms must be more sensitive, and a
greater number of thermocouples are needed. Early experience with monitoring of the temperature
measurements revealed excessive heat removal and resultant mold flux instability. By carefully
reducing mold cooling water flow and monitoring the temperature readings, heat transfer was
decreased, mold flux performance stabilized and surface quality improved.
Thin-slab casting introduces new challenges to steelmakers. Of the thin-slab producers contacted
by the author, the Algoma Steel and North Star BHP facilities appear to have the most sophisti-
cated breakout avoidance systems. Algoma has a very comprehensive system utilizing more than
Fig. 19.31 Surface quality predic-

mold process computer
tion of stainless steel cast slabs
using artificial neural networks. data acquisition
From Ref. 98.
slab surface
quality
process
technology
data
data
processing
mold defect prediction prevention of

thermal diagnosis by neural surface
analysis system network defects
Breakout Prevention
100 thermocouples.120 The system has successfully detected and prevented sticker-type breakouts.
It is also used to monitor mold flux lubrication and consumption.
The North Star BHP system, using seven thermocouple pairs per wide face, employs neural net-
works.113 A tear due to mold sticking can be healed by automatically reducing cast speed from the
average 3.5 m/min “cruising” speed to 1.0 m/min. Alarm frequency was quoted as one to two per
week, mainly caused by thermocouple problems.
Acme Steel, casting at speeds of approximately 4.5 m/min, utilized a thermocouple-based system
to alarm for sticking.112 By reducing speeds to 2 m/min, the tear can be healed. The system is rou-
tinely used to monitor mold heat removal. Trico Steel employed instrumentation upon its start-
up.111 At the time of this writing, Nucor and Steel Dynamics did not utilize thermocouple systems,
choosing instead to employ sophisticated oscillation monitoring with accelerometers.
Casting faster than 5.0 m/min translates to mold residence times of less than 11 seconds. Preven-
tion of breakouts is still believed to be possible through an automatic, rapid speed reduction. If the
system does not prove to be fast enough to heal the shell’s tear, it is believed that a controlled
capoff could follow the alarm. Costs associated with the alarm would include the extra tundish
skull and refractory expenses, potential loss of liquid steel left in the ladle, and the unscheduled
turnaround. False alarms would, therefore, be very expensive and would need to be minimized.
With the modular nature of today’s thin-slab casters, however, recovery from a breakout can some-
times be as quick as the recovery from an alarm condition. Hence, a fully instrumented mold/oscil-
lator system with high scanning rates would best be used as a diagnostic tool for post-breakout
analysis and subsequent practice development.
19.10 Summary
By instrumenting the continuous casting mold, steelmakers have been able to develop control sys-
tems to effectively reduce the frequency of breakouts. Initial techniques were based on mold water
differential temperatures. This method was later refined by calculating mold heat transfer relation-
ships using the mold water data; however, detection was limited to breakouts caused by a progres-
sive decline in heat removal.
More recently, with the increased predominance of sticking-induced breakouts, efforts have been
made to develop systems based on more direct measurement techniques. Mold/strand friction has
been measured with accelerometers, load cells and strain gauges. These systems have successfully
detected some of the sticking incidents, but costly false alarms cannot be tolerated.
Localized thermal monitoring, with heat flux sensors or embedded thermocouples, has proven to
be a more effective method of detecting and preventing sticker breakouts. In his review of the his-
tory of continuous casting, Wolf102 mentioned that thermocouple-based sticker detection, in com-
bination with eddy current mold-level detection, can assure “high breakout safety even at high
casting speed.”
Breakout prevention for thin-slab and strip casters requires advanced instrumentation systems, due
to the relatively high casting speeds involved. While incurring a breakout on one of these machines
may not be as catastrophic as sustaining one on a conventional caster, the steelmakers of tomorrow
will continue to strive to avoid breakout occurrence.
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Breakout Prevention: William H. Emling, General Manager-Process and Product Development, Millcraft SMS

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Chapter 19

19.2 Review of Mold Heat Transfer

800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150

Crystallization temp. (˚C)

1400 Fig. 19.2 Longitudinal corner cracking

Casting speed (m/min)

Fig. 19.3 Carbon content influences the

Therefore, increased superheat will ultimately be manifested as a reduced shell

19.3 Breakout Prevention Schemes Using Heat Transfer

Casting speed, m/min.

w = cooling water flow rate (l/sec)

19.4 Requirements for Alternative Techniques of

Fig. 19.5 For a given casting speed, a 1000

Table 19.1 Types of Breakouts and Their Predominance

Breakout Type Predominance Phenomenon

19.4.1 Proposed Mechanisms for Sticking

Fig. 19.6 Schematic illustra-

19.5 Friction Monitoring Schemes

load cells (1-4)

19.5.2 Load Cells

19.5.3 Strain Gauges

19.6 Thermal Monitoring Schemes

mold (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

(1) (3) (5)

19.6.1 Heat Flux Sensors

d = distance between any two temper-

∆T = temperature differential between

19.6.2 Embedded Thermocouples

Fig. 19.18 Mahapatra’s ther-

Fig. 19.19 Bethlehem Steel

19.6.2.3 Thermocouple Installation Techniques

Fig. 19.20 The Kawasaki Steel

8 ft. lead thermocouple

tube 5/16 in. O.D. x 3/32 in. I.D.

Fig. 19.21 AK Steel utilizes

19.7 Thermocouple Location and Control Logic

flow meters. In addition, mold 300

Mold temp., (˚C)

19.7.2 Planes of Two Thermocouples

Time, sec Time, sec Time, sec

Time, sec Time, sec Time, sec

320 160 Embedded thermocouples can pro-

240 thermocouple (˚F) 120

Wilson82 and Luppold83 de-

Speed (in/min)/Level (in)

19.7.3 Horizontal Thermocouple Analysis

19.7.4 Alarm Response

and the action taken by the

Heat transfer rate

19.8 Expanding the Systems Beyond Breakout

12 In 1979, Gray and Mart-

8 slab mold for studying the

cosity times casting speed (see

Fig. 19.29). This information

19.9 Outlook for Breakout Prevention

Fig. 19.31 Surface quality predic-

mold defect prediction prevention of

49. M. Schmid, Concast News, 12:1 (1973): 6–8.

73. Y. Matoba, T. Yamamoto, M. Tokuda, T. Watananbe and H. Tomono, “Instrumentation and

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