Theme 7

PHYS420 – Space Applications II

Theme 7: Space Data Processing

Dr Roland Young
Fall 2022
 Theme 7

Introduction

Data processing is the general term for the sequence of steps used to convert
raw instrument measurements into useable data

It is typically done by a Mission Operations Centre (communication with

spacecraft, early stages of processing) and by the instrument engineering and
science teams (later stages).

It does not usually include scientific analysis of the observations

(although sometimes this is part of the later data processing steps).

What is required is very instrument- and spacecraft-specific, but there are a few
general processes that almost always occur:
• Data cleaning
• Navigation
• Calibration
 Theme 7

Contents

1. Data levels

2. Navigation

3. Calibration

4. Data archives

5. Demonstration: EMIRS surface temperature retrieval

 Theme 7

Example instrument

Emirates Mars Mission (EMM) Emirates InfraRed Spectrometer (EMIRS)

Fourier transform thermal infrared spectrometer

Sensitive to wavelengths 6 – 100+ 𝜇m

Exploded instrument view Typical EMIRS spectra (synthetic)

[Edwards et al., 2021, Figs 1, 3]

 Theme 7.1

L0

L1a

“Engineering”
L1b

L2

L3

“Science”

[Edwards et al., 2021, Fig. 23]

 Theme 7.1

Data levels

Spacecraft missions typically use a set of data processing levels that identify
different stages of data processing.

This is very instrument- and mission-specific

Every mission will have its own details of exactly what each level means

But, in general:

Level 0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

• Raw data packets • Uncalibrated data • Calibrated data • Derived quantities
in readable format
 Theme 7.1

Data levels – EMM-EMIRS (thermal infrared spectrometer)

Level 0 Spacecraft raw data packets delivered from the spacecraft at the Mission
Operations Center, including science and housekeeping data.

Level 1a Raw (uncalibrated) FITS interferograms including ancillary and

housekeeping data.

Level 1b Uncalibrated FITS spectra including ancillary and housekeeping data.

Level 2 Calibrated FITS radiance spectra in physical units (W cm-2 sr-1 (cm-1)-1) with
geometry information. Using reconstructed ephemeris.
Also includes associated quantities, e.g., brightness temperature.

Level 3 Atmospheric retrieval products, in geophysical quantities:

– Atmospheric temperature profile
– Surface temperature
– Surface emissivity
– Column dust optical depth
– Water ice column optical depth
FITS = Flexible Image Transport System
– Water vapour column optical depth Standard file type used for space telescopes
[Smith & Edwards, 2021] Gridded data + metadata describing observation
 Theme 7.2

Navigation

This is the step when each observation (e.g. a raw image) is combined with
information about where, when, and how it was taken. This is required to
pinpoint e.g. the location of each pixel in an image in terms of latitude and
longitude.

A major source of
information for navigation is
the NASA SPICE facility. The
main data products are
called SPICE kernels. These
contain navigation and other
ancillary information for
precision observational
geometry. Usually produced
by a spacecraft’s operations
team.

[https://naif.jpl.nasa.gov/naif/toolkit.html]
Theme 7.2
[https://naif.jpl.nasa.gov/naif/spiceconcept.html]
 Theme 7.2
[https://naif.jpl.nasa.gov/naif/spiceconcept.html]
Types of SPICE kernels

• S kernel
Spacecraft ephemeris (position as a function of time, and orbital parameters)
• P kernel (SPK)
Ephemeris data for planets, moons, comets, asteroids, etc.
• I kernel (IK)
Instrument information: field-of-view, current status, orientation, status of
on/off switches, etc.
• C kernel (CK)
Orientation of various parts of the spacecraft: What direction the spacecraft
and instruments are pointing in
• E kernel (EK)
Spacecraft events, planned and unplanned
• Spacecraft clock kernel (SCLK)
Timestamp for other data so absolute and relative times can be compared
 Theme 7.3
[Based on Hanel et al., pp.281-293]
Calibration

Calibration is a comparison between a measurement of known accuracy and a

measurement made using a test instrument. It serves two purposes:
• To convert actual measured quantities (e.g. voltage or photon counts on a
detector) into physical quantities (e.g. radiance)
• To determine and maintain the accuracy of an instrument

What is the difference between precision and accuracy?

Precision
• How reproducible a measurement is
• Quantified by the random error
in the measurement

Accuracy
• How close the measurements are
to the true value
• Depends upon systematic errors
in the measurement [Copyright 2022, Aaron Keller, adapted by permission.]
 Theme 7.3

Calibration – a simple example

I have a water barometer in my home, which is a crude

air pressure sensor. It works by the level of water
changing due to atmospheric pressure:
• High air pressure -> Water level goes down
• Low air pressure -> Water level goes up
I can calibrate this instrument by measuring the air
pressure using a significantly more accurate method e.g.
an electronic pressure gauge. 980 mb
1. When the air pressure is high, make a mark on the
water barometer at the current height of the water
2. When the air pressure is low (measured by the
electronic gauge), repeat
1040 mb
This
1. Converts any water level between these two
extremes into a pressure
2. Ensures the accuracy of the barometer with respect
to a standard of known and higher accuracy
 Theme 7.3

Calibration – instrument response function

This method makes an assumption:

The level of water linearly depends on the atmospheric pressure. E.g. when the
atmospheric pressure is 1010 mb, the water is halfway between the two marks

This is called a linear system

 Theme 7.3

Calibration

Spacecraft instruments are calibrated while being designed and built, and again
regularly once they are in space, because
• The thermal and electrical environment change in space
• The launch may damage or otherwise affect the instrument
• Instrument response changes over time
• Continuous operation over a long period (years) affects the instrument

The main calibration required for a radiometer EMM-EMIRS detector voltage

or spectrometer is intensity calibration response to measured signal

1. A radiometer/spectrometer is designed
to measure radiances over a range of values
2. Measurements are physically made by
photons hitting a detector. The actual
measurement will be some induced
voltage or photon count
3. We need to know which voltage / photon
count corresponds to which radiance [Edwards et al. 2021, Fig. 20]
 Theme 7.3

Calibration of a satellite infrared radiometer

Intensity calibration of a linear system requires measurements of at least two

stable reference sources. This means:
• A radiation source that is fainter than the faintest expected measurement
• A radiation source that is brighter than the brightest expected measurement

Q: What could be used as a faint source?

A: Deep space is essentially at zero brightness

(NB: CMB, stellar, galactic brightness << instrument noise, systematic errors)
Schematic of the
Bright sources can include: GLORIA balloon
• Manufactured black body instrument
heated to fixed temperature
with emissivity > 0.99
• Calibration lamp with known
filament temperature
• The Sun (UV/visible)
• Bright star (UV/visible) View to nadir [Olschewski et al., 2018]
 Theme 7.3

Calibration of a satellite infrared radiometer

EMM-EMIRS black body

[Edwards et al., 2021, Fig. 9]

 Theme 7.3

Calibration of a satellite infrared radiometer

Suppose we have an infrared radiometer with a spectral responsivity 𝑟(𝜈) that

observes a target that emits light towards the instrument with intensity 𝐼 𝜈

Δ𝑉
𝑟 𝜐 =
Δ𝑊

Δ𝑉 = Voltage change in detector due to a change in radiative power Δ𝑊.

EMM-EMIRS Instrument
Response Function 𝑟 𝜐
at three different
detector temperatures
(pre-flight)

[Edwards et al. 2021, Fig. 16]

 Theme 7.3

Calibration of a satellite infrared radiometer

The measurement on the detector (volts, or digital numbers – photon counts) while
facing the target (planet) is
𝜐2
𝐴1 = න 𝑟 𝜐 𝐼 𝜐 − 𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇eff 𝑑𝜐
𝜐1

𝑟 𝜐 = Instrument responsivity (V W-1)

𝐼 𝜐 = Radiance from target
𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇eff = Planck function corresponding to the effective instrument temperature
Infrared instruments are often cryogenically cooled to make 𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇eff small
Integrate over range of frequencies 𝜐1 to 𝜐2 relevant to a particular filter

It is essential for 𝑟 𝜐 and 𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇eff to be stable over the time period between
calibration(s) and measurement

Calibration 1 Measurement Calibration 2

 Theme 7.3

Calibration of a satellite infrared radiometer

For absolute calibration of the measurement

• Expose the field of view to a hot black body at accurately-measured

temperature 𝑇2 ≫ 𝑇eff
𝜐2
𝐴2 = න 𝑟 𝜐 𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇2 − 𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇eff 𝑑𝜐
𝜐1

• Expose the field of view to a cold black body at accurately-measured

temperature 𝑇3 ≪ 𝑇eff
𝜐2
𝐴3 = න 𝑟 𝜐 𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇3 − 𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇eff 𝑑𝜐
𝜐1

Given 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , and 𝐴3 , what is the radiance from the target, 𝐼 𝜐 ?

 Theme 7.3
For missing steps see
Calibration of a satellite infrared radiometer Hanel pp.281-293

Assuming:
1. The cold calibration target is deep space, i.e. 𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇3 = 0
2. Constant 𝑟 𝜐 between frequencies 𝜐1 and 𝜐2 , and 0 elsewhere
[Jones et al., 2021, Fig. 22]

EMM-EXI (imaging camera)

visible filters centered on
437, 546, 635 nm

3. Narrowband filter: 𝐼 𝜐 and 𝐵 𝜐, 𝑇2 do not change much between 𝜐1 and 𝜐2

𝐴1 −𝐴3
Then 𝐼 𝜐ҧ = 𝐵 𝜐,ҧ 𝑇2
𝐴2 −𝐴3
Where 𝜐ҧ = (𝜐1 + 𝜐2 )/2.
Recall: 𝐴1 = target, 𝐴2 = hot black body, 𝐴3 = cold black body
For a spectrometer, 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐴𝑖 (𝜐) so all frequencies are calibrated independently.
 Theme 7.4

Data archives

The final destination for most spacecraft data is a data archive, either publicly or
commercially accessible.

Data standards for such archives are usually very high, with very strict formatting,
documentation, and storage hardware standards so data can continue to be used
for decades. For this reason, a lot of archived data is in ASCII (text) or custom binary
format, rather than commercially available formats (e.g. Excel spreadsheet).

There are many, many such archives. Some examples:

• NASA Planetary Data System https://pds.nasa.gov/

• NASA Earth Observing System Data and Information System
https://earthdata.nasa.gov/eosdis
• ESA Planetary Science Archive https://archives.esac.esa.int/psa/
• EMM Science Data Center https://sdc.emiratesmarsmission.ae/
• British Atmospheric Data Center https://data.ceda.ac.uk/badc
 Theme 7.4

[https://atmos.nmsu.edu/data_and_services/atmospheres_data/MARS/atmosphere_temp_prof.html] Data archives – NASA PDS

 Theme 7.4

Data archives – EMM SDC

[https://sdc.emiratesmarsmission.ae/]
 Theme 7.4

Data archives – EMM SDC

[https://sdc.emiratesmarsmission.ae/]
 Theme 7.5

Demonstration

EMIRS surface temperature retrieval

L2 → L3 data processing

Retrieval of surface temperatures from radiance spectra

 Theme 6

Sources

Hanel, Conrath, Jennings, and Samuelson (2003), Exploration of the Solar System by
Infrared Remote Sensing, CUP, 2nd Ed.
Edwards et al. (2021), Space Science Reviews, 217, 77, 10.1007/s11214-021-00848-1.

Jones et al. (2021), Space Science Reviews, 217, 81, 10.1007/s11214-021-00852-5.

Smith & Edwards (2021), EMIRS Data Product Guide, ASU#401023.

Olschewski et al. (2018), Atmos. Meas. Tech., 11, 4757, 10.5194/amt-11-4757-2018.

 Theme 6

PHYS420 – Space Applications II

Theme 6: Weather & Climate Monitoring

Dr Roland Young
Fall 2022
 Theme 6

Contents

1. Introduction: Weather and climate

2. Platforms for weather and climate monitoring

3. Atmospheric radiative transfer

4. Remote sounding

5. Other planets
 Theme 6.1

Q: What is the difference between weather and climate?

In the most basic sense:

Weather is the day-to- Climate is weather averaged
day atmospheric state over some time period

Path of Hurricane Katrina Paths of all North Atlantic tropical

(September 2005) cyclones (hurricanes) from 1851-2019

Weather: When will Hurricane Climate: How many hurricanes

Katrina reach the coast? should we expect in September ?
[National Hurricane Center]
 Theme 6.1

What is the difference between weather and climate?

More rigorously: Climate is the long-term frequency distribution of atmospheric

states (its mean, variability, and spatial and temporal correlations) at a particular
location and time (of day, of year). Weather is the day-to-day atmospheric state,
which over time builds up the long-term frequency distribution.

Weather Climate
Will it rain next week? How much will it rain next March?
Difficult-to-impossible to predict more than a Possible to predict decades into the future
week or so ahead
An initial value problem A boundary value problem
Highly sensitive to initial conditions (“chaotic”) Highly sensitive to external “forcings”
Dynamics more important Radiative balance more important
Influence of and on individual events very Influence of oceans, humans very important
important (e.g. storms, floods)
 Theme 6.1

The climate in Al Ain

2005-2015, measured at Al Ain International Airport

Humidity (%) Average high (oC)

Temperature (oC)

Average low (oC)

Rainfall (mm)

https://www.timeanddate.com/weather/united-arab-emirates/al-ain/climate
 Theme 6.1

The weather in Al Ain

2020-2022, measured at my home in Al Khabeesi

Daily high
Daily high
– 30-day running mean

Daily low
Daily low
– 30-day running mean

Daily range

30-day running variability

 Theme 6.1

Köppen-Geiger climate classification

1980-2016 data

[Beck+ 2018, CC BY 4.0]

 Theme 6.2

Platforms for weather and climate monitoring

[Taylor, Fig. 1.15]

 Theme 6.2
Stevenson Screen
Ground-based (“conventional”) observations

Advantages:
• Cheap
• Easily maintained / replaced / calibrated
• Basic instruments are easy to build
• Good vertical resolution
Disadvantages:
• Coverage limited to land + major air / shipping routes
• Enormous network required to collect data Radiosonde
• Urban heat island effect Argo float
Observation platforms:
• Ground station
• Balloons
• Ships
• Aircraft
• Buoys
• Floaters
[Metcheck, radiosondemuseum.org, argo.ucsd.edu]
 Theme 6.2

Ground-based (“conventional”) observations

Even for basic instruments, calibration and standardization of instrument setup

is essential (and not always straightforward)

Dec 2021 – Feb 2022 maximum daily temperature

My neighbour’s
house
(~100m away) Temperature offset of ~4 oC
and numerous outliers,
probably due to sunlight
falling on one of the
thermometers

My house
 Theme 6.2

Satellite observations

Advantages:
• Systematic, regular, 3D, global coverage over short periods
• Can be operated from a small number of locations
• Same instrument is used everywhere
The “A-Train”
Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Hard to maintain / calibrate
• Remote measurements
• Instruments are complicated
• Some lower atmosphere
measurements are difficult
Types of measurement:
• Visible imaging
• Infrared sounding
• Microwave sounding [NASA/JPL]

• UV sounding Sun-synchronous orbit, crosses equator at 1:30

• Radio occultation PM / AM local solar time. Spaced a few minutes
• Radar scatterometer apart so data can be combined together
 Theme 6.2

Basic mechanism for

satellite observations of
weather and climate

1. Light is emitted by the

Sun (primarily at
visible and ultraviolet
wavelengths)
2. Light is emitted by the
Earth’s surface and
atmosphere (primarily
at infrared and
microwave
wavelengths)
3. This emission is well-
approximated as
[NASA/JPL]
black-body radiation

[Robert Rohde, CC-BY-SA-3.0]

 Theme 6.2

Basic mechanism for

satellite observations of
weather and climate

4. Solar light reflects off

the Earth’s surface
and clouds
5. Different molecules
absorb, transmit,
reflect, and scatter
light as a very strong
function of
wavelength
6. Satellites measure the
brightness of a target
as a function of
[NASA/JPL]
position, time, and
wavelength
[Robert Rohde, CC-BY-SA-3.0]
 Theme 6.2

Basic mechanism for

satellite observations of
weather and climate

7. Satellites can look

straight down,
sideways, or at a
distant target like the
Sun through the
atmosphere
8. Properties of the
atmosphere and
surface are deduced
based on the
observed brightnesses
and a model of
[NASA/JPL]
atmospheric and
surface properties by
performing a retrieval
[Robert Rohde, CC-BY-SA-3.0]
 Theme 6.2
1979 2019

Types of measurement and number of data

sources used in ECMWF ERA-5 reanalysis
(model combined with observations)

Types of observation (top to bottom):

Ozone
Stratospheric Sounding Unit
Infrared sounders
Microwave sounders
All-sky microwave radiances
GPS radio occultation
Geostationary radiances
Atmospheric motion vectors
Scatterometers
WAVE intragrated parameters
Ground-based radar
Conventional (i.e. ground-based)

Hersbach+ 2019
 Theme 6.2

Current network of weather satellites

Wikipedia lists 82 government-operated active Earth Observation satellites

(NB: For surface as well as atmospheric observations)

ESA Earth observation missions as of 2019

[CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO]

 Theme 6.2

Applications of remote sensing to weather and climate monitoring

Schematic flow of energy within Earth’s climate system
Earth’s radiation budget
1 2
Requires broadband
measurements of
1. Solar albedo (< 4 μm)
2. Outgoing thermal radiation
(> 4 μm)

Long-term climate forecasts

are very sensitive to these
quantities

Earth Radiation
Read+ 2016
Budget Satellite
(1984-2005)

Spectral channels covering 0.2 - 5 μm and 5 - 50 μm

 Theme 6.2

Applications of remote sensing to weather and climate monitoring

Atmospheric temperature sounding

Basic atmospheric property upon which many other quantities depend

Can be measured from orbit up to once every few seconds

Measured primarily by thermal infrared and microwave

radiometers and spectrometers
Emirates Mars InfraRed Spectrometer
Radiometer: Measures intensity of light
integrated over discrete wavelength bands

Spectrometer: Uses diffraction to splits light

into a spectrum over a range of wavelengths

Vertical resolution 1.5 - 15 km

depending on instrument
[MBRSC/Edwards+ 2021]
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/RemoteSensing/remote_08.php
 Theme 6.2

Applications of remote sensing to weather and climate monitoring

Atmospheric composition and chemistry Envisat (2002-2012)

Measured by infrared / microwave instruments

Remote sounding of composition is

similar to temperature (Theme 6.3-6.4)
1. First measure temperature profile using
spectral features of molecule of known
abundance
2. Then measure concentrations of
unknown species at other wavelengths

Important for understanding

Climate change: CO2, CH4, CO
Ozone chemistry: N2O, NO, NO2, N2O5, HNO3,
(“NOx”), O3, CFCs

[ESA]
 Theme 6.2

Applications of remote sensing to weather and climate monitoring

Clouds and aerosols Clouds on Mars observed by EMM

Emirates eXploration Imager (UV/Vis)
Clouds are important for the local atmospheric
energy budget and for predicting rain etc.

Tracking clouds can also be used to calculate

winds

Clouds have a very complex effect on climate

and global warming (they both cool and warm)

Clouds can be monitored at visible and UV

wavelengths

Aerosols (dust, soot, sulphuric acid, etc.) are

important for a variety of climate processes

Watch: GEOS-5 reanalysis (model +

observations) of various aerosols
 Theme 6.2

Applications of remote sensing to weather and climate monitoring

Doppler wind measurements

Atmospheric Dynamics Mission-Aeolus
Accurate winds are crucial for weather
2018 - ?2022
prediction and atmospheric transport

Motion can be calculated approximately using

• Temperature gradients
• By tracking clouds and other tracers

Doppler LIDAR emits UV or visible light and

records the backscattered light.

Wind speed/direction is derived from the

Doppler shift of spectral lines emitted by
atmospheric gases
The first satellite capable of measuring
the global 3D wind field
Requires very stable spacecraft pointing
(Measured speeds are << orbital motion)
Atmospheric LAser Doppler Instrument
UV laser LIDAR with 1.5 m telescope
 Theme 6.2

Applications of remote sensing to weather and climate monitoring

Surface properties

Surface remote sensing is a multi-billion-$ industry (see GIS theme, SA1 course)

For weather and climate, important quantities are

• Surface temperature Earth’s surface imaged by Envisat in 2004
• Surface air pressure
• Surface emissivity
• Surface reflectivity
• Vegetation cover
• Ice and snow cover
• Aerosol emissions
• Sea surface temperature
• Sea surface height
• Sea surface motion

Measurement is easier than for the atmosphere (target is bright)

But interpretation can be very difficult [ESA]
 Theme 6.2

Satellite viewing geometries - nadir

Instrument looks vertically downwards towards the ground

Signal is surface temperature + absorption / emission by atmosphere

Advantages:
• Can monitor continuously
• Instrument design is (relatively) simple

Disadvantages:
• Relatively low vertical resolution (10 km)
• Generally only temperature can be
resolved vertically
• Composition measurements must
assume vertical distribution

Example:
• Emirates Mars InfraRed Spectrometer
on board the Emirates Mars Mission [Lee et al. 2009]
 Theme 6.2

Satellite viewing geometries - limb

Instrument looks sideways at the atmosphere along the tangent to the planet

Signal is emission from atmosphere along slant path

Advantages:
• High vertical resolution (<5 km)
• Long path through atmosphere
• No surface emission to complicate signal
• Aerosol profiles are possible
• Low concentrations can be measured

Disadvantages:
• Difficult in the troposphere
• Complex instruments / precise pointing

Example:
• Mars Climate Sounder on board
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter [Lee et al. 2009]
 Theme 6.2

Satellite viewing geometries – solar/stellar occultation

Instrument observes a distance light source (e.g. Sun) through the atmosphere

Signal is source attenuated by absorption by the atmosphere

Advantages:
• High vertical resolution (<5 km)
• Long path through atmosphere
• S/N ratio is high due to strong source with known spectrum
• Aerosol profiles are possible
• ppb concentrations can be measured

Disadvantages:
• Only possible at sunrise/sunset
• Same instrumentation challenges as limb

Example:
• Atmospheric Chemistry Suite on board
ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter [Lee et al. 2009]
 Theme 6.3

Atmospheric radiative transfer

The theory of radiative transfer is

used to describe and explain

• How light emitted by the Sun,

Earth’s surface, and atmospheric
gases moves through the
atmosphere
• How it is absorbed, emitted,
scattered, and reflected by
molecules in the air
• How temperatures and
concentrations change over time
• How the variation of the top-of-
atmosphere brightness as a
function of wavelength can be
used to deduce atmospheric
properties, particularly
temperature and composition

[Robert Rohde, CC-BY-SA-3.0]

 Theme 6.3

Interaction of light with atmospheric molecules

Quantum mechanics describes how light (photons) behaves when it is incident

on an atom or molecule:

1. High energy photons can ionize an atom, removing an electron completely

2. Lower energy photons can change a molecule’s electronic energy state
3. Lower energy photons still can change a molecule’s vibrational energy state
4. The lowest energy photons can change a molecule’s rotational energy state

(2-4) are quantized – they can only occur for photons with discrete frequencies.
Each molecule and transition type has a characteristic set of energy levels.

Vibrational
modes of
two
important
atmospheric
molecules Carbon dioxide Ozone [kyoroskichannnel]
 Theme 6.3

Interaction of light with atmospheric molecules

Once one of transitions (2-4) takes place, one of two things then happens:

1. ttransition < tthermalisation

Photon is re-emitted at the same wavelength
2. ttransition > tthermalisation
Energy is distributed via molecular collisions before photon can be re-emitted
---> It is absorbed, and the intensity of the light that passes through is reduced
at that wavelength

The most important transitions for atmospheric monitoring are in the infrared and
microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum:

Vibrational energy levels – Typically 1000 cm-1 apart = 10 𝜇m (infrared)

Rotational energy levels – Typically 1 cm-1 apart = 10 mm (microwave)

1 cm-1 = 1 “wavenumber” = One wavelength per cm = 10 mm wavelength

Useful conversion for thermal infrared: 1000 cm-1 = 10 𝝁m
 Theme 6.3
(Following Houghton 2002, Chapter 2)
Absorption and emission

Consider light with radiance I moving a distance ds through an absorbing gas of density 𝜌.

The Beer-Lambert Law (or Bouguet’s Law) states that absorption is proportional to
1. The mass of the absorbing gas = 𝜌 𝑑𝑧 per unit area
2. The radiance I
k
The constant of proportionality is
called the absorption coefficient k.

𝑑𝐼 = −𝐼 𝑘 𝜌 𝑑𝑠

Radiance I has units of W m-2 sr-1

k has units of m2 kg-1. ds

[Vasilchenko, 2017]

In the atmospheric context, it is reasonable to assume a plane-parallel atmosphere: uniform

in the horizontal direction, only varying in the vertical. This is generally OK as horizontal
length scales are >> vertical length scales and >> distance from ground to instrument. In this
case, quantities become functions of height, i.e. ds = dz.
 Theme 6.3

Absorption and emission

Integrate this over distance to get the transmitted intensity:

𝐼 = 𝐼0 exp − න 𝑘 𝜌 𝑑𝑧

Some definitions:

In general, 𝜒 = ‫ 𝑧𝑑 𝜌 𝑘 ׬‬is called the optical path. 𝜒 > 0 always so I < I0 always.

When measured vertically downwards from the top of the atmosphere the optical path is
called the optical depth 𝜏:
𝑑𝜏 = −𝑘 𝜌 𝑑𝑧

(Note sign: optical depth = 0 at the top-of-atmosphere, integral is downwards, so 𝜏 > 0 still)

The full exponential term is called the fractional transmission:

𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝒯 𝒯 = exp − ‫𝑧𝑑 𝜌 𝑘 ׬‬ 𝒯 = 𝑒 −𝜒
 Theme 6.3

Absorption and emission

A slab of atmosphere will also emit radiation depending on its temperature.

In thermodynamic equilibrium a slab of atmosphere can be treated as a black body. Hence

the change in intensity I due to emission is

𝑑𝐼 = 𝐵(𝑇) 𝑘 𝜌 𝑑𝑧

Where k is the same as for absorption, because in thermodynamic equilibrium, Kirchhoff’s

Law of thermal radiation applies: “For an arbitrary body emitting and absorbing thermal
radiation in thermodynamic equilibrium, the emissivity is equal to the absorptivity”.

The atmosphere is not in true thermodynamic equilibrium, but in the lower atmosphere
conditions called Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium (LTE) apply, which are a sufficiently
good approximation for black-body emission to be used.

In the upper atmosphere, LTE no longer applies, so called non-LTE conditions.

𝑘 = 𝑘𝜈 is a strong function of frequency 𝜈. For now, we will use the “grey” approximation: k
is constant, i.e. does not vary with position or frequency (think of it as an average over all
frequencies). This turns out to be surprisingly reasonable for now.
 Theme 6.3

Radiative transfer equation

Combining absorption and emission we get Schwarzschild’s Equation, or the radiative

transfer equation for an atmosphere.

𝑑𝐼 = −𝐼 𝑘 𝜌 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐵 𝑘 𝜌 𝑑𝑧

Which can be written as

𝑑𝐼
=𝐼−𝐵
𝑑𝜏

in terms of optical depth. However, in a plane-parallel atmosphere we can integrate the

radiance over the downward- and upward- facing hemispheres to make the problem 1D in
terms of two quantities:

𝑭↑ Upwards-propagating irradiance

𝑭↓ Downwards-propagating irradiance

[Houghton Fig. 2.3]

 Theme 6.3

Radiative equilibrium in a gray atmosphere

Assuming:
• Infrared radiation is the only energy transfer mechanism
(OK for stratosphere, unrealistic for troposphere)
• “Grey” atmosphere – absorption coefficient is constant

The heating rate is

𝑑 𝑑𝑇
𝐹↑ − 𝐹↓ = 𝜌𝑐𝑝
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝑡

In equilibrium the heating rate is constant:

𝜙 = 𝐹↑ − 𝐹↓
 Theme 6.4

Remote sounding

The remote sounding problem:

Satellites measure radiative flux emerging from the top of the atmosphere. They
do not measure atmospheric (or surface) properties directly.

Given measurements of the top-of-atmosphere radiative flux over a range of

wavelengths, what can we deduce about the temperature, composition, etc. of
the atmosphere?

This is an example of an inverse problem (very common in physics):

If 𝐲 = 𝑓 𝐱 + 𝛆, and we measure y with accuracy 𝛆, what is x?
𝑓 𝐱 may be a very complicated function (an entire atmospheric model)

Remote means two things here:

1. Measuring something from a distance
2. Measuring one thing (e.g. radiance)
that is a function of something else we want to know (e.g. temperature)
 Theme 6.4

Remote sounding

The atmosphere contains

molecules that absorb light of
different wavelengths
depending on their
properties and the local air
density

Radiation emitted by the Sun,

surface, or atmosphere is
attenuated by interaction
with these molecules

The net transmission is the

combined effect of all these
components.

Important note: We now move away from the “grey” atmosphere

to consider radiative transfer at particular wavelengths
 Theme 6.4

Downgoing solar radiation

Solar radiation (<4 𝜇m) is

absorbed and scattered by:

• Ozone and O2 absorption

Ultraviolet
<350 nm

• Rayleigh scattering
Ultraviolet/visible
<700 nm
1
Proportional to 4
𝜆

• Water vapour absorption

Near infrared
0.7 - 4 𝜇m (several bands)
 Theme 6.4

Upgoing thermal radiation

Thermal radiation emitted by the

surface and atmosphere (>4 𝜇m)
is absorbed by:

• Water vapour
5 – 8 𝜇m (strong)
20+ 𝜇m (strong)
• Carbon dioxide
4.3 𝜇m (narrow band, strong)
15 𝜇m (wide band, strong)

• Ozone and O2
9.5 𝜇m (narrow band, weak)

• Methane, N2O
We focus on thermal rather than solar radiation. The
8 𝜇m (narrow band, weak) principles are the same but infrared absorption is more
4.6 𝜇m (narrow band, strong) useful for deducing atmospheric structure and composition.
 Theme 6.4

Upgoing thermal radiation

How can we use this

information to deduce
atmospheric properties?

Note the following general observations:

• Radiation emitted by the surface or

atmosphere is modelled as a black body
• Emission at wavelengths where the
atmosphere is transparent will reach the top
of atmosphere without being attenuated
➢ Can measure the surface temperature
• Emission at wavelengths where the
atmosphere is opaque will be reabsorbed by
air above
➢ Measured emission comes from the top
of the atmosphere
• Where the atmosphere is partially
transparent, we see emission from
intermediate altitudes [Taylor, Fig. 6.10]
 Theme 6.4

Weighting functions
A typical set of weighting functions
By designing an instrument so that it
measures radiance over a range of
wavelengths where the absorption
coefficient changes from transparent to
opaque, the measured radiance is weighted
by different layers in the atmosphere.

Weighting functions have a finite width in

altitude. This means that when
temperatures (and other quantities) are
deduced from such measurements, it is an
average over the part of the atmosphere
described by the weighting function.

For nadir, the width is typically 10 km.

Only the lowest functions will have

any contribution from the surface
[Taylor, Fig. 6.12] temperature
 Theme 6.4

Useful remote sounding bands

in the thermal infrared
The most useful remote sounding
bands for temperature are where
1. The transmission changes slowly
with wavelength
2. There are no other absorbers
3. Absorbing gas is well-mixed
➢ Edge of CO2 bands at 4.3, 14 𝜇m
➢ Atmospheric window at 10-12 𝜇m
Close-up of the carbon dioxide band centered at 15 𝜇m (note x-axis is wavenumber)

14.7 𝜇m 13.9 𝜇m [Houghton Fig. 4.1]

 Theme 6.4

Thermal emission from the Earth’s surface + atmosphere measured by Nimbus 4

Spectra are for a clear day
(no clouds)

Dashed lines show

radiance spectra from Sahara
black bodies of various
temperatures

Surface temperature can

be deduced from the
atmospheric window
around 900 cm-1
Mediterranean
Atmospheric temperature
can be deduced from the
wing of the CO2 band
between 700 – 800 cm-1
“inversion” Antarctica
Microwave measurements
required as well because
of clouds 25 𝜇m 6.7 𝜇m [Houghton, Fig. 12.7]
 Theme 6.4

Atmospheric retrievals

A retrieval is the process of deducing the atmospheric properties as a function of altitude

based on a series of remote sounding measurements.

For a retrieval of temperature:

New Forward model

Prior profile Predicted
atmospheric
(first guess) spectrum
profile

Are the synthetic and

observed spectra close
enough (within
Inverse model adjusts observation errors)? Compute
atmospheric profile
No difference
based on differences Yes
The prior profile can be
Final retrieved Observed
• A forecast model
profile spectrum
• Climate observations
• Brightness temperatures
 Theme 6

Sources

Houghton (2002), The Physics of Atmospheres, CUP

Flasar et al. (2004), Space Science Reviews, 115, 169, 10.1007/s11214-004-1454-9.
Taylor (2005), Elementary Climate Physics, OUP
Irwin (2009), Giant Planets of our Solar System, Springer-Praxis
Kleinböhl et al. (2009), J. Geophys. Res., 114, E10006, 10.1029/2009JE003358.
Lee et al. (2009), Atmospheric and Biological Environmental Monitoring, pp.13-38,
10.1007/978-1-4020-9674-7_2
Read et al. (2016), Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 142, 703, 10.1002/qj.2704.
Vasilchenko (2017), Doctoral thesis, U. Grenoble Alpes https://www.theses.fr/2017GREAY037.pdf
Beck et al. (2018), Scientific Data, 5, 180214, 10.1038/sdata.2018.214.
Korablev et al. (2018), Space Science Reviews, 214, 7, 10.1007/s11214-017-0437-6.
Hersbach et al. (2019), ECMWF Newsletter, 159, 17, 10.21957/vf291hehd7.
Edwards et al. (2021), Space Science Reviews, 217, 77, 10.1007/s11214-021-00848-1.
 Theme 6.5
[NON-EXAMINABLE]
Infrared spectra for other planets - Mars
22 November 2016
Carbon Several locations near
Like Earth, temperature sounded dioxide Martian equator
using CO2 band (NB: main
atmospheric constituent for
Mars, trace gas for Earth). Dust
and water ice also important

ESA/Roscosmos
ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter
Atmospheric Chemistry Suite
Dust Surface
Thermal Infrared channel
(1090 cm-1) temperature
Nadir viewing, sensitive to
600-2500 cm-1 (1.7 – 17 𝜇m)

Temperature at
~40 km altitude
Water ice (820 cm-1)
Atmospheric temperature
above surface temperature [Korablev+ 2018]
The BSc Physics Space Science Track

Space Applications II (PHYS 420)

Theme-4: Radio Sciences

Lecture-1

Dr. Aquib Moin

Introduction:

• Radio Sciences constitutes any sort of

scientific study that is done using radio
waves.

• Radio can travel through the Radio Spectrum

Universe/Earth’s atmosphere much more
freely compared to other wavelengths.

• The technology required for radio science

is based on telecommunication and
electronic applications (antenna, receivers,
amplifiers, filters, signal processors etc.).

• Through radio science, large amount of

information can be gathered which cannot
seen through human eyes.
Some properties of Radio Waves:

• Lower frequency, longer wavelength.

• Much less energy than other wavelengths.
• Follows a Sinusoidal function.
• Perpendicular electrical & magnetic fields.
• Orientation of the electric field: Polarization.
• Generally, its not a single wave. It’s a
superposition of multiple waves.
• Due to longer wavelength and lower energy,
they are easier to handle, process and
manipulate that’s why all electrical
applications use radio waves.
• A large number of natural phenomena and
processes produce radio waves, which can be
studied by capturing those radio waves.
• Radio waves cannot produce images directly,
the signal intensities can be plotted using
some techniques to get a radio image.
The Understanding of Radio
Waves:

• Radio waves can be fully understood

using Maxwell’s description of
electromagnetic wave, presented in
the form of 4 equations.

• Based on that, we describe current,

voltage, resistance, inductance,
capacitance etc: the framework for all
appliances.

• With this understanding, we can use

and study radio waves by deriving
various physical parameters.
Natural sources of Radio Waves:

Lets go to a very nice resource:

https://web.njit.edu/~gary/728/Lect
ure2.html
Topics in Radio Science:

• Radio Astronomy (countless themes)

• Plasma Physics
• Solar Physics
• Atmospheric Studies
• Earth Observation
• Meteorology (Weather & Climate)
• Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence
(SETI)
• Advanced topics (gravitational waves
in radio)

Basically, anything that emits radio

waves!
The BSc Physics Space Science Track

Space Applications II (PHYS 420)

Theme-4: Radio Sciences

Lecture-2

Dr. Aquib Moin

Radio Equipment &
Instruments:

• Working with radio waves involves

the use of electronic, electrical
devices and instruments that
operate on radio frequencies (RF).

• Most of this technology is well-

developed and is common in
various types of everyday
applications (telecom, television,
broadcast, internet, electronic
gadgets and appliances.

• The primary operation is radio

signal detection, monitoring,
manipulation, processing, analysis &
interpretation.
Radio Equipment & Instruments:

Antennas are the primary front-end radio

waves detection and capturing devices.
They are composed of conducting elements
or surfaces in which current starts to flow
and voltage is produced when radio waves
fall on them.

Radio antennas can be of many different

types based on the required frequency,
sensitivity, phenomena under study,
coverage and signal strength.

The antenna performance is governed by

antenna size, shape, gain, resolution,
collecting area, wavelength and sensitivity.
Radio Equipment & Instruments:

Radio Receivers are the backend devices

that receives the actual analog radio waves
captured by the antennas. They are
composed of semiconductor electronic
components such as resistors, inductors
and capacitors to hold on to the signals by
achieving “resonance” to the required
frequency.

There are additional components in the

receiver system to grab the required signal
such as filters, amplifiers, transistors,
modulators. Nowadays, the components
are extremely small.

The radio receiver operations &

performance is determined by the
frequency, filtering, sensitivity & processing
power.
Radio Equipment & Instruments:

Radio Signal processing chain is a series of

devices that manipulate, condition,
rearrange, format, process and analyze the
signal to convert it into “data”.

Signal amplification, noise removal, mixing

and conversion, summation, subtraction
digitization, processing, information
retrieval. Analog and digital signal
processing.

After digital conversion, the data can now

be taken into a computer-based processing
system and software to analyze and
interpret the data.

The data then is in the digital and internet

domain.
Overall Radio Operations:

All of these components, devices and

equipment working together, the required
objectives of using radio waves are
achieved.

A large part of this operation is in the

telecom, appliances and commercial
domains, but the same technology with
some specific modifications is used to study
the radio waves from natural objects,
processes and events in space and Earth’s
upper atmosphere.
Topics in Radio Science:

1. Radio Astronomy

• Study of the Universe in the Radio band.

• Human eyes can only see 0.0035% (visible
light) of the Universe.
• The Radio band is at least 100,000 times
larger than the visible band.
• A large number of events and objects in
the Universe emit radio waves.
• A lot can be learned about the mysteries of
the University by detecting these radio
waves.
• Very efficient to get the knowledge of
hidden facts about the Universe.
• One of the most prominent areas in Radio
Science.
Topics in Radio Science:

2. Plasma Physics

• 4th state of matter (ionized gas). Most

abundant in the Universe.
• Most of the stuff in the space between
Earth and Sun is plasma.
• Accelerated particles with high energy
produce radio emission.
• Valuable information about the space
environment.
• Critical of manned and unmanned space
exploration.
• Clues on possible conditions on Earth.
Topics in Radio Science:

3. Solar Physics

• Our Sun is a very powerful source of radio

emission.
• Particle interaction and motion in the
magnetic fields in the Solar atmosphere.
• Solar particle bursts, flares and active
regions.
• Knowledge of processes on the Sun, Solar
activity, variations, solar cycle.
• How the solar activity can affect the Earth.
Topics in Radio Science:

4. Atmospheric Studies

• Low frequency radio waves are reflected

by the Earth’s upper atmosphere and high
frequency radio waves pass through it.
• These reflected and refracted radio waves
carries effects from the atmosphere.
• When captured, these waves can be
analyzed to study propagation effects,
which provides useful clues on the
behaviour of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Topics in Radio Science:

5. Earth Observation

• Large number of Earth based

phenomena.
• Meteorology, Climatic conditions,
Geophysics, Geographic mapping
etc.
• Imaging, mapping, radar
altimetry.
Topics in Radio Science:

6. Search for Extraterrestrial

Intelligence (SETI)

• It is imagined that an intelligent alien

civilization would probably be using
radio waves for communication.
• The SETI projects have been using
radio antenna to scan the sky for
non-natural, narrow-band radio
signals.
• Large dishes and arrays have been
used for this purpose, but no luck so
far.
• They could be using EM radiation in a
different way.
• The search is still on.
Topics in Radio Science:

7. Advanced topics (gravitational

waves in radio)

• There is a hypothesis that very low

frequency radio waves could be
produced along with gravitational
waves when two extreme gravity
objects merge/collide.
• Extremely sensitive and very large
radio arrays (such as SKA) would be
required.
• Accelerated particles in the
environment of the merger could
produce radio waves.
• The detection of such radio waves
could provide hints on extreme events
shedding light on creation and
destruction in the Universe.
 The BSc Physics Space Science Track

Space Applications II (PHYS 420)

Theme-5: Space-based Telecommunication Systems

Lecture-1

Dr. Aquib Moin

Introduction:

• The use of technology for

telecommunication between two points
has been well-established since the
invention of radio frequency equipment Radio Spectrum
such as transmitters and receivers.

• A lot of what was discussed in the

previous theme, is applicable for this topic.

• After the advent of Space-age in the late

50s, early 60s, there was shift from
terrestrial telecom systems to space-based
telecom systems.

• The primary drivers were coverage,

accessibility, efficiency, ease of operations.
Telecom moving to Space:

• Experimental radio communications

satellites in late 50s, early 60s from USA &
USSR (Russia).

• Space-based telecom system really

started to take shape with the concept of
geosynchronous and geostationary (GEO)
orbits (conceptual idea: Arthur C. Clarke).
Why not LEO?
Telecom moving to Space (2):

• Geosynchronous: Orbital period equal

to Earth’s rotation period.

• Geostationary: geosynchronous orbit

right above the equator.

• How such an orbit can be designed?

• How such an orbit is achieved:

Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO) or
Hohman transfer orbit.
A Communications Satellite:

• A large satellite with multiple

communication subsystems onboard.

• It can weigh as much as 6000 – 7000

kg and can be as large as a bus.

• Communication subsystems are the

main payloads.

• Antennas, transmitters, receivers,

transponders. Multiple frequencies,
multiple bands.

• Its basically a radio “relay” station in

space.
Intelsat V
Satellite Communication
(SatCom) Domain:

• Satellite communication services

providing networks: Intelsat,
Eutelsat, Telesat, Globecomm,
Asiasat, Telespazio, Arabsat,
Thuraya, Yahsat etc.
• Development and launch
capability is limited.
• Frequency allocation:
International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) => L/C/S/X/Ka/Ku
bands [1 – 50 GHz] https://www.intelsat.com/fleetmaps/
• Orbital slot allocation => in terms
of longitude of Earth [from 0 –
359 degrees].
SatCom Operations:

• A communication satellite “relays”

signals and data between multiple
stations, devices providing larger
coverage, long-distance connectivity,
higher accessibility. Communications
“links” over large areas.

• Dedicated ground stations (ground

segment) with large dishes, as the
satellite is fixed relative to the ground
footprint.

• Satcom works with different types of

approaches: communications through
gateways, direct broadcast, routing etc.

• Functions: coding/decoding,
compression, Telecom protocols.
SatCom Applications:

Types of Services:

• Fixed Satellite Service (FSS).

• Mobile Satellite Service (MSS).
• Broadcast Satellite Service (BSS).

Areas:

• Mobile Telephony.
• Radio/Television broadcast.
• Broadband internet service.
• Digital video/audio/data relay
• Access for mobility (transportation,
aviation, space exploration.
• Secure Government, Military, defence,
warfare.