Juvenile delinquency

Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, is the act of participating in unlawful behavior as
a minor or individual younger than the statutory age of majority.[1] In the United States of America, a
juvenile delinquent is a person who commits a crime and is under a specific age.[2] Most states specify a
juvenile delinquent, or young offender, as an individual under 18 years of age while a few states have set
the maximum age slightly different.[3] In 2021, Michigan, New York, and Vermont raised the maximum age
to under 19, and Vermont law was updated again in 2022 to include individuals under the age of 20.[4]
Only three states, Georgia, Texas, and Wisconsin still appropriate the age of a juvenile delinquent as
someone under the age of 17.[3] While the maximum age in some US states has increased, Japan has
lowered the juvenile delinquent age from under 20 to under 18. This change occurred on April 1, 2022
when the Japanese Diet activated a law lowering the age of minor status in the country.[5][6][7] Just as there
are differences in the maximum age of a juvenile delinquent, the minimum age for a child to be considered
capable of delinquency or the age of criminal responsibility varies considerably between the states.[4] Some
states that impose a minimum age have made recent amendments to raise the minimum age, but most states
remain ambiguous on the minimum age for a child to be determined a juvenile delinquent. In 2021, North
Carolina changed the minimum age from 6 years old to 10 years old while Connecticut moved from 7 to 10
and New York made an adjustment from 7 to 12. In some states the minimum age depends on the
seriousness of the crime committed.[8] Juvenile delinquents or juvenile offenders commit crimes ranging
from status offenses such as, truancy, violating a curfew or underage drinking and smoking to more serious
offenses categorized as property crimes, violent crimes, sexual offenses, and cybercrimes.[9]

Some scholars have found an increase in arrests for youth and have concluded that this may reflect more
aggressive criminal justice and zero-tolerance policies rather than changes in youth behavior.[10] Youth
violence rates in the United States have dropped to approximately 12% of peak rates in 1993 according to
official US government statistics, suggesting that most juvenile offending is non-violent.[11] Many
delinquent acts can be attributed to the environmental factors such as family behavior or peer
influence.[12][13] One contributing factor that has gained attention in recent years is the school to prison
pipeline. According to Diverse Education, nearly 75% of states have built more jails and prisons than
colleges. CNN also provides a diagram that shows that cost per inmate is significantly higher in most states
than cost per student. This shows that tax payers' dollars are going toward providing for prisoners rather
than providing for the educational system and promoting the advancement of education. For every school
that is built, The focus on punitive punishment has been seen to correlate with juvenile delinquency
rates.[14] Some have suggested shifting from zero tolerance policies to restorative justice approaches.[15]

Juvenile detention centers, Juvenile courts and electronic monitoring are common structures of the juvenile
legal system.[16] Juvenile courts are in place to address offenses for minors as civil rather than criminal
cases in most instances. The frequency of use and structure of these courts in the United States varies by
state.[17] Depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for people under 18 to
be charged and treated as adults.[18]

Overview
Juvenile delinquency, or offending, is often separated into three categories:

delinquency, crimes committed by minors, which are dealt with by the juvenile courts and
justice system;
 criminal behavior, crimes dealt with by the criminal justice system;
status offenses, offenses that are only classified as such because only a minor can commit
them. One example of this is possession of alcohol by a minor. These offenses are also dealt
with by the juvenile courts.[19]

Currently, there is not an agency whose jurisdiction is tracking worldwide juvenile delinquency but
UNICEF estimates that over one million children are in some type of detention globally.[20] Many countries
do not keep records of the amount of delinquent or detained minors but of the ones that do, the United
States has the highest number of juvenile delinquency cases.[21] In the United States, the Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention compiles data concerning trends in juvenile delinquency. According to
their most recent publication, 7 in 1000 juveniles in the US committed a serious crime in 2016.[22] A serious
crime is defined by the US Department of Justice as one of the following eight offenses: murder and non-
negligent homicide, rape (legacy & revised), robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, motor vehicle theft,
larceny-theft, and arson.[23] According to research compiled by James Howell in 2009, the arrest rate for
juveniles has been dropping consistently since its peak in 1994.[24] Of the cases for juvenile delinquency
that make it through the court system, probation is the most common consequence and males account for
over 70% of the caseloads.[25][22]

According to developmental research by Moffitt (2006),[26] there are two different types of offenders that
emerge in adolescence. The first is an age specific offender, referred to as the adolescence-limited offender,
for whom juvenile offending or delinquency begins and ends during their period of adolescence. Moffitt
argues that most teenagers tend to show some form of antisocial or delinquent behavior during adolescence,
it is therefore important to account for these behaviors in childhood in order to determine whether they will
be adolescence-limited offenders or something more long term.[27] The other type of offender is the repeat
offender, referred to as the life-course-persistent offender, who begins offending or showing
antisocial/aggressive behavior in adolescence (or even in childhood) and continues into adulthood.[27]

Situational factors
Most of influencing factors for juvenile delinquency tend to be caused by a mix of both
genetic and environmental factors.[26] According to Laurence Steinberg's book
Adolescence, the two largest predictors of juvenile delinquency are parenting style and
peer group association.[26] Additional factors that may lead a teenager into juvenile
delinquency include poor or low,

socioeconomic status, poor school readiness/performance and/or failure and peer rejection. Delinquent
activity, especially the involvement in youth gangs, may also be caused by a desire for protection against
violence or financial hardship. Juvenile offenders can view delinquent activity as a means of gaining access
to resources to protect against such threats. Research by Carrie Dabb indicates that even changes in the
weather can increase the likelihood of children exhibiting deviant behavior.[28]

Family environment

Family factors that may have an influence on offending include: the level of parental
supervision, the way parents discipline a child, parental conflict or separation, criminal
activity by parents or siblings, parental abuse or neglect, and the quality of the parent-child
relationship.[12] As mentioned above, parenting style is not of the largest predictors of
juvenile delinquency. There are 4 categories of parenting styles which describe the
attitudes and behaviors that parents express while raising their children.[29]
 Authoritative parenting is characterized by warmth and support in addition to discipline.
Indulgent parenting is characterized by warmth and regard towards their children but
lack structure and discipline.
Authoritarian parenting is characterized by high discipline without the warmth thus
leading to often hostile demeanor and harsh correction
Neglectful parenting is both non responsive and non demanding. The child is not
engaged either affectionately or disciplinary by the parent.[29]

According to research done by Laura E. Berk, the style of parenting that would be most beneficial for a
child, based on studies conducted by Diana Baumrind(1971) is the authoritative child-rearing style because
it combines acceptance with discipline to render healthy development for the child.[30][31]

As concluded in Steinberg's Adolescence, children brought up by single parents are more likely to live in
poverty and engage in delinquent behavior than those who live with both parents.[26] However, according
to research done by Graham and Bowling, once the attachment a child feels towards their parent(s) and the
level of parental supervision are taken into account, children in single parent families are no more likely to
offend than others. It was seen that when a child has low parental supervision they are much more likely to
offend.[12][32] Negative peer group association is more likely when adolescents are left unsupervised.[26] A
lack of supervision is also connected to poor relationships between children and parents. Children who are
often in conflict with their parents may be less willing to discuss their activities with them.[12] Conflict
between a child's parents is also much more closely linked to offending than being raised by a lone
parent.[33]

Adolescents with siblings who have committed crimes are more likely to be influenced by their siblings and
become delinquent if the sibling is older, of the same sex/gender, and maintains a good relationship with the
child.[13] Cases where a younger criminal sibling influences an older one are rare. An aggressive more
hostile sibling is less likely to influence a younger sibling in the direction of delinquency, if anything, the
more strained the relationship between the siblings, the less they will want to be influence each other.[13]

Children resulting from unintended pregnancies are more likely to exhibit delinquent behavior.[34] They
also have lower mother-child relationship quality.[35]

Peer influence

Peer rejection in childhood is also a large predictor of juvenile delinquency.[13] This rejection can affect the
child's ability to be socialized properly and often leads them to gravitate towards anti-social peer groups.[13]
Association with anti-social groups often leads to the promotion of violent, aggressive and deviant
behavior.[13] Robert Vargas's "Being in 'Bad' Company," explains that adolescents who can choose
between groups of friends are less susceptible to peer influence that could lead them to commit illegal
acts.[36] Aggressive adolescents who have been rejected by peers are also more likely to have a "hostile
attribution bias", which leads people to interpret the actions of others (whether they be hostile or not) as
purposefully hostile and aggressive towards them.[37] This often leads to an impulsive and aggressive
reaction.[37]

Conformity plays a significant role in the vast impact that peer group influence has on an individual.
Aronson, Wilson, & Akert (2013)[38] point to the research experiment conducted by Solomon Asch
(1956),[39] to ascertain whether a group could influence an individual's behavior. The experiment was
executed by asking a participant determine which line in the set of 3 lines matched the length of an original
line. Confederates knew the purpose of the experiment and were directed to answer the questions
incorrectly during certain phases of the experiment. These confederates answered the question before the
participant. The confederates answered the first few questions correctly, as did the participant. Eventually,
all of the confederates started to answer incorrectly. The purpose of the experiment was to see if the group
would influence the participant to answer incorrectly. Asch found that seventy-six percent of the participants
conformed and answered incorrectly when influenced by the group.[39] According to these findings, it was
concluded that a peer group that is involved in deviant behavior can influence an adolescent to engage in
similar activities.[40] Once the adolescent becomes part of the group, they will be susceptible to
groupthink.[38]

School to prison pipeline

A common contributor to juvenile delinquency rates is a phenomenon referred to as the school to prison
pipeline. In recent years, school disciplinary measures have become increasingly policed.[14] In fact, 67% of
high school students attend schools with police officers.[41] This rise in police presence is often attributed to
the implementation of zero tolerance policies.[42] Based on the "broken windows" theory of criminology
and the Gun-Free Schools Act, zero tolerance policies stress the use of specific, consistent, and harsh
punishment to deal with in school infractions.[43][42] Often measures such as suspension or expulsion are
assigned to students who deviant regardless of the reason or past disciplinary history.[42] This use of
punishment often has been linked with increasing high school drop out rates and future arrests.[15] It was
found in a 2018 study that students who received a suspension were less likely to graduate and more likely
to be arrested or on probation.[44] As stated in research by Matthew Theriot, the increased police presence
in school and use of tougher punishment methods leads student actions to be criminalized and in turn
referred to juvenile justice systems.[14]

The Center on Youth Justice at the Vera Institute of Justice found that “for similar students attending similar
schools, a single suspension or expulsion doubles the risk that a student will repeat a grade.[45] Being
retained a grade, especially while in middle or high school, is one of the strongest predictors of dropping
out.[42] In a national longitudinal study, it was reported that youth with a prior suspension were 68% more
likely to dropout of school.[42]

The school to prison pipeline disproportionately affects minority students.[46] According to data compiled
by the United States Government Accountability Office, 39% of students who received a suspension in the
2013-14 school year were Black, even though Black students accounted for only about 15% of public
school students.[47] This over-representation applied to both boys and girls of African descent.[47]
Compared to White students, Black students were expelled or suspended 3 times as frequently.[48]

Personality factors
Juvenile delinquency is the unlawful activities by minors in their teen or pre-teen years. It is influenced by
four main risk factors, namely: personality, background, state of mind and drugs.

Gender

Gender is another risk factor in regards to influencing delinquent behavior. The predictors of different types
of delinquency vary across females and males for various reasons, but a common underlying reason for this
is socialization.[49][50] Different predictors of delinquency emerge when analyzing distinct offending types
across gender, but overall it is evident that males commit more crimes than females.[51] Across all offenses,
females are less likely to be involved in delinquent acts than males.[49] Females not only commit fewer
offenses, but they also commit less serious offenses.[50]
Socialization plays a key role in the gender gap in delinquency because male and female juveniles are often
socialized differently. Girls' and boys' experiences are heavily mediated by gender, which alters their
interactions in society. Males and females are differently controlled and bonded, suggesting that they will
not make the same choices and may follow different paths of delinquency. Social bonds are important for
both males and females, but different aspects of the bond are relevant for each gender.[52] The degree of
involvement in social settings is a significant predictor of male's violent delinquency, but is not significant
for females. Males tend to be more connected with their peer relationships which in effect has a stronger
influence on their behavior.[53][54] Association with delinquent peers is one of the strongest correlates of
juvenile delinquency, and much of the gender gap can be accounted for by the fact that males are more
likely to have friends that support delinquent behavior. Delinquent peers are positively and significantly
related to delinquency in males but delinquent peers are negatively and insignificantly related to
delinquency for females.[54] As for females, familial functioning relationships have shown to be more
important. Female juveniles tend to be more strongly connected with their families, the disconnect or the
lack of socialization between their family members can significantly predict their likelihood of committing
crimes as juveniles and even as adults. When the family is disrupted, females are more likely to engage in
delinquent behavior than males.[50] Boys, however, tend to be less connected to their family and are not as
affected by these relationships.[53] When it comes to minor offenses such as fighting, vandalism,
shoplifting, and the carrying of weapons, differences in gender are limited because they are most common
among both males as well as females. Elements of the social bond, social disorganization, routine activities,
opportunity, and attitudes towards violence are also related to delinquent behavior among both males and
females.[50]

Neurological

Individual psychological or behavioral risk factors that may make offending more likely include low
intelligence, impulsiveness or the inability to delay gratification, aggression, lack of empathy, and
restlessness.[32] Other risk factors that may be evident during childhood and adolescence include,
aggressive or troublesome behavior, language delays or impairments, lack of emotional control (learning to
control one's anger), and cruelty to animals.[13]

Children with low intelligence are more likely to do badly in school. This may increase the chances of
offending because low educational attainment, a low attachment to school, and low educational aspirations
are all risk factors for offending in themselves.[33][55][56] Children who perform poorly at school are also
more likely to be truant, and the status offense of truancy is linked to further offending.[32]

Impulsiveness is seen by some as the key aspect of a child's personality that predicts offending.[32]
However, it is not clear whether these aspects of personality are a result of "deficits in the executive
functions of the brain"[32] or a result of parental influences or other social factors.[12] In any event, studies
of adolescent development show that teenagers are more prone to risk-taking, which may explain the high
disproportionate rate of offending among adolescents.[26]

Psychological

Juvenile delinquents are often diagnosed with different disorders. Around six to sixteen percent of male
teens and two to nine percent of female teens have a conduct disorder. These can vary from oppositional-
defiant disorder, which is not necessarily aggressive, to antisocial personality disorder, often diagnosed
among psychopaths.[57] A conduct disorder can develop during childhood and then manifest itself during
adolescence.[58]
Juvenile delinquents who have recurring encounters with the criminal justice system, or in other words
those who are life-course-persistent offenders, are sometimes diagnosed with conduct disorders because
they show a continuous disregard for their own and others safety and/or property. Once the juvenile
continues to exhibit the same behavioral patterns and turns eighteen he is then at risk of being diagnosed
with antisocial personality disorder and much more prone to become a serious criminal offender.[59] One of
the main components used in diagnosing an adult with antisocial personality disorder consists of presenting
documented history of conduct disorder before the age of 15. These two personality disorders are analogous
in their erratic and aggressive behavior. This is why habitual juvenile offenders diagnosed with conduct
disorder are likely to exhibit signs of antisocial personality disorder early in life and then as they mature.
Some times these juveniles reach maturation and they develop into career criminals, or life-course-persistent
offenders. "Career criminals begin committing antisocial behavior before entering grade school and are
versatile in that they engage in an array of destructive behaviors, offend at exceedingly high rates, and are
less likely to quit committing crime as they age."[59]

Quantitative research was completed on 9,945 juvenile male offenders between the ages of 10 and 18 in
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in the 1970s.[60] The longitudinal birth cohort was used to examine a trend
among a small percentage of career criminals who accounted for the largest percentage of crime activity.[60]
The trend exhibited a new phenomenon among habitual offenders. The phenomenon indicated that only 6%
of the youth qualified under their definition of a habitual offender (known today as life-course persistent
offenders, or career criminals) and yet were responsible for 52% of the delinquency within the entire
study.[60] The same 6% of chronic offenders accounted for 71% of the murders and 69% of the aggravated
assaults.[60] This phenomenon was later researched among an adult population in 1977 and resulted in
similar findings. S. A. Mednick did a birth cohort of 30,000 males and found that 1% of the males were
responsible for more than half of the criminal activity.[61] The habitual crime behavior found among
juveniles is similar to that of adults. As stated before most life-course persistent offenders begin exhibiting
antisocial, violent, and/or delinquent behavior, prior to adolescence. Therefore, while there is a high rate of
juvenile delinquency, it is the small percentage of life-course persistent, career criminals that are responsible
for most of the violent crimes.

Criminology
There are a multitude of different theories on the causes of crime (criminology) most, if not all, of which are
applicable to the causes of juvenile delinquency.

Rational choice

Classical criminology stresses that the causes of crime lie within individual offenders, rather than in their
external environment. For classicists, offenders are motivated by rational self-interest, and the importance of
free will and personal responsibility is emphasized.[62] Rational choice theory is the clearest example of that
idea. Delinquency is one of the major factors motivated by rational choice.

Social disorganization
Current positivist approaches generally focus on the culture. A type of criminological theory attributing
variation in crime and delinquency over time and among territories to the absence or breakdown of
communal institutions (such as family, school, church, and social groups) and communal relationships that
traditionally encouraged cooperative relationships among people.

Strain

Strain theory is associated mainly with the work of Robert K. Merton, who felt that there are
institutionalized paths to success in society. Strain theory holds that crime is caused by the difficulty for
those in poverty have to achieve socially-valued goals by legitimate means.[62] Since those with, for
instance, poor educational attainment have difficulty achieving wealth and status by securing well-paid
employment, they are more likely to use criminal means to obtain those goals.[63] Merton's suggests five
adaptations to this dilemma:

1. Innovation: individuals who accept socially-approved goals but not necessarily the socially-
approved means.
2. Retreatism: those who reject socially-approved goals and the means for acquiring them.
3. Ritualism: those who buy into a system of socially-approved means but lose sight of the
goals. Merton believed that drug users are in this category.
4. Conformity: those who conform to the system's means and goals.
5. Rebellion: people who negate socially-approved goals and means by creating a new system
of acceptable goals and means.

A difficulty with strain theory is that it does not explore why children of low-income families have poor
educational attainment in the first place. More importantly, much youth crime does not have an economic
motivation. Strain theory fails to explain violent crime, the type of youth crime that causes most anxiety to
the public.

Differential association

Differential association is another theory that deals with young people in a group context and looks at how
peer pressure and the existence of gangs could lead them into crime. It suggests young people are motivated
to commit crimes by delinquent peers and learn criminal skills from them. The diminished influence of peers
after men marry has also been cited as a factor in desisting from offending. There is strong evidence that
young people with criminal friends are more likely to commit crimes themselves. However, offenders may
prefer to associate with one another, rather than delinquent peers causing someone to start offending.
Furthermore, there is the question of how the delinquent peer group initially became delinquent.

Labeling

Labeling theory is a concept in criminology that aims to explain deviant behavior from the social context,
rather the individual themselves. It is part of interactionism criminology, which states that once young
people have been labeled as criminal, they are more likely to offend.[62] The idea is that once labelled as
deviant, a young person may accept that role and be more likely to associate with others who have been
similarly labeled.[62] Labelling theorists say that male children from poor families are more likely to be
labelled deviant, which may partially explain the existence of more working-class young male offenders.[33]

Social control

Social control theory proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds self-
control and can reduce the inclination to indulge in behavior that is recognized as antisocial. These four
types of control can help prevent juvenile delinquency:

Direct by which punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behavior, and compliance is rewarded by
parents, family, and authority figures. Internal by which a youth refrains from delinquency through the
conscience or superego. Indirect by identification with those who influence behavior, such as because the
delinquent act might cause pain and disappointment to parents and others close relationships. Control
through needs satisfaction: if all an individual's needs are met, there is no point in criminal activity.

Punishment
In 2020 a ruling abolished the death penalty for juveniles in Saudi Arabia. Despite this Mustafa Hashem al-
Darwish was executed in June 2021. He was alleged to have of taken part in anti-government
demonstrations at the age of 17. al-Darwish had been detained in May 2015 being placed in solitary
confinement for years. al-Darwish claimed that he faced brutal torture and beatings and was forced to sign
confessions.[64][65]

One criminal justice approach to juvenile delinquency is through the juvenile court systems. These courts
are specifically for minors to be tried in. Sometimes, juvenile offenders are sent to adult prisons.[66] In the
United States, children as young as 8 can be tried and convicted as adults. Additionally, the United States
was the only recorded country to sentence children as young as 13 to life sentences without parole also
known as death in prison sentences. As of 2012, the Supreme Court has declared death in prison sentences
unconstitutional for the vast majority of cases involving children.[18] According to the US Department of
Justice, about 3,600 children are housed in adult jails.[67]

According to a report released by the Prison Policy Initiative, over 48,000 children are held in juvenile
detention centers or prisons in America.[16] The worldwide number is unknown but UNICEF estimates that
over 1 million children experience confinement in various countries.[68] Juveniles in youth detention centers
are sometimes subject to many of the same punishments as adults, such as solitary confinement, despite a
younger age or the presence of disabilities.[69] Due to the influx of minors in detention facilities due to the
school to prison pipeline, education is increasingly becoming a concern. Children in juvenile detention have
a compromised or nonexistent schooling which to a higher number of drop outs and failure to complete
secondary education.[70]

Prevention
Delinquency prevention is the broad term for all efforts aimed at preventing youth from becoming involved
in criminal, or other antisocial, activity. Prevention services may include activities such as substance abuse
education and treatment, family counseling, youth mentoring, parenting education, educational support, and
youth sheltering. Increasing availability and use of family planning services, including education and
 contraceptives helps to reduce unintended pregnancy and unwanted
births, which are risk factors for delinquency. It has been noted that
often interventions such as peer groups may leave at-risk children
worse off than if there had never been an intervention.[71]

Policies

Education promotes economic growth, national productivity and

innovation, and values of democracy and social cohesion.[72]
Prevention through education has been seen to discourage
delinquency for minors and help them strengthen the connection
and understanding between peers[73]

A well-known intervention treatment is the Scared Straight

1936 poster promoting planned Treatment.[74] According to research done by Scott Lilienfeld, this
housing as a method to deter type of intervention is often harmful because of juvenile offenders’
juvenile delinquency, showing
vicarious exposure to criminal role models and the possibility of
silhouettes of a child stealing a piece
increased resentment in reaction to the confrontational
of fruit and the older child involved in
interactions.[75] It has been reasoned that the most efficient
armed robbery.
interventions are those that not only separate at-risk teens from anti-
social peers, and place them instead with pro-social ones, but also
simultaneously improve their home environment by training parents with appropriate parenting styles.[71]

In response to the data correlated with the school to prison pipeline, some institutions have implemented
restorative justice policies.[76] The restorative justice approach emphasizes conflict resolution and non-
punitive intervention.[77] Interventions such as hiring more counselors as opposed to security professionals
or focusing on talking through problems would be included in a restorative justice approach.[77]

It is also important to note certain works of legislation that have already been published in the United States
in response to general prisoner re-entry, extending to juveniles, such as the Second Chance Act (2007) and
most recently, the Second Chance Reauthorization Act (2018). (https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congre
ss/senate-bill/3635/all-info)[78]

Juvenile reform

Juvenile reform deals with the vocational programs and educational approach to reducing recidivism rates
of juvenile offenders. Most countries in the world legislate processes for juvenile reform and re-entry, some
more elaborate and formal than others. In theory, juvenile re-entry is sensitive to the fact that juveniles are
young and assumes they are capable of change; it approaches a juvenile offender's situation and history
holistically, evaluating the earlier factors that could lead a juvenile to commit crimes. In practice, this is
complicated since juvenile delinquents return home to varying and unpredictable circumstances, including
poverty, substance abuse, domestic violence, etc..

In the United States, juvenile reform is split into four main phases:[79]

1. The Entry Phase: The youth enters residential placement

2. The Placement Phase: Amount of time youth is in the placement facility (whatever that may
be)
3. The Transitional Phase (re-entry): Act of leaving facility and entering community (from right
after exit of facility to right before entering community)
 4. The Community-based Aftercare Phase: Period of time after youth returns to the community
(usually 120-day period right after transitional phase)

An understanding of the factors involved in each of these steps is crucial to creating an effective juvenile
reform program. One non-profit identifies the following approaches to juvenile reform:[80]

1. Early Intervention: preventing juvenile youth from ever encountering the justice system by
implementation of conflict-resolution practices or administrative strategies that aim to teach
the child healthy actions to take in difficult situations. It is implemented before any offense is
committed and often involves a thorough discussion of what individual issues a child is
dealing with.
2. Diversion: the placement of youth in programs that redirect youth away from juvenile justice
system processing, or programs that divert youth from secure detention in a juvenile justice
facility. These programs are most often in attempt to protect juveniles from getting a charge
on their record after they have already committed a crime. This can be led through school
administration intervention or by law enforcement officers that have been trained in dealing
with at-risk youth. These programs are often given to children who have unstable life
circumstances and are thus extended aid that will attack the "root problems" rather than
further isolate them in society.
3. Alternatives to Secure Confinement: a juvenile justice approach that does not require the
juvenile's entry in a "jail-like" facility. Often involves the juvenile's continued participation in
society, but in a modified manner. Such alternatives include home confinement, supervision
of a probation officer, community service requirements, and community-based facilities,
among others.
4. Evidence-Based Practices: the emphasis on encouraging youth participation in programs
that have evidence of working. The evaluation of "success" for a program is dependent on
multiple factors, such as reduction of recidivism rates, cost-effectiveness, and addressing
health problems.
5. Diverting Youth Who Commit Status Offenses: programs that address the "root" problems
causing a juvenile's behavior and actions. Such programs are often part of a tiered approach
to juvenile justice and reform.
6. Funding Community-Based Alternatives on a Large Scale: the supporting of all initiatives in
a community that have been proven to help with juvenile betterment and reform. This allows
the community to help its own and does not rely on the decisions of the state regarding the
needs of juveniles.

While juvenile reform has proved to be an effective and humanizing approach response to juvenile
delinquency, it is a very complex area that still has many ongoing debates. For example, many countries
around the world are debating the appropriate age of a juvenile, as well as trying to understand whether
there are some crimes that are so heinous, they should be exempt from any understanding. Based on these
discussions, legislation needs to be consistently updated and considered as social, cultural, and political
landscapes change.

Juvenile sex crimes

Juveniles who commit sexual crimes refer to individuals adjudicated in a criminal court for a sexual
crime.[81] Sex crimes are defined as sexually abusive behavior committed by a person under the age of 18
that is perpetrated "against the victim's will, without consent, and in an aggressive, exploitative,
manipulative, and/or threatening manner".[82] It is important to utilize appropriate terminology for juvenile
sex offenders. Harsh and inappropriate expressions include terms such as "pedophile, child molester,
predator, perpetrator, and mini-perp".[83] These terms have often been associated with this group, regardless
of the youth's age, diagnosis, cognitive abilities, or developmental stage.[83] Using appropriate expressions
can facilitate a more accurate depiction of juvenile sex offenders and may decrease the subsequent aversive
psychological affects from using such labels.[83] In the Arab Gulf states [sic], homosexual acts are classified
as an offense, and constitute one of the primary crimes for which juvenile males are charged.[84]

Prevalence data

Examining prevalence data and the characteristics of juvenile sex offenders is a fundamental component to
obtain a precise understanding of this heterogeneous group. With mandatory reporting laws in place, it
became a necessity for providers to report any incidents of disclosed sexual abuse. Longo and Prescott
indicate that juveniles commit approximately 30-60% of all child sexual abuse.[83] The Federal Bureau of
Investigation Uniform Crime Reports indicate that in 2008 youth under the age of 18 accounted for 16.7%
of forcible rapes and 20.61% of other sexual offenses.[85] Center for Sex Offender Management indicates
that approximately one-fifth of all rapes and one-half of all sexual child molestation can be accounted for by
juveniles.[86]

Official record data

The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention indicates that 15% of juvenile arrests occurred
for rape in 2006, and 12% were clearance (resolved by an arrest).[87] The total number of juvenile arrests in
2006 for forcible rape was 3,610 with 2% being female and 36% being under the age of 15 years.[87] This
trend has declined throughout the years with forcible rape from 1997–2006 being −30% and from 2005 to
2006 being −10%.[87] The OJJDP reports that the juvenile arrest rate for forcible rape increased from the
early 1980s through the 1990s and at that time it fell again.[87] Violent crime rates in the U.S. have been on
a steady decline since the 1990s.[88] The OJJDP also reported that the total number of juvenile arrests in
2006 for sex offenses (other than forcible rape) was 15,900 with 10% being female and 47% being under
the age of 15.[87] There was again a decrease with the trend throughout the years with sex offenses from
1997 to 2006 being −16% and from 2005 to 2006 being −9%.[87]

Males who commit sexual crimes

Barbaree and Marshall indicate that juvenile males contribute to the majority of sex crimes, with 2–4% of
adolescent males having reported committing sexually assaultive behavior, and 20% of all rapes and 30–
50% of all child molestation are perpetrated by adolescent males.[81] It is clear that males are over-
represented in this population. This is consistent with Ryan and Lane's research indicating that males
account for 91-93% of the reported juvenile sex offenses.[82] Righthand and Welch reported that females
account for an estimated 2–11% of incidents of sexual offending.[89] In addition, it reported by The Office
of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention that in the juvenile arrests during 2006, African American
male youth were disproportionately arrested (34%) for forcible rape. In one case in a foster home a 13-year-
old boy raped a 9-year-old boy by having forced anal sex with him, in a court hearing the 9-year-old boy
said he has done this multiple times, that the 13-year-old boy was charged for sexual assault.[87]

Juvenile sex crimes internationally

Sexual crimes committed by juveniles are not just an issue in the United States. Studies from the
Netherlands show that out of 3,200 sex offenders recorded by police in 2009, 672 of those were juveniles,
approximately 21 percent of sexual offenders. The study also points out the male to female ratio of sexual
predators.[90]
In 2009, a U.S. congressman proposed legislation that would create an International Sex Offender Registry.
The bill was introduced due to the fact that because laws differ in different countries someone who is on the
sex offender registry in the U.S. who may be barred from living certain places and doing certain activities
has free range in other less developed countries. This can lead to child sex tourism, when a sexual predator
will go to less developed countries and prey on young boys and girls. Karne Newburn in his article, The
Prospect of an International Sex Offender Registry, pointed out some serious flaws in the proposed bill,
such as creating safety issues within the communities for the sex offenders placed on the registry. Newburn
suggested instead of creating an International Sex Offender Registry from the U.S. model the U.S. join
other countries in a dialogue on creating an effective model. As of now no registry exists. Despite this there
is still interest in creating some sort of international registry.[91]

By country

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom has three separate and distinct criminal justice systems: England and Wales, Northern
Ireland, and Scotland. Young offenders are often dealt with by the Youth Offending Team. There is concern
young adult offenders are not getting the support they need to help them avoid reoffending.[92]

In England and Wales the age of criminal responsibility is set at 10. Young offenders aged 10 to 17 (i.e. up
to their 18th birthday) are classed as a juvenile offender. Between the ages of 18 and 20 (i.e. up to their 21st
birthday) they are classed as young offenders. Offenders aged 21 and over are known as adult offenders.

In Scotland the age of criminal responsibility was formerly set at 8, one of the lowest ages of criminal
responsibility in Europe. It has since been raised to 12 by the Criminal Justice and Licensing (Scotland) Act
2010, which received Royal Assent on 6 August 2010.[93][94]

In Northern Ireland the age of criminal responsibility is 10.

Canada

In Canada, the YCJA protects the rights of young offenders. It has four main goals to ensure the youth is
subject to meaningful consequences that promote the long-term protection of society, to rehabilitate and
reintegrate the youth into society seamlessly, and to prevent crime by examining the underlying causes. The
YCJA was introduced in 2003, succeeding the Young Offender's Act.

Northern Europe

In Sweden, the age of criminal responsibility is set at 15 since 1902.[95]

United States

In the United States, the age of criminal responsibility for federal crimes is set at 11. While this has been set
at the federal level, each state is responsible for setting their own age of criminal responsibility. Thirty-three
states have no minimum age for criminal responsibility, while the remaining 17 do. North Carolina has the
lowest responsibility age of 7 years old and Wisconsin has the highest of 10 years old.[96]
There are 1.5 million cases per year in the US that handle status offenses or criminal offenses by young
offenders. However, only 52 juveniles were fully sentenced to prison-time between 2010-2015. Recidivism
is common among young offenders, with 67% becoming repeat offenders.[97]

Brazil

In Brazil, the age of criminal responsibility is set at the age of 18. Anyone that is found guilty of committing
crimes prior to the age of 18 is treated to other options rather than jail. These include, for children under 12,
foster care options in order to get them a safer family, and, for young offenders over 12, being sentenced to
complying with a range of socio-educative measures that can go from a warning to community work and
even to internment in specialized facilities, which include basic schooling and occupational training courses
that aim at preventing the offenders from resorting to crime to support themselves, although conditions in
such facilities are often subpar.[98][99] With a spike in crime rates among young offenders occurring in
2015, along with an almost 40% increase in internments of young offenders, there was a push to lower the
age of criminal responsibility to 16, which ultimately failed.[100][101]

See also
Law portal

Age of onset (criminology)

Anti-social behaviour order
Defense of infancy
Deviance (sociology)
Her Majesty's Young Offender Institution
Juvenile court
Juvenile delinquency in the United States
Kazan phenomenon
Minor (law)
Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention
Person in need of supervision
David Morgan (psychologist)
Sex offender registries in the United States
Solitary confinement of juvenile offenders
Status offense
Teen courts
Timeline of children's rights in the United Kingdom
Truancy
Victimology
Banchō (position)
Sukeban
Public criminology
Youth court
Youth Offending Team
 Youth Inclusion Support Panel

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Further reading
Kalra, Michelle (1996). Juvenile delinquency and adult aggression against women (http://sch
olars.wlu.ca/etd/570/) (M.A. thesis). Wilfrid Laurier University.
E. Mulvey, MW Arthur, ND Reppucci, "The prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency:
A review of the research", Clinical Psychology Review, 1993.
Edward P. Mulvey, Michael W. Arthur, & N. Dickon Reppucci, "Prevention of Juvenile
Delinquency: A Review of the Research", The Prevention Researcher, Volume 4, Number 2,
1997, Pages 1-4. (https://web.archive.org/web/20111001063113/http://www.tpronline.org/arti
cles.cfm?articleID=190)
Regoli, Robert M. and Hewitt, John D. Delinquency in Society, 6th ed., 2006.
Siegel, J Larry. Juvenile Delinquency with Infotrac: theory, practices and law, 2002.
United Nations, Research Report on Juvenile Delinquency (pdf). (https://www.un.org/esa/soc
dev/unyin/documents/ch07.pdf)
Zigler, E; Taussig, C; Black, K (Aug 1992). "Early childhood intervention. A promising
preventative for juvenile delinquency". Am Psychol. 47 (8): 997–1006. doi:10.1037/0003-
066x.47.8.997 (https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0003-066x.47.8.997). PMID 1510335 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1510335).
Gang Cop: The Words and Ways of Officer Paco Domingo (2004) by Malcolm W.Klein
The American Street Gang: Its Nature, Prevalence, and Control (1995), by Malcolm W. Klein
American Youth Violence (1998) by Franklin Zimring
Street Wars: Gangs and the Future of Violence (2004) by Tom Hayden
Fist, Stick, Knife, Gun (1995) by Geoffrey Canada
Violence: Reflections on a National Epidemic (1996) by James Gilligan
 Lost Boys: Why Our Sons Turn Violent and How We Can Save Them (1999) by James
Gabarino
Last Chance in Texas: The Redemption of Criminal Youth (2005) by John Hubner
Breaking Rank: A Top Cop's Expose of the Dark Side of American Policing (2005) by Norm
Stamper
Peetz P., "Youth, Crime, and the Responses of the State: Discourses on Violence in Costa
Rica, El Salvador, and Nicaragua", GIGA Working Papers, Number 80, 2008. (http://vg02.me
t.vgwort.de/cf8b767595d54e20906c4dc67d12df?l=http://www.giga-hamburg.de/dl/download.
php?d=/content/publikationen/pdf/wp80_peetz.pdf)
Harnsberger, R. Scott. A Guide to Sources of Texas Criminal Justice Statistics [North Texas
Crime and Criminal Justice Series, no. 6]. Denton: University of North Texas Press, 2011.
ISBN 978-1-57441-308-3
Morgan, David and Ruszczynski, Stan. Lectures on Violence, Perversion and Delinquency.
The Portman Papers Series. (2007) ISBN 978-1-78049-483-8

External links
Delinquency Prevention (http://www.delinquencyprevention.org) - Clearinghouse of juvenile
delinquency prevention information
Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime (https://web.archive.org/web/20070607064
404/http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/cls/esytc/) - major study at Edinburgh Law School
"State Responses to Serious and Violent Juvenile Crime (https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles/statr
esp.pdf)." - Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
A Voyage into the Mind of Delinquent and Destitute Adolescents (http://abstracts.bps.org.uk/i
ndex.cfm?&ResultsType=Abstracts&ResultSet_ID=2204&FormDisplayMode=view&frmSho
wSelected=true&localAction=details)
Guide to Juvenile Justice in New York City (http://www.nycrimecommission.org/pdfs/GuideTo
JuvenileJusticeInNYC.pdf)
Juvenile Sex Offenders and Juvenile Sex Crimes in California (http://www.wklaw.com/califor
nia-juvenile-sex-offenders/) - Overview of juvenile sex crimes and juvenile sex offender
registration in California.
Youth Justice Board (England & Wales) (http://www.youth-justice-board.gov.uk)
Young People and Youth Justice Research (http://www.sccjr.ac.uk/subjects/Young-People-a
nd-Youth-Justice/3) by the Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research (http://www.sccjr.
ac.uk)
The Centre for Youth & Criminal Justice (http://www.cycj.org.uk/) (Scotland)

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