Sketching & Transforming Curves Chapter - Pure Maths Guide From Love of Maths

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"The true spirit of delight, the exaltation, the sense of being more
than man, which is the touchstone of the highest excellence, is to
be found in Mathematics as surely as in poetry."
Bertrand Russell
"Sometimes a theorem can just be so elegant. It can draw together.

It can take a problem which seems to be intractable, almost
impossible to get your head around. And yet, within a few lines,
you can discover that you can demonstrate that this is absolutely
true and beyond dispute, and always will be. A sense of power and
beauty in that which can’t be replicated anywhere else."
John Waterman
Acknowledgements
I am hugely grateful for numerous helpful comments and suggestions from
Ian Christie and Mike Fairbank, Abbey College London, Alan Gregory MBE,
Prof Alastair McDonald, Barry Ainge, Sam Waterman, Steve Gooch, Ilona
Hurrell, Joe Waterman and Mike McGuire.
I particularly want to thank Matt Joy who, as a seasoned journalist, patiently
pointed the need for simplicity and succinct brevity. And Victor
Lunn-Rockliffe, with whom I spent many hours exploring how best to make
the layout and presentation as inviting as possible.
I want to thank Dan Balis and two of my grandchildren, Ethan and Sekai,
who road-tested some of it in the latter stages of development.
Most importantly, I need to acknowledge the hundreds of other students
whom I have had the privilege to teach, and who have contributed
immeasurably, albeit unwittingly, to this book.
Finally to my wife Anne who, despite having not the slightest interest in
Mathematics, patiently encouraged me over the many times it looked like it
would never get finished.
John Waterman, May 2019
Love of Maths Pure Maths Guide First edition published by Love of Maths Ltd
June 2021.
Contents
8 SKETCHING AND TRANSFORMING CURVES 8-1

8.1 Sketching Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
8.1.1 Cubic functions and beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5
8.1.2 Multiple roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11
1 1
8.2 The functions y = and y = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24
x x
8.3 Transforming functions and curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-34
8.3.1 Translation y = f (x) + a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-35
8.3.2 Translation y = f (x + a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-37
8.3.3 Stretch y = a f (x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-39
8.3.4 Stretch y = f (ax) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-41
8.3.5 Reflection in the axes: y = − f (x) and y = f (−x) . . . . . . 8-43
8.4 Periodic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-54
8.5 Transforming functions: an elegant approach . . . . . . . . . . . 8-62
Chapter 8
SKETCHING AND TRANSFORMING

CURVES
Overview
8.1 Sketching polynomials. What does “sketching" mean? Roots and the
zero product principle.
Multiple roots. Higher order polynomials. Which way up is the curve?
1 1
8.2 The reciprocal functions. y = x and y = x 2 . Asymptotes.
8.3 Transforming functions.
Translations y = f (x) + a and y = f (x + a)
Stretches y = a f (x) and y = f (ax)
Reflections (in the coordinate axes) y = − f (x) and y = f (−x)
8.4 Periodic functions. Definition. Amplitude and period. Transforming the
sine, cosine and tan curves.
8.5 An elegant way of thinking about transformations. (Optional.)
8-1
CHAPTER 8. SKETCHING AND TRANSFORMING CURVES
8.1 Sketching Polynomials

Roots and the zero product principle
The notion of roots, or solutions, lies at the head of curve sketching, and
fundamental to the idea of finding roots is the zero product principle. We
met this in the last chapter; here is a quick reminder. If you don’t need it, skip
to the next page.
Imagine there are two boxes. In each one there is a card with a number
written on it. We don’t know either number, but we are told their product is
zero.
? × ? =0
What could the numbers be?

It can’t work unless one of them numbers is zero. Or both could be zero. If
the product is in the form of two brackets multiplied together, we have
something like this
(x − 10)(x + 2) = 0 ⇒ x − 10 = 0 or x + 2 = 0
⇒ x = 10 or x = −2.
This will apply however many elements there are in the product, for example
x(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 7) = 0.
Either x = 0, x + 1 = 0, x − 2 = 0 or x − 7 = 0.
The roots are x = −1, 0, 2 and 7.
PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-2

What is sketching?
We talked about the idea of sketching graphs, and why it is such a vital skill,
in the Chapter 7. It is because the brain is far better at dealing with pictures
than it is with abstract concepts.
By sketching a curve, as opposed to plotting it, we mean making a drawing
of it that captures the key features, for example where it crosses the
coordinate axes. It doesn’t need to be particulary neat, but if it’s too small or
untidy it will be difficult to use. Always draw a sketch in pencil, so you can
correct or improve it if you need to.
We defined what a polynomial is in Chapter 3. If you want a reminder see

page ??.
But first a summary of what we learnt in Chapter 7 about sketching the

simplest1 polynomials, i.e. quadratics. If this is very familiar to you, skip the
next page.
1
Strictly speaking a straight line is a polynomial of order 1.

Below are three different versions of the same quadratic function:

y = x 2 − 4x − 5
y = (x + 1)(x − 5)
y = (x − 2)2 − 9.
We can identify
• which way up the curve is, from the sign of the x 2 coefficient;
• what the y-intercept is by putting x = 0 into the first version;
• what the roots are by putting y = 0 into the second version;
• the maximum or minimum point from the third version.
Using a combination of these will always be enough to sketch a quadratic

curve.
y
6 x =2
BB

9
B
B
B• • - x
−1 5
−5 •
y = −9
If you want to refresh your memory on how we arrived at all these

conclusions, see page ??.
We’ll pick up the story from here. The maximum/minimum issue only
applies to quadratics; we are going to need calculus to find maximum and
minimum points for polynomials (see Chapter 10). We’ll be seeing how the
others apply—to polynomials in general.

8.1.1 Cubic functions and beyond

Take this function
y = (x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 4).
It’s a cubic and its roots, i.e. where y = 0, are at x = −1, 2 and 4.
To find the y-intercept we don’t need to multiply out the brackets—just put
x = 0 into the formula: y = (1)(−2)(−4) = 8.
The function looks like this (notice the axes use different scales):
y
6
- x
−1 2 4
It’s a beautiful curve. More interesting than a quadratic curve. For example
the maximum and points do not lie midway between the roots. You can see
why this is: the curve at x = −1, for example, is noticeably steeper than it is at
x = 2, so the shape of the curve between these points is skewed to the left.
Similarly the curve between 2 and 4 is skewed to the right.
The cubic curve below has exactly the same roots, but it’s the other way up.
y
6
- x
−1 2 4
−8
This is the function

y = −(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 4).
The roots are the same, but every y-value has the opposite sign. The curve
has been reflected in the x-axis. Not surprisingly the new y-intercept comes
out as −(1)(−2)(−4) = −8.
Checking the y-intercept is a good way to tell which way up the curve is.
That’s fine as long as the curve doesn’t go through the origin.

Which way up?

There is a quick and easy way to tell which way up the curve, whether or not
it goes through the origin.
All we need to do is find the sign of the highest power of x. We think of it like
this: if we make x big enough the highest power will always dominate. Take
this function, for example
y = 50x + 10x 2 − x 3 .
For small values of x the function is decidedly positive. e.g. when x = 1,

y = 59. When x = 10 it’s even more positive: y = 500. By the time we reach
x = 20, the negative x 3 term is “winning" hands down:
y = 1000 + 4000 − 8000 = −3000. The further we go the more negligible the
first two terms are compared with the x 3 term.
We say “as x tends to infinity, y tend to minus infinity", writing it like this:
as x → ∞, y → −∞.
In our example the diagram below on the right applies.
Armed with the sign of the highest power of a function we can see which way
up the curve is. Check this for yourself with the curves on the previous page.
Coeff. highest power of x positive Coeff. highest power of x negative
y y
6 6
-x -x
The sign of the coefficient of the highest power of x will tell us

which way up the curve is.

You may have spotted that this is a generalisation of what we found for
quadratics, where the highest power of x is 2.

@
I
@
@
positive x 2 coefficient ⇒ curve up this way up
negative x 2 coefficient ⇒ curve up this way up
B
B

Example 1
Sketch the curves of these functions

(i) y = x 3 − 4x (ii) y = (x − 3)(5 − x)(2x + 1).
Solution
(i) y = x(x 2 − 4) = x(x + 2)(x − 2) so its roots are at x = 0, −2 and 2.

The coefficient of x 3 is +1, so the curve looks like this:
y
6
- x
−2 0 2
(ii) The roots are where x − 3 = 0, 5 − x = 0 and 2x + 1 = 0, so the roots are at

3, 5 and − 12 .
The x 3 coefficient comes from multiplying together the three x terms—one
from each bracket
y = (x − 3)(5−x)(2x + 1).
The coefficient is −2.
We can also pick out the y-intercept (without expanding the brackets fully):
y = (x −3)(5 − x)(2x+1).
It is −15, so the curve looks like this
y
6
- x
− 21 3 5
−15
We have made no attempt to keep to the scale on each axis. Imagine how
odd the graph would look if we did! It means we can’t use the sketch to infer
anything intuitive about distances or gradients. Rather like the map of the
London Underground, it’s purpose is to show key points and the relationships
between them, not the actual physical layout.

Example 2
Sketch the function y = x(x − 2)(9 − x 2 ).
Solution
This a polynomial of order2 4, i.e. a quartic.

Factorising the last bracket, we can see that its roots are at x = 0, 2, 3 and −3.
The coefficient of x 4 is (1)(1)(−1) = −1, i.e. it is negative.
The y-intercept is the origin. The function looks like this:
y
6
-x
−3 0 2 3
2
The highest power of x when the polynomial is multiplied out.

The shape of a polynomial curve

We have already met the term “order" in the context of polynomials.
The order of a polynomial is the highest power of x that it contains (in its
multiplied out form). You have probably noticed that every time we increase
from one order to the next we get an extra “wiggle" in the curve.
Order 2 Order 3 Order 4
and so on. . .

8.1.2 Multiple roots

At the heart of understanding how a polynomial behaves is knowing where
the roots are, and what kind of roots they are. In Chapter 7 we talked about
repeated roots. Here is a quick reminder.
In the top graph the function has two roots, say x = 2 and x = 4. We say they
are distinct.
If we imagine moving the curve up slightly (the middle graph), the roots
move closer together, to say 2.8 and 3.2. But the roots are still distinct.
Continuing to move the curve up, at a certain point the two roots come
together. Now the curve touches the x-axis and the two roots are both equal
to 3. We say there is a repeated root at x = 3.
y
6
A
A
A
• • -x
P
i
PP
P
Two distinct roots
y
6
A
A
A
• • -x
PP
i
PP
P
Two distinct roots
- but getting closer to each other
y
6
A
A
A
• -x
PP
i
P PP
P
Two equal roots
We can think of the equation (x − 3)2 = 0 as having one root, x = 3. But, as the
graphs show, it is rather more meaningful to think if it has having two roots,
both equal to 3.

We shall see that a polynomial can have any number of roots: a cubic can
have three, a quartic four etc. That means the scope for repeated, or multiple
roots is much greater.
In the top graph the function has three distinct roots.
In the middle graph we imagine the curve “straightening out" a bit, forcing
the three roots closer together.
In the bottom graph they concur. The curve approaches from the left with
negative values, levels out, and then switches to positive values.
y
6
• • • - x
PP
i
PP
Three distinct roots
y
6
• • • - x
PP
i
PP
Three distinct roots
- but getting closer together
y
6
• - x
PP
i
PP
Three equal roots
A triple root like this looks like a single root, except that the curve flattens out
at the root, i.e. it has zero gradient at that point.

Of course we could go on forever with this, but we’ll end with a quick look
quadruple roots.
• • • •
P
i
PP
PP
P
Four distinct roots
•
H
Y
HH
H
HH
Four equal roots
Yes, you guessed it, it ends up looking very much like a double root. The
curve is flatter than at a double root, but it’s not possible to show this clearly
on a sketch.

QQ
Sketch these functions, in each case marking where the curve crosses the
axes.
y = x 2, y = x 3, y = x 4, y = x 5.
The answers are on the next page.

y = x2 y = x3
6 6

-x -x
y = x4 y = x5
6 6

-x -x
The y = x 4 curve is, for sketching purposes, the same shape as y = x 2 . It is

“steeper" of course, because the y values increase more rapidly.
Clearly the same is true of y = x 5 , which is the same shape but steeper than
y = x 3 . And so on...

Example 3
Sketch these functions.

(a) y = x(2x − 3)2 .
(b) y = x 2 (16 − x 2 ).
(c) y = 3(x + 2)(x − 1)3 .
Solution
(a) This polynomial is a cubic,
y
which when multiplied out
would start 6
y = 4x 3 . . .
which tells us which way up it is.
It has a single root at x = 0 and a
double one at 32 . - x
0 3
2
So the function must looks like
this:
y
(b) The coefficient of x 4 is −1
and the function factorises to 6
y = x 2 (4 + x)(4 − x)
so it has single roots at ±4 and a
double root at the origin.
-x
The function must look like this: −4 0 4
y
4
(c) The coefficient of x is 3. 6
It has single roots at x = −2 and

a triple root at the x = 1.
Putting x = 0 into the
formula, the y-intercept is
3(2)(−1)3 = −6.
-x
The function must look like this: −2 1
−6

So far in this chapter our quadratic function had two roots; our cubic
functions have all had three roots and our quartic functions four roots. We
know from our study of quadratics that this is not necessarily the case. The
order of the polynomial corresponds to the maximum number of roots.
Take this cubic function
y = (x − 2)(x 2 + 1).
Since the second bracket doesn’t have any solutions, the curve only has one
root. The coefficient of x 3 is positive (and the y-intercept is negative) so the
curve must look something like this
y
6
- x
0 2
−2
We can’t tell at this stage exactly where the “humps" are: they may both be to
the right of the y-axis, or both to the left. Calculus will allow us to pin this
down. (So we’ll return to this function in Chapter 10 to find out.)
Another example:
y = (x + 3)2 (2x 2 + 1).
Because 2x 2 + 1 = 0 has no roots this quartic has only two roots, both at
x = −3. You can probably pick out the coefficient of x 4 in your head if we see
the function as
y = (x + 3)(x + 3)(2x 2 + 1).
It is +2. In the same way we can pick out the y-intercept:
y = (x + 3)(x + 3)(2x 2 + 1).
It is +9. So the curve look like this
y
6
- x
−3

A cubic curve will always have to cross the x-axis somewhere: it has at least
one root.
Not so a quartic curve—it can escape altogether, just as quadratic curve can.
Two examples:
y
6
-
x
y
6
- x
Increasing the order of the polynomial further, the number of possible

configurations increases. For example look at this polynomial of order 5; it
has 3 roots.
y
6
-x

Example 4
The graphs below show the curves of two cubic functions. Find their
equations.
(a) y
6
- x
−2 1
−6
(b) y
6
- x
− 32 0 2
(1, −10)
Solution
(a) With a single root at −2 and a double root at 1 the equation of the curve
must be of the form
y = k(x + 2)(x − 1)2 .

The point (0, −6) lies on the curve, so substituting these coordinates into the
equation we have
−6 = k(2)(−1)2 or − 6 = 2k,
so k = −3 and the equation is
y = −3(x + 2)(x − 1)2 .
(b) With roots at − 32 , 0 and 2, the equation must be of the form

µ ¶
3
y = kx x + (x − 2).
2
Since the curve passes through (1, −5)
µ ¶
5 −5k
−10 = k (−1) = ⇒ k = 4.
2 2
The equation of the curve is
µ ¶ µ ¶
3 3
y = 4x x + (x − 2) = 2x × 2 x + (x − 2) = 2x(2x + 3)(x − 2).
2 2

Exercises 1
Sketch the curves in questions 1 to 8.

1. (a) y = x 2 − 2x − 8 (b) y = 8 + 2x − x 2
2. (a) y = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) (b) y = (1 − x)(x + 2)(x + 3)
3. (a) y = x(1 − x 2 ) (b) y = x 2 (1 − x)
4. (a) y = 2(3 + x)(x − 1)2 (b) y = 2(3 − x)(1 − x)2
5. (a) y = (x − 2)3 (b) y = 14 (x − 2)3
6. (a) y = x 2 (6 − x)2 (b) y = x(6 − x)3
7. (a) y = (x 2 − 1)(x + 3)2 (b) y = (x − 1)2 (x 2 + 3)
8. (a) y = 2x 3 (x − 1)2 (b) y = 2x 3 (x − 1)3
9. Sketch the curve of the function y = x 4 − x 3 − 6x 2 .
10. Are the curves of these two functions identical?

y = (2x − 7)(x − 3)3 and y = (7 − 2x)(3 − x)3 .
11. Find the equation of each of these cubic polynomials. (Make sure the
y-intercepts are correct.)
(a) y (b) y
6 6
6
-x - x
−2 1 −1 1 2
−4
(c) y
6 (d )
y
(−1, 2) 6
•
-x
-x −2 0 3
−1
−3
12. This question is about counting the number of possible roots a

polynomial can have. Do sketches to investigate. When counting them, the
roots need not be distinct, i.e. they can be multiple roots.
(a) For a polynomial of order 7, what are the possible number of roots it can
have?
(b) For a polynomial of order 8, what are the possible number of roots it can
have?

(c) For a polynomial of order 2n, what are the possible number of roots it can
have? For this polynomial, how many possibilities does this represent?

Solutions 1
1.(a) y (b) y
6 6
8
-x
−2 4 -x
−2 4
−8
2.(a) (b)
y y
6 6
6
-x -x
−3 −2 1 −3 −2 1
−6
3.(a) y (b) y
6 6
- x
−1 0 1 - x
0 1
4.(a) y (b) y
6 6
- x - x
−3 0 1 −3 0 1
5.(a) y (b) y
6 6
-x -x
2 2
−2
−8

6.(a) (b) y
y
6
6
-x
-x 0 6
0 6
7.(a) (b)
y
y
6
6
-x 3
−3 −1 0 1
-x
1
−9
8.(a) y (b) y
6 6
-x -x
0 1 0 1
9. Factorising the function: y

6
4 3 2 2 2
x − x − 6x = x (x − x − 6)
= x 2 (x + 2)(x − 3)
-x
−2 3
10. Comparing brackets, (7 − 2x) = −(2x − 7) and (3 − x)3 = −(x − 3)3 , so the
functions are identical.
11. (a) y = 3(x + 2)(x − 1)2

(b) y = 2(x + 1)(x − 1)(x − 2) or y = 2(x 2 − 1)(x + 2)
(c) y = −3(x + 1)3 (d) y = 21 x(x + 2)(x − 3)
12. (a) 1, 3, 5 or 7. (b) 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8

(c) 0, 2, 4, 6 . . . 2n, i.e. n + 1 possibilities.

8.2 The functions y = x1 and y = x12

1
We can also think of the function y = as the beautifully simple function
x
x y = 1, or its more general form x y = c 2 . The shape of the curve is a
hyperbola, one of the family of so-called conic sections we met at the end of
the last chapter.
The curve of this function has three properties that set it apart from every
function we have met so far. Firstly it has two distinct parts or branches to
it; secondly it has two asymptotes (we’ll explain what these are later); thirdly
there is a value of x for which there is no corresponding value of y.
1
Here’s what the graph of y = looks like.
x
1
y=
x
6
• ( 41 , 4)
• (1, 1)
1
• (2, 2 )
-x
•
(−5, −0.2)
(−1, −1) •
In the formula for y, the bigger the value of x, the smaller the value of y—
because we are dividing 1 by a bigger and bigger number.
In the right hand branch the shape of the curve is consistent with this: points
further to the right have smaller y-coordinates. (In the left hand branch the
values of x with larger magnitude are further to the left.)

4
Another example. This is the graph of y =
x
y
6
• (1, 4)
• (2, 2)
• (4, 1)
•
-x
(−8, − 21 )
(−2, −2) •
Can you see what the symmetries are? (See the footnote3 .)
3
The lines of symmetry are y = x and y = −x. The function also has rotational
symmetry of order 2 about the origin. (When rotating the curve about the origin
there are 2 two positions it could in that look identical.)

1 1
The curve of y = has many the features of y = .
x2 x
It differs in that the function is positive for all values of x and the curve
approach the x-axis more rapidly as x gets larger (although it is hard to show
this clearly on a sketch).
1
y=
x
6
• ( 21 , 4)
(−1, 1) • • (1, 1)
1
• (2, 4 )
• -x
(−5, 0.04)

Example 5
k
The curve y = passes through the point (4, 32 ).
x
Find the value of k and determine where the curve crosses the line y = x − 1.
Solution
By substitution 3 k
= ⇒ k = 6.
2 4
6
The curve is y = , and this crosses the line y = x − 1 where
x
6
x −1 =
x
x2 − x − 6 = 0
(x − 3)(x + 2) = 0.
The points of intersection are (3, 2) and (−2, −3).

Example 6
Show that the line y + 2x = 8 is a tangent to the curve x y = 8 and find the
point where it touches.
Use a symmetry argument to determine the equation of the other tangent to
the curve which has the same gradient.
Solution
To find where they meet we can substitute y = 8 − 2x into the equation of the
curve:
x(8 − 2x) = 8
0 = 2x 2 − 8x + 8
0 = x 2 − 4x + 4
(x − 2)2 = 0.
The equation has equal roots so the line is a tangent, touching where x = 2,
i.e. at. (2, 4).
y
6
(2, 4)
-x
(−2, −4)
By symmetry the other tangent will touch at (−2, −4), and since its gradient
is −2, its equation must be
y + 4 = −2(x + 2)
y + 4 = −2x − 4
y = −2x − 8
or y + 2x + 8 = 0.

Example 7 [Ignore this example if you haven’t yet met the equation of a circle.]
By sketching the curves x y = 1 and x 2 + y 2 = a 2 show that the equation
x4 − a2x2 + 1 = 0
has either 0, 2 or 4 distinct roots.

For what values of a does the equation have no roots?
Solution
The equation x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is a circle centred on the origin with radius a. The

sketch shows that there are three possible configurations: the circle will
1
intersect the curve y = four times, twice or not at all. The symmetries of
x
the functions prevent there from being an odd number of intersections.
But finding where the curves meet corresponds to solving the equations
simultaneously.
1
Substituting y = into the equation of the circle we have
x
1
x2 + = a2
x2
which can be written
x 4 − a 2 x 2 + 1 = 0.
So this equation must have 0, 2 or 4
roots.
The easiest way to find when there are y
no roots is to look at a borderline case. 6
The middle circle
touches both branches of the curve
1
y= . (1, 1)
x
By symmetry we can see that it does so
-x
at (1, 1) and (−1, −1). Any circle smaller
won’t cut the curve so won’t yield any (−1, −1)
solutions.
By
p Pythagoras the points of contact are
2 units from the origin, so the equation
p
has no roots when the radius ap< 2, or
to be more precise when |a| < 2.
There is a language issue to clarify. Strictly speaking when the circle touches
the curve there are still 4 roots—split into two equal pairs. This is why the
question says “distinct roots": depending on the value of r the equation has
0, 2 or 4 distinct, i.e. numerically different, roots.

Asymptotes
An asymptote in the graph of a function is a line4 that the curve gets closer
and closer to, but never reaches.
1
The curve y = x has two asymptotes: the coordinate axes.
1
y=
x
6
-x
If we imagine extending the x-axis, say as far as x = 100, the the point on the
curve with this x-coordinate has y-coordinate equal to 0.01.
(100, 0.01)
• -x
No matter how far we go the curve will never cross the x-axis. Because the
same thing happens whether we make x a very large positive number or a
very large negative number, we simply say: as x tends to infinity, y tends to
zero. Or more concisely
as x → ∞, y → 0.
The other asymptote is the y-axis. Let’s make the value of x close to zero. For
example x = 0.001, the value of y would be 1000, and so on. In this case
as x → 0, y → ∞.
As before, we don’t distinguish between +∞ and −∞ in this context.

For the curve to cross the y-axis we would need x = 0. But that’s impossible
because we can’t divide 1 (or any other number) by zero. This explains why
there is no value of y corresponding to x = 0. We say the function is
undefined for x = 0.
At this second asymptote something very strange happens. If we make x
approach zero from the right y → +∞; if we make it approach from the left
y → −∞. We say the curve is discontinuous (or there is a discontinuity) at
x = 0. It means there is a sudden jump in the y-value at that point.
4
For our purpose here it will be a straight line; an asymptote can be a curve.

Many other functions have asymptotes. And asymptotes aren’t necessarily

the coordinate axes. When they are not we generally indicate them using a
dotted line. Here are some lovely examples. We are not going to do anything
with them; this is just to get you familiar with the concept.
y y
x
x
y y
Can you see that all except one of the curves has two asymptotes?

QQ
By drawing two sketches on the same graph, say how many solutions (roots)
there are to each of these equations.
1 1 1 1 1
(a) x − 1 = x 2 (b) x = x 2 + 3 (c) x 2 = 10 − x (d) 100 x +1 = x
The answers are on the next page. If you are not sure where to start, there is a
hint in the footnote5 .
5 1 1
The solutions of the equation x − 1 = are where y = x − 1 and y = meet.
x x

(a) 1 solution. (b) 1 solution.
y y
x
x
−1
(c) 3 solutions
y
10
(d) 2 solutions.
y 1
The line y = 100 x +1
Will eventually meet the
curve again (at a point just
below the x-axis).
1
x

8.3 Transforming functions and curves

We’ll be looking at six6 different types of transformations. In each case we
will be making a change to the function and seeing what effect that has on
the curve of the function.
The best way to describe the transformations is to see what effect they have
on a simple function like
y f (x) = x 2 − 4.
6 This is a quadratic function; its
curve is a parabola, which has an
axis of symmetry—in this case the
line x = 0.
The y-intercept is −4.
-x The roots are where x 2 − 4 = 0,

−2 2 i.e. where x = 2 and x = −2.
−4
When we have done that we’ll look in detail at how it applies to a whole
range of different functions, including ones that have asymptotes.
The six types of transformation can be be neatly summarised using the

function notation. If you want a reminder about function notation see page
??.
Two translations
(i) y = f (x) + a Translation a distance +a parallel to the y-axis
(ii) y = f (x + a) Translation a distance −a parallel to the x-axis
Two stretches
(iii) y = a f (x) Stretch scale factor a parallel to the y-axis
1
(iv) y = f (ax) Stretch scale factor a parallel to the x-axis
Two reflections
(v) y = − f (x) Reflection in the x-axis
(vi) y = f (−x) Reflection in the y-axis
We shall see that transforming a curve is best seen as moving all the points
on the curve, rather than moving the curve as a whole. The “destination" for
each point we call its image.
We are going to look at each type of transformation in turn.
6
Actually two of them are just special cases of two of the others. But they have a
different name and it’s simplest to treat them separately.

8.3.1 Translation y = f (x) + a

This moves the curve up a distance a (parallel to the y-axis).
Starting with a function y = f (x) we add some constant value a to it. The
effect is to increase every y value by a.
We’ll look at two examples of this applied to our function f (x) = x 2 − 4.
y = f (x) → y = f (x) + 3.
y = f (x) y = f (x) + 3
6= x 2 − 4 6= x 2 − 1
4
-x -x
−2 2 −1 1
−1
3
−4
Notice how the y-intercept has move up 3. At the same time the roots have
moved closer to the origin, to exactly where we expect them to be: at the
solutions of x 2 − 1 = 0.

y = f (x) → y = f (x) − 5.
y = f (x) y = f (x) − 5
6= x 2 − 4 6= x 2 − 9
5
-x -x
−2 2 −3 3
5
−4
−9
We have marked the new y-intercepts in each case, and the new roots. Satisfy
yourself that they are correct.

8.3.2 Translation y = f (x + a)
This moves the curve a units to the left (parallel to the x-axis).
In the formula for f (x), we replace every occurrence of x with x + a.
How come the translation is in the opposite direction to the one we’d expect?
It seems to be inconsistent with translation in the y direction. When we’ve
finished describing how all the transformations work, we’ll exlain why there
is actually no inconsistency at all.
We’ll look at two examples of this transformation applied to our function

f (x) = x 2 − 4.
y = f (x) → y = f (x + 2).
y = f (x)
6= x 2 − 4
-x
−2 2
−4
C 2
y = f (x + 2)
6 = (x + 2)2 − 4
= x 2 + 4x
-x
−4 0
Moving the function y = f (x) to the left 2 units will move the two roots to −4
and 0.
This is consistent with the fact that the roots of y = f (x +2) = x(x +4) are x = 0
and x = −4.

y = f (x) → y = f (x − 1).
y = f (x)
6= x 2 − 4
-x
−2 2
−4
1 B
y = f (x − 1)
6= (x − 1)2 − 4
= x 2 − 2x − 3
-x
−1 3
Because the curve of the function y = f (x − 1) is obtained by moving the the

curve of y = f (x) 1 unit to the right, we know what its roots are, i.e. x = −1
and x = 3.
Satisfy yourself that these are the roots of the equation x 2 − 2x − 3 = 0.

8.3.3 Stretch y = a f (x)

Starting with a function y = f (x) we multiply every y value by a. The effect is
to stretch the curve by a scale factor a in the y direction—rather like pulling on
a rubber sheet, in the positive and negative directions, with the x-axis fixed.
We’ll look at two examples of stretches applied to our function
f (x) = x 2 − 4.
y = f (x) → y = 2 f (x).
y = f (x) y = 2 f (x)
2
6= x − 4 2
6= 2(x − 4)
• (3, 10)
• (3, 5)
4
-x ×2 -x
−2 2 −2 2
5
−4
−8
Think of the stretch as applying to each point individually. For a stretch in

the y direction, it means the x-coordinate of a point is unchanged. Its y-
coordinate is multiplied by a, so in this case it is doubled. To take a couple of
examples, the image of (3, 5) is (3, 10), and the y-intercept moves to (0, −8).
Any points on the x-axis are unchanged by the stretch (because 2 × 0 = 0), so
the roots are unchanged.

y = f (x) → y = 15 f (x).
As before think of transforming the curve point by point. The x-coordinate

of each case remains the same and its y-coordinate is multiplied by 51 .
y = f (x) y = 15 f (x)
2
6= x − 4 1
6= 5 (x 2 − 4)
• (3, 5)
4
• (3, 1)
-x × 15 -x
−2 2 −2 2
5 − 45
−4
The roots remain at 2 and −2. for example the image of (3, 5) is (3, 1) and the
y-intercept moves to (0, − 45 ).
We still call it a stretch even though it is more like a compression. We could

imagine drawing the graph on a block of rubber, and squashing the block in
the y direction, from both directions, in a way that leaves the x-axis fixed.

8.3.4 Stretch y = f (ax)

Starting with a function y = f (x) we replace x in the formula for f (x) with
1
ax. The effect is to stretch the curve in the x direction by a scale factor a .
We are using the term stretch in its technical sense: if a > 1 it means the
points actually get closer to the y-axis. The points get further away if a < 1.
y = f (x) → y = f (3x).
y = f (x)
2
6= x − 4
• (3, 5)
-x
−2 2
−4
C B
× 31
y = f (3 x)
2
6= (3x) − 4
= 9x 2 − 4
• (1, 5)
-x
− 23 2
3
−4
As before we think of the stretch as applying to each point individually: now

the y-coordinate of the point is unchanged and its x-coordinate is (in this
case) divided by 3. So, for example the image of (3, 5) is (1, 5).
The roots move to (− 32 , 0) and ( 23 , 0). The y-intercept is unchanged.
These conclusions are consistent with what the new function looks like:
y = 9x 2 − 4.

¡1 ¢
y = f (x) → y=f 2x .
y = f (x)
2
6= x − 4
• (3, 5)
-x
−2 2
−4
C B
×2
y = f 12 x
¡ ¢
6= x 2 − 4
¡ ¢
2
x2
= 4 −4
• (6, 5)
-x
−4 4
−4
As before we think of the stretch as applying to each point individually: the

y-coordinate of the point is unchanged and its x-coordinate is (in this case)
multiplied by 2. So, for example the image of (3, 5) is (6, 5).
The roots move to (−4, 0) and (4, 0). The y-intercept is unchanged.
These conclusions are consistent with what the new function is:
x2
y= − 4.
4

8.3.5 Reflection in the axes: y = − f (x) and y = f (−x)

Strictly speaking these transformations are just stretches with a = −1. Their
effect is very simple.
Let’s look at y = − f (x) first. Starting with a function y = f (x) we change the
sign of every y value. The effect is to reflect the curve in the x-axis. Points on
the x-axis, i.e. any roots, remain unchanged.
To show reflections graphically we’e going to use the function
y = f (x) = x(x − 4)
which has roots at x = 0 and x = 4.
y = f (x) → y = − f (x).
y = f (x) y = − f (x)
6= x(x − 4) 6= −x(x − 4)
(2, 4)
•
4
-x -x
0 4 0 4
5
•
(2, −4)
The roots are unchanged but the vertex moves from (2, −4) to its reflection in
the x-axis, i.e. (2, 4).

y = f (x) → y = f (−x).
y = f (x)
6= x(x − 4) = x 2 − 4x
-x
0 4
•
(2, −4)
4 5
y = f (− x)
6 = (−x)2 − 4(−x)
= x 2 + 4x
-x
−4 0
•
(−2, −4)
The vertex (2, −4) moves to (−2, −4).

The root at zero remains unchanged; the root at x = 4 moves to x = −4. We
can confirm this by looking7 at the function f (−x).
7
y = 0 ⇒ x(x + 4) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = −4.

To sum up, we’ve met these transformations:
Translations
(i) y = f (x) + a Translation +a parallel to the y-axis
(ii) y = f (x + a) Translation −a parallel to the x-axis
Stretches
(iii) y = a f (x) Stretch scale factor a parallel to the y-axis A
1
(iv) y = f (ax) Stretch scale factor a parallel to the x-axis
!
A
A
Reflections A
(v) y = − f (x) Reflection in the x-axis

(vi) y = f (−x) Reflection in the y-axis
At GCSE level you will have met the enlargement transformation. This is
equivalent to two stretches with the same scale factor—one in the x
direction and one in the y direction.
Remember: in the case of translations and stretches, when we are changing

the entire function (e.g. multiplying it by something, or adding something to
it), the effect on the graph is in the direction we expect; when we are
replacing x with something else, it’s in the opposite direction .
QQ
In each case describe the effect of the transformation on the graph of the
function.
(a) y = x 2 − 5 → y = x2 − 3
(b) y = x 2 → y = (x + 6)2
(c) y = x 2 + 1 → y = 4x 2 + 4
x2
(d) y = x 2 → y = 25
(e) y = 3x 2 − 1 → y = 1 − 3x 2
(f) y = x 2 (1 + x) → y = x 2 (1 − x)
The answers are in the footnote8 .
(a) x 2 − 3 = (x 2 − 5) + 2. Translation +2 parallel to the y-axis.

(b) x → x + 6. Translation −6 parallel to the x-axis.
(c) 4x 2 + 4 = 4(x 2 + 1). Stretch scale factor 4 parallel to the y-axis.
8
x2 x 2
(d) = ( ) i.e. x → x5 . Stretch scale factor 5 parallel to the x-axis.
25 5
(e) 1 − 3x = −(3x 2 − 1). Reflection in the x-axis.
2
(f ) (−x)2 (1 + (−x)) = x 2 (1 − x). Reflection in the y-axis.

Example 8
The diagram shows the curve of a function y = f (x).

y = f (x)
6
P (2, 3)
•
2
-x
−2 0 6
In separate diagrams sketch the curve

(a) y = f (x − 2)
(b) y = 3 f (x)
(c) y = f (−x)
(d) y = f (2x)
marking where the transformed curve crosses the coordinate axes, and the
image of P .
Solution
In each case decide what transformation is involved, and work out what that
transformation does to the points marked on the graph. (For the sake of
clarity we have shown the original curve y = f (x) together with the
transformed curve. You won’t need to do this.)
(a) Translation +2 units parallel to the x-axis.
y = f (x − 2)
6
(4, 3)
•
2
-x
−2 0 6 8

(b) Stretch scale factor 3 parallel to the y-axis.
y = 3 f (x)
6 (2, 9)
•
-x
−2 0 6
(c) Reflection in the y-axis.

y = f (−x)
6
(−2, 3)
•
2
-x
−6 −2 0 2 6
1
(d) Stretch scale factor 2
parallel to the x-axis.
y = f (2x)
6
(1, 3)
•
2
-x
−2 −1 0 3 6

Example 9
(a) Sketch the curve y = f (x), where
f (x) = x(x 2 − 4).
(b) By applying a suitable transformation, sketch the curve y = f (x − 2).

(c) Use the sketch in part (b) to solve the equation f (x − 2) = 0.
Solution
(a) The function is a cubic polynomial, whose roots are where
x(x + 2)(x − 2) = 0,
i.e. x = 0, x = −2 and x = 2. The x 3 coefficient is positive (because the

function is y = x 3 − 4x) so the curve looks like this:
y
6
- x
−2 0 2
(b) The transformation x → x − 2 changes y = f (x) into y = f (x − 2).

This corresponds to a translation of +2 units parallel to the x-axis, so the
new curve is:
y
6
- x
0 2 4
(c) The roots have moved to x = 0, x = 2 and x = 4; these must therefore be

the solutions of the equation f (x − 2) = 0.
Although the question hasn’t asked us to, we can verify the positions of these
roots algebraically:
f (x − 2) = (x − 2)[(x − 2)2 − 4] = (x − 2)[x 2 − 4x] = (x − 2)x(x − 4)
whose roots are x = 0, x = 2 and x = 4.

Example 10
(a) By applying a suitable transformations of the function y = x 2 , find the

equation of the quadratic curve whose vertex is at (2, 1) and which passes
through the point (0, 5).
(b) Find the equation of the quadratic function that crosses the y-axis at the
same point but whose vertex is at (1, 1).
Solution
First let’s translate the vertex from the origin to (2, 1).
y = f (x) = x 2 y
6 6
(2, 1)
•
- x - x
The curve has been translated +2 unit parallel to the x-axis and +1units
parallel to the y-axis, so the transformed function is
y = f (x − 2) + 1
= (x − 2)2 + 1
= x 2 − 4x + 5
We can see from this that the curve passes through (0, 5) as required.
(b) The curve looks like this:
y
6
• (1, 1)
- x
1
the resultof a stretch scale factor 2 parallel to the x-axis.
This corresponds to the transformation x → 2x, and the new function is
y = (2x)2 − 4(2x) + 5 = 4x 2 − 8x + 5.
A quick check on our algebra: f (1) = 4 − 8 + 5 = 1, confirming that the curves

passes through (1, 1).

Example 11
On the same graph, sketch and label the curves

1 1
(i) y = − 1 and (ii) y = −1
x x+3
Solution
1
(i) We can start with the curve y = , which has the axes as asymptotes.
x
1
If we translate this curve “down" 1 unit, we have y = −1 .
x
The “horizontal" asymptote, formerly y = 0, is now y = −1. We can think of
the asymptote as moving with the curve.
Putting y = 0, the curve crosses the x-axis, at x = 1.
y y
6 6
- x - x
1
−1
1 1
(ii) The only difference between y = −1 and y = −1 is that the
x x+3
x has been replaced by x + 3.
1 1
Using function notation, if f (x) = −1, f (x + 3) = −1.
x x+3
So the next step is to translate the curve we found in (i) 3 units to the left,
which moves the “vertical" asymptote from x = 0 to x = −3. .
You may want to see if you can complete this for yourself before turning the
page. That includes pinning down where the curve crosses the axes.

5 C 3
x
-
−3 −2
− 23
−1
1 2
Putting x = 0 into y = −1 gives y = − .
x+3 3
Putting y = 0 we have
1
0 = −1
x +3
0 = 1 − (x + 3)
x +3 = 1
x = −2
You will have noticed that positions of the key points in our diagram are not
particularly accurate. It’s a sketch: all we need is for the overall configuration
to be right (the relationship between the points), and for the coordinates of
key points to be marked. That includes the position of any asymptotes.
As an exercise repeat this question for the functions

1 1
(i) y = 2 − 1 and (ii) y = −1
x (x+3)2

Example 12
By applying suitable transformations to the function y = x 2 , sketch the

function y = x 2 − 4x + 1
Find where the curve crosses the coordinate axes.
Solution
Let’s call f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = x 2 − 4x + 1. To see what transformations are

needed we complete the square:
g (x) = (x − 2)2 − 3 = f (x − 2) − 3.
So we need to translate y = x 2 a distance 2 units parallel to the x-axis and −3
units parallel to the y-axis. The vertex moves to (2, −3).
y
6
C
C
C
PC
-x
0 Q R
•
(2, −3)
[You may recall that the vertex of the curve y = (x − a)2 + b is at (a, b)
confirming that the vertex is at (2, −3).]
It remains to find the positions of P , Q and R.
For the y-intercept we need g (0), where g (x) = x 2 − 4x + 1. P is (0, 1).
We can find Q and R from g (x) = 0 using the completed square:
(x − 2)2 = 3
p
x −2 = ± 3
p
x = 2± 3
p p
P is 2 − 3, Q is 2 + 3.
p p
Do these look about right? Well, 3 ≈ 1.732, so 2 − 3 is a small positive
number— which is consistent with the sketch.
We have line symmetry too: the axis of the parabola should be exactly
midway between the roots, which it is.

Example 13
p
The graph shows the function y = x.
y
6
- x
p
(i) Sketch the curve y = − x.
(ii) On a separate graph, sketch the two curves
p p
y = x + 1 and y = 2 x + 1.
Solution
Notice that the curve only exists to the right of the y-axis. This makes sense
because we can’t take the square root of a negative number.
The curve is also unusual in another way. Look at the way it behaves at the
origin: the gradient there is infinite. None of this affects how we treat the
function when transforming it.
p
(i) This is the reflection of y = x in the x-axis.
y
6
- x
p p
(ii) If f (x) = x, y = x + 1 = f (x + 1), i.e. f (x) translated −1 unit parallel to
the x-axis. It crosses axes at (−1, 0) and (0, 1).
p
y = 2 x + 1 is this curve strteched by a scale factor 2 parallel to the y-axis.
y
6
- x
−1 0

8.4 Periodic functions

For some functions their values repeat regulary, so the shape of the curve
does the same. The commonest example is to be found in wave functions.
These desribe any kind of wave, such as sound waves, light waves, waves in
water etc.
In most of these cases the underlying function can be described using the
function y = sin x.
The distance before the pattern starts repeating itself we call the period.
The maximum height above or below the middle position is the amplitude9 .
y = sin x
6
per i od -
1
6
ampl i t ud e
BB ? - x
−180◦ 0 ◦
180 ◦
360 ◦
540 ◦ 6 720◦
ampl i t ud e
−1 ?
There is a wide variety of periodic functions.

What is the period function shown in the graph below?
(The answer is in the footnote10 .)
y
6
-x
−4 −2 2 4 6 8
−2
First we will look at the trig functions, and the effect of transforming them.
After that we will return to consider other periodic functions.
9
Not all periodic functions have an amplitude. An example would be the tan function.
10
The period is 6.

Example 14
Sketch the curves

(i) y = 1 + sin x (ii) y = 3 sin x (iii) y = sin 2x (iv) y = sin(x − 30◦ )
Solution
The sin x function looks like this:

y = f (x) = sin x
6
J
J
- x
−180◦ −90 ◦
0 ◦
90 ◦
180 ◦
270 ◦
360◦
−1
It takes values between −1 and +1.

It has a root at every multiple of 180◦ .
Mathematically we could write this as x = 180n ◦ , where n is an integer.
(i) 1 + sin x = f (x) + 1, so the curve looks like this:

y = 1 + sin x
6
J
J 1
- x
−180◦ −90◦ 0 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
This function takes values between 0 and 2.

It has roots 360◦ apart and they are all double roots (because the curve
touches the x-axis at these points).
Can you write down a mathematical formula for the position of all these
roots? One possible answer is in the footnote11 .
The period is still 360◦
The amplitude is still 1 unit.
11
x = 270◦ + 360n ◦ , where n is an integer (which can be positive, negative or zero).

(ii) 3 sin x = 3 f (x) so the curve looks like this:
y = 3 sin x = 3 f (x)
6
- x
−180◦ −90◦ 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
−1
−2
−3
The y-coordinate of each point on the curve has been trebled, so the function
takes values between −3 and +3, leaving the roots unchanged.
We can imagine the graph drawn on sheet of rubber, which is stretched in
both directions (parallel to the y-axis), while leaving the x-axis in the same
position.
The period remains at 360◦ .
The amplitude is 3 units.

1
(iii) sin 2x = f (2x), so we need to stretch f (x) by a scale factor 2
parallel to
the x-axis.
This is much less intuitive than parts (i) and (ii). Rather than thinking of
transforming the curve as a whole, it is safer to
transform individual points.
To do this you need to start with a careful sketch of y = sin x, with some of
the key points labelled, like the ones marked below. (If the sketch is too
rough you won’t be able to see what’s going on.)
y = f (x) = sin x
6
1 •
J
J• • •

•
- x
−180◦ −90 ◦
0◦ 90 ◦
180◦ 270 ◦
360◦
−1 •
Under the transformation, the distance of each dot from the y-axis is halved.
y = f (x) = sin x
6
1 •
J
J • • • •
- x
−180◦ −90◦ 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270 ◦
360◦
•−1 •
So the curve looks like this
y = f (2x) = sin 2x
6
1 •
B
B• • • • - x
◦
−180 −90◦ 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
−1 •
Copy this sketch and complete the curve, so it goes from −180◦ to +360◦ .
The formula for the position of all the roots is very simple: 90n ◦ where n is
an integer.
The effect of the transformation has been to halve the period from 360◦ to
180◦ . The amplitude remains unchanged at 1.

(iv) y = sin(x − 30◦ )
This is the function y = sin x translated +30◦ parallel to the x-axis.
y = f (x − 30◦ ) = sin(x − 30◦ )

6
J
J
- x
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
−180 −90 0 30 90 180 270 360
−1
It takes values between −1 and +1.

It has a root 30◦ to the right of every multiple of 180◦ .
Mathematically we could write this as x = (180n + 30)◦ , where n is an integer.
The period is still 360◦ and the amplitude is still 1.

Example 15
Sketch the curve y = cos( 21 x + 45◦ ).
Solution
In principle this is no different from the examples we have met; there is

clearly some enlarging going on and some translating. The important thing
is to get the order right, because—unlike in previous examples—it makes a
difference in this case.
If you rely on your intuition, you could come unstuck; the only safe method
is to use transforming functions. There are two ways we can go, The first
method, as we shall see, if definitely the easier of the two.
Method 1
Start with the function y = f (x) = cos x. Apply the transformation
x → x + 45◦ , giving the function g (x) = f (x + 45◦ ) = cos(x + 45◦ ).
1
Now apply the transformation x → 2x to g (x), giving the final function
h(x) = g ( 21 x) = cos( 12 x + 45◦ ).
In other words a translation of −45◦ parallel to the x-axis, followed by a
stretch scale factor 2 in the x-direction.
Under the translation (90◦ , 0) moves to (45◦ , 0), and (0, 1) moves to (−45◦ , 1).
Under the stretch (45◦ , 0) goes back to (90◦ , 0), (225◦ , 0) moves to (450◦ , 0) and
(−45◦ , 1) moves to (−90◦ , 1).
y
6
y = cos(x + 45◦ ) y = cos x
• 1• @
R
@
• • - x
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
−270 −180 −90 0 90◦ 180 ◦
270 ◦
360 ◦
450 ◦
−1
y
y = cos( 21 x + 45◦ ) 6
y = cos(x + 45◦ )
@ • • 1
R
@
• • • •
- x

◦
−270 −180◦ −90◦ 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦ 450◦

−1

Method 2
Suppose we choose to do the stretch first, i.e.x → 21 x, and we have
g (x) = f ( 12 x) = cos( 21 x).
So far so good—or so it seems.
Now we apply the transformation x → x + 45◦ , giving
h(x) = g (x + 45◦ ) = cos( 12 (x + 45◦ )) = cos( 12 x + 22.5◦ ).
To correct this the translation needs to be x → x + 90◦ —hardly the most
obvious transformation. Then
h(x) = g (x + 90◦ ) = cos( 12 (x + 90◦ )) = cos( 12 x + 45◦ ).
With the sin and cos functions stretch before translating.
Construct the curve for yourself, using Method 2. The solution is on the next
page.

y
6
y = cos( 12 x) y = cos x
1
• • • • • •
- x
−270◦
◦
−180 −90◦ 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦ B ◦
450 540◦

B

B
−1
Under the stretch (−90◦ , 0) moves to (−180◦ , 0), (90◦ , 0) moves to (180◦ , 0) and
(270◦ , 0) moves to (540◦ , 0).
y
y = cos( 21 x + 45◦ ) 6
@ • 1 •
R
@
• • •
•
- x

◦ −180
−270
◦ −90◦ 0◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦ 450◦ 540◦

−1
Under the translation (0, 1) moves to (−45◦ , 1), (180◦ , 0) moves to (90◦ , 0) and
(540◦ , 0) moves to (450◦ , 0).

8.5 Transforming functions: an elegant approach

There is an apparent inconsistency in the way we treat transformations. In
the y-direction the way curves change seems intutively sensible. In the
x-direction not so: the direction of a translation is the opposite to what we’d
expect, and the scaling factor of a stretch in that direction is the reciprocal of
what we’d expect. What’s going on?
If we describe transformation in both directions by means of a change of
variable, the problem disappears.
Let’s look at the example of a translation 2 in the positive direction. We’ll

put the two transformations side by side, so you can see the processes are
identical.
x-direction y-direction
Starting with y = f (x) Starting with y = f (x)

x → x −2 y → y −2
giving giving
y = f (x − 2) y − 2 = f (x)
or y = f (x) + 2
Now a stretch scale factor 3.
x-direction y-direction
Starting with y = f (x) Starting with y = f (x)
x → 13 x y → 31 y
giving giving
1
y = f 13 x
¡ ¢
3
y = f (x)
or y = 3 f (x)
This approach will always work, although you may prefer to stick with the one
you are used to.
In the next, and final, example it is the only possible approach .

Example 16
The circle C 0 is
2x 2 + 2y 2 + 7y − 1 = 0.
C 0 is translated a distance +3 parallel to the x-axis and −1 parallel to the
y-axis, to form a new circle C 1 .
(a) Find the equation of C 1 .
(b) Show that C 0 crosses the x-axis but C 1 does not.
Solution
(a) We could write the equation in the form (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2 , find the
position of the new centre, move that centre and hence find the new
equation. The coefficients in this case would make that a bit heavy going.
The much simpler approach is to apply the two transformations
x → x − 3 and y → y +1
to the equation of C 0 .
The equation of C 1 is
2(x − 3)2 + 2(y + 1)2 + 7(y + 1) − 1 = 0

2(x 2 − 6x + 9) + 2(y 2 + 2y + 1) + 7y + 7 = 0
2x 2 + 2y 2 − 12x + 11y + 27 = 0.
(b) If we knew where the centre of C 0 was, and its radius, we could easily find
the answer.
There is a much simpler way. Suppose we set about finding where each of
them crosses the axis, by putting y = 0 into their equations.
1
C0 : 2x 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x = ±p .
2
So C 0 does, and we have found where. Turning to C 1 ,
C1 : 2x 2 − 12x + 27 = 0.
For this circle to cross the x-axis this quadratic equation needs to have real
roots, in other words its discriminant must be positive or zero.
∆ = b 2 − 4ac = 122 − (4)(2)(27) = −72.
C 1 doesn’t cross the x-axis.

Exercises 2
1. In each case describe precisely the transformation that changes the curve
y = f (x) into y = g (x) (drawn in blue).
(a) y (b) y
6 6
3 3
-x -x
−5 −2 2 5
−3
(c) y (d ) y
6 6
-x -x
5 10 5 10
(e) y (f ) y
6 6
8
4 4
-x -x
−4
2. For each of the transformations in Question 1, express g (x) in terms of f (x).
3. The graph shows the curve y = f (x). Sketch the curves

y (i) y = 14 f (x),
(ii) y = f (x − 2),
6
P (4, 8) (iv) y = f (2x).

•
On each transformation mark

- x where the curve crosses the
−2 6 coordinate axes, and the
image of P .

The curve in the sketch is

4.
y = f (x).
It is transformed into the
y
curve
6
y = f (px + q).
• B (10, 3) Write down two possible
pairs of values for p and
-x
q, such that, after the
• transformation,the image of
A (4, −2) A is at (1, −2).
In each case state the
coordinates of of the image
of B .
5. The graph shows the function y = f (x).

Write down the y
coordinates of where P , 6
Q and R move to when P (−4, 3)
•
y = f (x) is transformed
into
-x
(i) y = f (x) + 2 Q
•
(ii) y = 3 f (x) R (2, −2)
(iii) y = f 12 x
¡ ¢
(iv) y = f (−x)
(v) y = f (x − 4)
6.
2
y=x The diagram shows the curve
6 2
y =
x
Copy the graph and on the
same diagram sketch the curve
2
-x y =
x +3
Write down the equations of
the asymptotes.
Find the positions of any
points where the curve crosses
the coordinate axes.
7.
y
The graph shows the function
6 y = f (x). The function has roots
at x = −2 and x = 8.
A(3, 4)
•
It has a maximum point at (3, 4).
In separate diagrams sketch the
-x curves
−2 8 (i) y = − f (x)
(ii) y = f (2x)
On each diagram mark the roots of f (x) = 0 and the image of A.

8. The graph show a function y = f (x), which takes the value 3 for all values of x
except those in the interval 2 < x < 6. The scale on each axis is the same.
y On separate graphs sketch
6 the functions
(a) y = 13 f (x)
(b) y = f (x + 4)
(c) y = f 12 x .
¡ ¢
(You need not use the

same scale for each.)
- x
7+3x
9. L is the line y = . Show that the point (1, 2) lies on L.
5
Find the equation of the line parallel to L that passes through (−4, 2).
10. Sketch these curves

1 1
(a) y = (b) (b) y = − 1.
(x+2)2 (x+2)2
1
11. Sketch these curve y = + 2.
(x−3)2
Find where the curve intersects the line y = 6.
x 1 x
12. Show that = + 1. Hence sketch the curve y = .
x−1 x−1 x−1
1 4
13. (a) Find where the curve y = crosses the curve y = 2 .
x x
1 4
(b) For what values of k do the curves y = and y = 2 + k meet.
x x
14. For the function f (x) defined in Question 7, solve the equations
(a) f (x) = 6 and (b) f (x) = 12 x.
How many solutions are there to the equation f (x) = 11 − x?
1 1
15. Sketch the curves (i) y = x+1 (ii) y = 1−x .
There is hint to part (ii) in the footnote12 .
16.
4
y = x2 The diagram shows the
4
6 curve y = x 2 .
On separate diagrams,
sketch the curves
4
(a) y = x 2 −1
4
(b) y = x 2 −4x+4 .
-x
[There is a hint to part (b) in the footnote13 .]

In each case write down the equations of the asymptotes and find
the positions of any points where the curve crosses the coordinate
axes.
12 1
Start with y = and transform this.
x−1
13
Factorise the denominator.

17. The centre of the circle 3x 2 + 3y 2 + 5x − y + 2 = 0 is at (a, b).

Find the equation of the circle with the same radius, whose centre is at
(i) (−a, b), and (ii) (a, b − 2).
p
18. The graph shows the function y = x − 2 and the line y = 3 (not drawn to scale).
Write down the x-coordinate of the point P .
y
6
Q
3
- x
0 P
The curve intersects the line y = 3 at Q, find the distance PQ.

p
Sketch the curve y = 2x − 2.
p
Write down where the curve y = 2x − 2 crosses the line y = 3.
19. Find the equation of the ellipse that passes through the points
(6, 0), (0, 3), (−6, 0) and (0, −3).
[There is a hint in the footnote14 .]
14
Stretch a circle.

Solutions 2
1. (a) translation −6 // y−axis (b) reflection in y − axi s or translation +3 // x-axis
(c) stretch s.f. 2 // x-axis (d) translation +5 // x-axis
(e) reflection in x-axis or stretch s.f. −1 // y-axis
(f) stretch s.f. 2 // y-axis
(c) g (x) = f 21 x
¡ ¢
2. (a) g (x) = f (x) − 6 (b) g (x) = f (−x) or f (x − 3)
(d) g (x) = f (x − 5) (e) g (x) = − f (x) (f) g (x) = 2 f (x)
3. (i) (ii) (iii)

y y y
6 6 6
P (4, 8) P (2, 8)
• •
P (4, 2)
•
-x -x -x
−2 6 0 8 −1 4
4. p = 1, q = 3. Translation −3 // x-axis. y = f (x + 3). B (7, 3),

1
or p = 2, q = 0. Stretch s.f. 2 // x-axis. y = f (2x). B (5, 3).
5. P Q R
(i) (−4, 5) (0, 2) (2, 0)
(ii) (−4, 9, ) (0, 0) (2, −6)
(iii) (−8, 3) (0, 0) (4, −2)
(iv) (4, 3) (0, 0) (−2, −2)
(v) (0, 3) (4, 0) (6, −2)
6.
y
6
−3 - x
2
The curve y = x+3 is shown in blue.
The curve crosses the y-axis at (0, 32 ).
Asymptotes: y = 0 and x = −3.

7. (i) y = − f (x) (ii) y = f (2x)

6 6
A( 32 , 4)
•
-x -x
−2 8 −1 4
•
A(3, −4)
8. (a) (b)
y y
6 6
-x -x
(c) y
6
-x
22+3x
9. y= 5
.
The line through (−4, 2) is L translated −5 // x-axis. i.e. f (x) → f (x + 5).
10. (a) (b) y
x
−2
x −1

11.
1
y +2 = 6
(x − 3)2
1
= 4
(x − 3)2
1
(x − 3)2 =
4
2 1
x x −3 = ±
3 2
5 7
x =
or
2 2
Notice that it is easier to rearrange the equation this way than to multiply
through by (x − 3)2 .
1 1+x−1 x x (x−1)+1 1 1
12. +1 = = . Or = = +
x−1 x−1 x−1 x−1 x−1 x−1 x−1
y
1
x
1
1
13. (a) x = 4 [multiply both sides by x 2 ] (b) |k| ≤
16
1 4
The equation = + k can be written kx 2 − x + 4 = 0.
x x2
This has roots provided the discriminant is non-negative, i.e. 1 − 16k ≥ 0
14. (a) x = 3 or 5 (b) x = 6.

3 solutions, by inspection. The line has gradient −1 and passes through
(11, 0). [The solutions are 3 12 , 5 and 8.]
1
15. Let f (x) = x .
1
(i) Curve is y = f (x + 1). (ii) Start with g (x) = x−1 = f (x − 1)
1 −1
then y = 1−x = x−1 = −g (x)
y y
6 6
- x - x
−1 1

16.
4
y = x2 −1 Asymptotes: x = 0 and y = −1.
6 x = ±2.
4
[Crosses x-axis where x 2 − 1= 0]
-x
−1
4 4
y = (x−2)2 Let f (x) = x 2 .
6 Since x 2 − 4x + 4 = (x − 2)2
the curve is
y = g (x) = f (x − 2).
Asymptotes: y = 0, x = 2.
y = g (0) = 1.
-x
2
17. There is no need to find a and b. We can simply transform the circle.
(i) reflection (in y-axis) x → −x, giving 3x 2 + 3y 2 − 5x − y + 2 = 0 .
(i) translation y → y − 2, giving 3x 2 + 3y 2 + 5x − 13y + 4 = 0 .
18. P is (2, 0). [The smallest value x can take for the square root to be possible.]
p p p
PQ = 90 = 3 10. [At Q, 3 = x − 2, or 9 = x − 2. So Q is (11, 3).]
p p
Let f (x) = x − 2, then 2x − 2 = f (2x). Stretch y = f (x) s.f. 21 // x-axis.
The image of Q is ( 11
2
, 3).
y
6
3
Q(11, 3)
- x
0 1 2
19. Start with the circle centre the origin radius 3, i.e. x 2 + y 2 = 9.
If we stretch this s.f. 2 // x-axis we get the required ellipse: x → 12 x.
x2
4
+ y 2 = 9 which simplifies to x 2 + 4y 2 = 36.
We can check this is correct by finding where it crosses the axes.

Summary of key ideas

• Sketching polynomials. What does “sketching" mean? Roots and the
zero product principle.
Multiple roots. Higher order polynomials. Which way up is the curve?
1 1
• The reciprocal functions. The curves y = x and y = x 2 . Asymptotes.
• Transforming functions.
Translations y = f (x) + a and y = f (x + a)
Stretches y = a f (x) and y = f (ax)
Reflections (in the coordinate axes) y = − f (x) and y = f (−x)
The importance of focussing on the transformation of individual
points rather than broad changes.
The effect that transforming has on roots, intersections with the axes,
minimum and minimum points and asymptotes.
• Periodic functions. Definition. Amplitude and period. Transforming

the sine, cosine and tan curves.
• An elegant way of thinking about transformations which treats the x

and y directions the same.

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"Sometimes a theorem can just be so elegant. It can draw together.

8 SKETCHING AND TRANSFORMING CURVES 8-1

SKETCHING AND TRANSFORMING

8.1 Sketching Polynomials

What could the numbers be?

x(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 7) = 0.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-2

We defined what a polynomial is in Chapter 3. If you want a reminder see

But first a summary of what we learnt in Chapter 7 about sketching the

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-3

Below are three different versions of the same quadratic function:

• what the y-intercept is by putting x = 0 into the first version;

• what the roots are by putting y = 0 into the second version;

• the maximum or minimum point from the third version.

Using a combination of these will always be enough to sketch a quadratic

If you want to refresh your memory on how we arrived at all these

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-4

8.1.1 Cubic functions and beyond

This is the function

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-5

Which way up?

For small values of x the function is decidedly positive. e.g. when x = 1,

Coeff. highest power of x positive Coeff. highest power of x negative

The sign of the coefficient of the highest power of x will tell us

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-6

negative x 2 coefficient ⇒ curve up this way up

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-7

Sketch the curves of these functions

(i) y = x(x 2 − 4) = x(x + 2)(x − 2) so its roots are at x = 0, −2 and 2.

(ii) The roots are where x − 3 = 0, 5 − x = 0 and 2x + 1 = 0, so the roots are at

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-8

Sketch the function y = x(x − 2)(9 − x 2 ).

This a polynomial of order2 4, i.e. a quartic.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-9

The shape of a polynomial curve

Order 2 Order 3 Order 4

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-10

8.1.2 Multiple roots

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-11

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-12

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-13

The answers are on the next page.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-14

The y = x 4 curve is, for sketching purposes, the same shape as y = x 2 . It is

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-15

Sketch these functions.

It has single roots at x = −2 and

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-16

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-17

Increasing the order of the polynomial further, the number of possible

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-18

y = k(x + 2)(x − 1)2 .

(b) With roots at − 32 , 0 and 2, the equation must be of the form

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 8-19

Sketch the curves in questions 1 to 8.

2. (a) y = (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) (b) y = (1 − x)(x + 2)(x + 3)

3. (a) y = x(1 − x 2 ) (b) y = x 2 (1 − x)

4. (a) y = 2(3 + x)(x − 1)2 (b) y = 2(3 − x)(1 − x)2

5. (a) y = (x − 2)3 (b) y = 14 (x − 2)3

6. (a) y = x 2 (6 − x)2 (b) y = x(6 − x)3

7. (a) y = (x 2 − 1)(x + 3)2 (b) y = (x − 1)2 (x 2 + 3)