Algebraic Division & Factor Theorem Chapter - Pure Maths Guide From Love of Maths

This book is available (in whole or by chapter) in pdf format via digital
download from our website loveofmaths.co.uk.

Feedback of any kind – via the website – would be most welcome, including
any errors you find (there will be some I’m afraid) and suggestions for
improvement. Please comment too on anything you found hard to
understand: you should regard this as a failing on my part, not yours.
"The true spirit of delight, the exaltation, the sense of being more
than man, which is the touchstone of the highest excellence, is to
be found in Mathematics as surely as in poetry."
Bertrand Russell
"Sometimes a theorem can just be so elegant. It can draw together.

It can take a problem which seems to be intractable, almost
impossible to get your head around. And yet, within a few lines,
you can discover that you can demonstrate that this is absolutely
true and beyond dispute, and always will be. A sense of power and
beauty in that which can’t be replicated anywhere else."
John Waterman
Acknowledgements
I am hugely grateful for numerous helpful comments and suggestions from
Ian Christie and Mike Fairbank, Abbey College London, Alan Gregory MBE,
Prof Alastair McDonald, Barry Ainge, Sam Waterman, Steve Gooch, Ilona
Hurrell, Joe Waterman and Mike McGuire.
I particularly want to thank Matt Joy who, as a seasoned journalist, patiently
pointed the need for simplicity and succinct brevity. And Victor
Lunn-Rockliffe, with whom I spent many hours exploring how best to make
the layout and presentation as inviting as possible.
I want to thank Dan Balis and two of my grandchildren, Ethan and Sekai,
who road-tested some of it in the latter stages of development.
Most importantly, I need to acknowledge the hundreds of other students
whom I have had the privilege to teach, and who have contributed
immeasurably, albeit unwittingly, to this book.
Finally to my wife Anne who, despite having not the slightest interest in
Mathematics, patiently encouraged me over the many times it looked like it
would never get finished.
John Waterman, May 2019
Love of Maths Pure Maths Guide First edition published by Love of Maths Ltd
June 2021.
Contents
4 ALGEBRAIC DIVISION AND FACTOR THEOREM 4-1

4.1 Introduction to algebraic fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
4.2 An important notation issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
4.3 Cancelling algebraic fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
4.4 Multiplying algebraic fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
4.5 Dividing algebraic fractions: hammer and boot rule . . . . . . . 4-20
4.6 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-26
4.7 More algebraic fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35
4.8 Dividing polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-41
4.9 The Factor Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-55
Chapter 4
ALGEBRAIC DIVISION AND

FACTOR THEOREM
Overview
4.1 Introduction. From arithmetic fractions to algebraic fractions.
4.2 A notation issue. This clarifies a small but important notation issue:
that fractions like
2 2a 1 x+1
3
a and 3 are equivalent, as are 2 (x + 1) and 2 .
4.3 Cancelling algebraic fractions. For example
3a 2 b 18y 3 x 2 +5x+6 x−1
, , ,
9b 3 6x y−9y 2 4x+12 x 2 −1
Common mistakes. One of them is illustrated with a “proof" that 2 = 1.
4.4 Multiplying algebraic fractions. This builds on 4.2. For example
1 3 a 1 2 2 1−a 1 y−1 ¡ 1 2
¢
9
x × 4
, ×
4b 2
b , 2a × a
, 2
y −y
× y
, x + x
2
with a reminder that 3× 3 6= 69 , and that 8× 3x
2
= 81 × 3x
2
= 12x.
4.5 Dividing algebraic fractions: the “hammer and boot" rule.
3 x2
1
x y 4 2 x−3x+4
, 4 , ,
2 2+ x3 1
4 x−1
y2
4.6 Adding/subtracting algebraic fractions. For example
4 3a 2 2 x(x−1) x−3 4
a
+ 2, 3
x + 6 , x
+ x+1 .
4.7 Algebraic fractions with brackets.(Optional.)
4.8 Dividing polynomials with a linear divisor. For example

x 2 +2x−8 3x 3 +11x 2 −7x−29
x+4
, x+2
4.9 Factor Theorem. For example finding the factors of x 3 + 6x 2 − 9x − 14.
4-1
CHAPTER 4. ALGEBRAIC DIVISION AND FACTOR THEOREM
4.1 Introduction to algebraic fractions

At this level of Maths we will occasionally use the ÷ sign for division, but we
will almost always indicate division by means of a fraction. And since those
fractions will increasingly be algebraic rather than arithmetic, it is hard to
overstate the importance of being completely comfortable with algebraic
fractions.
It may surprise you to know that every Maths student I have ever taught has
at some point had problems with fractions—including those who have gone
on to study Maths degrees at the top universities. So if it applies to you too,
you are in good company.
What am I saying? That students can never do simple fraction calculations?

Not at all. Rather that when they do, they rarely understand what’s really
going on, so when they meet algebraic fractions, they can come unstuck.
They may be very happy with
5 3 5 3
× or −
6 10 6 10
but less so with something like
5 x 5 x
× or − .
2x 10 2x 10
If the algebraic ones don’t look any harder to you than the arithmetic ones,
great: you can probably skip a lot of this chapter. If they do, it’s time for a
quick trip back to basics. All will then become clear. (If you are not sure see
answers in the footnote1 at the bottom of the page.)
But first an important notation issue that arises in the world of algebraic
fractions.
15 3 x x 25−x 2
6 × 10 = 41 , 5
6
3
− 10 = 15 , 5
2x × 10 = 1
4,
5
2x − 10 = 10x .
PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-2

4.2 An important notation issue

The division x ÷ 3 we could write either as
x 1
or x
3 3
x
We can check this by giving x a value, say x = 12. Then 3
= 12 ÷ 3 = 4, which
is the same as 31 × 12, i.e. 13 of 12.
x 1 1 x x
Better still, if we write x as we can see why: x = × = .
1 3 3 1 3
Generalising this:
1
dividing by n is the same as multiplying by .
n
Similarly:
2 2 a 2a
a= × = .
3 3 1 3
a
The point of writing a as is to make it crystal clear that the a is not “on the
1
line"; it’s very definitely in the numerator.

Some more examples:
1 1 (x + 1) x + 1
(x + 1) = × =
2 2 1 2
and
3 3 (2y 2 ) 3 × 2y 2 6y 2
(2y 2 ) = × = =
5 5 1 5 5
The key is to make it clear what’s in the numerator and what’s in the
denominator, so when it come to combining fractions we know what to do.
For example
2 a 2a a 2a + a 3a
a+ = + = = = a,
3 3 3 3 3 3
Or µ ¶
2 1 2 1
a+ a = a + = a
3 3 3 3
(taking out the common factor of a).
This next example brings out two key issues. The first is the usefulness of
2y
regarding the 2y as 1 . Then a reminder that to add or subtract fractions
they must have identical denominators:
5 2y 5y 14y 5y 9y
2y − y = − = − = .
7 1 7 7 7 7
2y
We have multiplied the top and the bottom of 1
by 7 (using the principle of
equivalent fractions) .
The idea of writing every term as a fraction will crop up a lot. For example
3x 1 2 x2 a 5a
3x = , x = , 5 =
1 2 2 b b
makes crystal clear what belongs in a numerator and what belongs in a
denominator—essential when adding or subtracting expressions involving
fractions.
QQ
Simplify these expressions

3y 2
(a) 91 x + 29 x (b) 5
− 15 y (c) 4x 2 + 2x3 (d) 34 x − x.
The answers are in the footnote2 .
x y 14x 2
2
(a) 3 or 13 x (b) 5 or 51 y (c) 3 (d) − x4 or − 14 x.

4.3 Cancelling algebraic fractions

When cancelling fractions we need to find factors shared by the numerator
and denominator (the Highest Common Factor). Sometimes this is obvious;
if it isn’t we can always find it by factorising, for example:
39 3 ×13
3
= = .
1001 7 × 11 ×
13
77
Turning to an algebraic example, the principle is the same: examine the

factors and see what cancels. For example
15ab 2 3 × 5 × a × b ×
b 3a
3
= = .
20b 4 × 5 × b × b 4b
b ×
If it’s immediately clear that the HCF is 5b 2 , we don’t need the middle step.

Now look at this fraction

15a + 10
.
5
How would the cancelling work in this case?
It’s not uncommon to see students give the answer:
3a + 10 or 15a + 2.
The mistake in each case was to divide the denominator—but only part of
it—by 5.
Since we are looking for common factors it makes sense to factorise:
15a + 10 5 (3a + 2)
= = 3a + 2.
5 5
Alternatively3 we could divide every term in the numerator and every term in
the denominator by 5:
3a 2
15a + 10 15a
+ 10

= = 3a + 2
5 5
1
This amounts to the same thing as taking out a factor of 5 from top and
bottom. The important things is that the whole of the top and the whole of
the bottom must be divided.
What about the prospect of cancelling this fraction?

3x + 4 2a + a 2
and .
6 1+a
We can’t cancel either of them. Although there are various factors common
to top and bottom, neither contains a factor that divides into every term.
3
Or we could split it into two fractions added together, and cancel each one separately:
15a + 10 15a 10
= + = 3a + 2.
5 5 5
We are just applying the reverse process to adding fractions. Obviously this method
doesn’t work if it’s the denominator that contains more than one term.

In this rather more interesting example every term has a factor 3y:
6y 2
18y 3 18y
3
6y 2
=
=
6x y − 9y 2 y −
6x
2
9y 2x − 3y
2x 3y
or we could cancel by factorising first:
18y 3 . 6y 2
3y 6y 2
= =
6x y − 9y 2 3y(2x
− 3y) 2x − 3y
We can turn this into a simple rule: to cancel a fraction with more than one
term in its numerator or its denominator,
either
• factorise, and then cancel, or A
!
A
• cancel by dividing into every term. A
A
QQ
Cancel these fractions as far as possible:

6x 2 y 8x 16ab+20b 2 x 2 +x y
(a) (b) (c) (d) .
9x y 3 4+12x 2ab−6b 2 x 2 −x y
4 2x 2x 2(a+5b) x+y
(a) (b) (c) (d) .
3y 2 1+3x a−3b x−y

We won’t always have a choice of methods. Look at this example:
2x 2 + 6x
.
3x + 9
There’s nothing that divides into every term, so factorising is the only way to
go:
2x(x + 3) 2xX(xX+X3)
X 2x
= X = .
3(x + 3) 3(xX+X3)
X 3
In this case the common factor was a bracket.
In this next example

4a 2 b − 2ab 2
2ab 2 − b 3
we could divide every term (top and bottom) by b. But as you will see we still
need to factorise, so dividing by b can just as well come later:
4a 2 b − 2ab 2 2ab (2a

X−Xb) 2aSb 2a
X
X
2 3
= 2
= = .
2ab − b b (2a − b) b
XXX
X bA2
The natural next step is to include the possibility of two-bracket factorising.

You will need this for Core 2, but probably not Core 1. Two examples:
x 2 + 5x + 6 (x + 2)X
(xX+XX x +2
3)
= =
4x + 12 4(xX
X +X3)
X 4
y −1 (yX
X −X1)
X 1
2
= = .
y − 1 (y + 1)(yX
X −XX y +1
1)
QQ
Cancel these fractions as far as possible. (Be careful: some may not cancel at
all):
10x 4 x 2 +y 2 x 2 +x y x+4 x 2 −9
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) .
3x 3 y−2x 4 x+y x+y 2
x +5x+4 x−3
5 10x 2 x(x+y)
(a) (b) No cancelling possible (c) =x
3x y−2x 2 x+y
x+4 1 (x+3)(x−3)
(d)
(x+1)(x+4)
= x+1 (e)
x−3
= x + 3.

Exercises 1
1. In each case combine the terms into a single fraction.

a
(a) 5 + 2a
5
1
(b) 5 a+ 5 a
2 1
(c) 2 x+ 2 x
1
3 1 1 1 7x
(d) 4 p− 4 p (e) 6 (a + 1)+ 6 (a + 1) (f ) 2 − 12 x
k+1
(g) x+ 3 x
5
(h) 2 − 31 (k + 1) (i) 2
5x
− x4
2 a y2 y2 1 3
(j) 3 a− 6 (k) 2 + 8
(l) 2 x− 4 x
1 1 1
(m) 2 x y+ 3 x y+ 4 x y
2. In each case find the prime factors of the numerator and the
denominator, and hence cancel as far as possible.
128 28 51 121 35
(a) 144 (b) 180 (c) 340 (d) 1001 (e) 98
3. Cancel these fractions as far as possible

3a 2 b 7 pq 2 r 3
(a) 9b 3 (b) 63x (c) p 3 q 2 r
15x 2 y 2 4x 2 +10x y 2a 2 −6a
(d) 20y z (e) 2
(f) 4a
20x+3y 3y 2 +12y x 14pq
(g) 30
(h) 3y 2
(i) 21p−7q
a 2 +b 2 4x 2 +8x y t 2 +3t
(j) 2ab (k) x+2y
(l) t 2 +t
4. Cancel these fractions as far as possible.

3x 2 −9x x 2 −4 2(x+1)2
(a) x−3
(b) x+2 (c) x 2 −1
x 2 +7x+10 2y−y 2 x 2 +8x+15

(d) x 2 −x−6 (e) 4−y 2 (f) x+5
y 2 −6y+9 2x 3 +10x 2 a 2 +2ab+b 2
(g) 2y−6
(h) x+5
(i) a+b
x−1 x 4 −1 k(4−y 2 )
(j) 7x 2 −3x−4 (k) x 2 −1 (l) 2+y
x 3 +x 2 −6x x 2 −1 x 2 −1
(m) x 2 −2x
(n) x 2 −x (o) (x−1)2
x 2 +1 12x 2 +4x y+9x+3y x(x+2)−4x−8

(p) (x+1)2 +(x−1)2 (q) 2(3x+y)
(r) x+2
x(x+1)−3x+8 (a+b)2 −1 1+x+x 2 +x 3
(s) x+2
(t) a+b−1 (u) 1+x
4y 2 −9 2a 2 +28a+98
(v) 2y 2 −3y−9 (w) a 2 +6a−7
5. Simplify these fractions by cancelling.

(3x−6)2 (4x+2)2 4 (a y+a)3 (t 2 −t )2
(a) 3
(b) 10x+6 (c) (2y−10)2 (d) 2a
(e) t 2 (t 2 −1)

Solutions 1
3a 3a 3 1 p
1. (a) 5 (b) 5 or 5 a (c) x (d) 2 p or 2
3(k+1)
1
(e) 3 (a + 1) or 3
a+1
(f) 3x
8
(g) 3 x or 3
8x
(h) 6
− 2(k+1)
6
= k+1
6
9x a 5y 2 1
(i) 4 (j) 2 (k) 8 (l) − 2 x
13
(m) 12 x y
8 7 3 11 5
2. (a) 9 (b) 45 (c) 20 (d) 91 (e) 14
a 1 r2 3x 2 y
3. (a) 3b (b) 9x (c) p 2 (d) 4z (e) x(2x + 5y)
a−3 y+4x 2pq
(f) 2 (g) None possible. (h) y
(i) 3p−q (j) None possible.
t +3
(k) 4x (l) t +1
2(x+1)
4. (a) 3x (b) x − 2 (c) x−1
x+5 y
(d) x−3 (e) 2+y (f ) x + 3
y−3
(g) 2 (h) 2x 2 (i) a + b
1 (x 2 −1)(x 2 +1)
(j) 7x+4 (k) x 2 −1
= x2 + 1 (l) k(2 − y)
x(x+3)(x−2) (x+1)(x−1) x+1 (x+1)(x−1) x+1
(m) x(x−2) = x + 3 (n) x(x−1) = x (o) (x−1)2
= x−1
x 2 +1 1 (3x+y)(4x+3) 4x+3 (x+2)(x−4)
(p) 2x 2 +2 = 2 (q) 2(3x+y)
= 2 (r) x+2
= x −4
x 2 −2x+8 (a+b+1)(a+b−1) (1+x)(1+x 2 )
(s) x+2
= x −4 (t) a+b−1
= a +b +1 (u) 1+x
= 1 + x2
(2y+3)(2y−3) 2y−3 2(a+7)2 2(a+7)
(v) (2y+3)(y−3) = y−3 (w) (a+7)(a−1) = a−1
32 (x−2)2 22 (2x+1)2 2(2x+1)2 4 1

5. (a) 3
= 3(x − 2)2 (b) 2(5x+3) = 5x+3 (c) 22 (y−5)2 = (y−5)2
a 3 (y+1)3 a 2 (y+1)3 t 2 (t −1)2 t −1
(d) 2a
= 2
(e) t 2 (t +1)(t −1) = t +1

4.4 Multiplying algebraic fractions

What does it mean to multiply two fractions? For example
1 6
× .
3 7
6
The fraction we can regard as 6 portions of a cake that has been divided
7
into 7 pieces. So since in arithmetic × and “of" are equivalent, we can think
1 6 2
of this as of . In other words 2 pieces, or .
3 7 7
1 6 2
× = .
3 7 7
A more direct way to arrive at the answer is the familiar rule:
to multiply fractions together
multiply all the numerators;

multiply all the denominators.
We have
1 6 6
× =
3 7 21
2
which we can simplify, by dividing top and bottom by 3, to give .
7
The most direct way to get to this answer is to cancel right at the start:
2
1 6A 2
× = .
3A 7 7
1
Who says we can do this? The following bit of mathematical “sleight of

hand" explains why:
2
1 6 1 × 6 6 × 1 6A 1
× = = = × .
3 7 3 × 7 3 × 7 3A 7
1
What this shows is that within a multiplication of fractions
we can cancel anything on the top with anything on the bottom.
By the way, students sometimes think they need to find a common

denominator when multiplying fractions. They don’t. They are confusing it
with adding or subtracting fractions.

Make it a practice to do as much cancelling as you can before multiplying.

The next example illustrates why this is such a good idea:
1 3
7 12 3 7A 3 9 12
Z
Z
× × = × × = .
8 5 14 8A 5 Z14
Z 20
2 2
This is a great deal easier than cancelling after multiplying:
7 × 12 × 3 252 126 63 9
= = = = .
8 × 5 × 14 560 280 140 20
Remember, the cancelling must involve one number from the top and one
from the bottom—so not the 12 and the 3 for example.
Mixed fractions need to be first converted6 to proper (“top-heavy”) fractions.

For example
2 1 12 10
2 ×3 = × = 8.
5 3 5 3
2×5 + 2
6
For example 2 25 = 21 + 25 = 10
+ 52 = 12
2 . Or more directly
5 5
whol e number × d enomi nat or + numer at or
This can be encapsulated into a simple rule:
d enomi nat or
3 5×4 + 3 23
Another example: 5 4 = = .
4 4

Moving on to an algebraic example:

2 3
4 9a 2 4A × 9A × aA2
× = = 6a
3a 2 3A ×Za × 2A
1 1 1
Here too, it’s often easier to cancel before doing any multiplying:
2 3
2
4 9a 4A 9A aA2
× = × = 6a
3a 2 3AZa 2A
Another example:
1
2
3x yx 3A x S y x2 x3
× = × =
5y 2 12 5y A2 Z 12
Z 20y
4

In section 4.1 we saw that it may not be immediately obvious what is in the
numerator and what is in the denominator:
3 1 3x 1 x
x× = × =
4 6 4 6 8
8 1 3 8 a2 4a
3× × a2 = × × =
15ab 2 1 15ab 2 5b
Satisfy yourself that these are correct.
In this next example (where the dots stand for all the fractions in between)
we don’t have the option of multiplying before cancelling:
1 2 3 4 5 N −1
× × × × ×......×
2 3 4 5 6 N
There are lots of pairs that cancel: the pair of 2’s, the pair of 3’s, the pair of 4’s
etc, running up to a pair of N − 1’s (there must be an N − 1 on the bottom of
the penultimate fraction). This just leaves a 1 at the start and an N at the end:
the answer is
1
.
N
If this isn’t completely clear to you, try it with a particular number e.g. N = 8,
and you should see how it works.
QQ
Simplify these as far as possible:

5 9 14 9x 2 2y 1 b2
(a) 7 × 10 × 15 (b) 8y 2 × 3x (c) 6 ×3a × a 2
2 3 4 5 99
(d) 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × . . . . . . × 100 .
7 3 3x b2 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) .
5 4y 2a 50

We end this section with one of the commonest mistakes students make with
fractions. It also leads on to a very simple but useful little principle. First the
mistake:
2 24
12 × 6= .
3 36
The confusion is with equivalent fractions, where were we are multiplying
the top and the bottom by 12, leaving the fraction the same size—the same
number expressed in a different way:
12 × 2 24
= .
12 × 3 36
No, what we are trying to do here is make the fraction twelve times bigger:
4
2 Z 12
Z 2
12 × = × = 8.
3 1 3A
1
12
As soon as we see the 12 in front as , the mistake is avoided.
1
Some more examples, this time involving algebraic fractions:
3x 8 3x
8× = × = 12x
2 1 2
1 3p 2 1 p
3p 2 × = × =
9p 1 9p 3
As you get more used to expressions like this, you’ll be able to do some of the
cancelling in your head.
Now for an important special case.

We often find ourselves multiplying by the denominator of the fraction. For

example
1
2 3A 2
3× = × = 2
3 1 3A
1
a result we can generalise by saying
if we multiply a fraction by its denominator

the denominator disappears.
Or we could express it like this:
somet hi ng
× = somet hi ng .

The right hand is, in effect, on the top of the fraction , so it cancels with
1
the left hand .
Some more examples:
2a 3
×5 = 2a 3
5
11
a× = 11
a
2x + y
× 6x y = 2x + y
6x y
y
(y − 1) × = y
y −1

A key point to take away from this whole section is:
when multiplying fractions treat every element as a fraction, A
!
A
by inserting a denominator of 1 if necessary. A
A
This makes it crystal clear what’s on the top and what’s on the bottom.
QQ
Simplify all these in your head:

7 5x 9x 13 x+y
(a) 30× 15 (b) 4× 8 (c) 7× 7 (d) y × y (e) 3x × 3x .
8 5x
(a) 14 (b) (c) 9x (d) 13 (e) x + y.
2

Exercises 2
1. In each case multiply the fractions, cancelling where possible.

2 3 7 2 3 7 5a 2a
(a) 5 × 4 × 9 (b) 5 × 4 × 9 (c) 12 × 3
1 3 2 14 3 2
(d) 9 x × 4 (e) 7 × 15 a (f) 8 x × 9 y
6 2 a 1 1 2 3
(g) x × 3 x (h) 4b × 2 b 2 (i) 2 x × 3 x × 4 x
2x 2 1 2x 2 4x
(j) 3y × 6x y (k) 3y × 6x y (l) 7 × 7
2 x+1 6
(m) 5 × 5 y (n) 3 × 3 (o) y × y
4 1−a 3
(p) 5t 2 × 5t 2 (q) 2a × 2a (r) k 2 × 4k 2
2. Multiply the fractions, factorising and cancelling where possible.

16a+4b 6a t 2 +6t t +1
(a) 3a
× 4a+b (b) t +1 × t
x 2 −6x 3x+6 1 y−1

(c) x+2 × 2x−12 (d) y 2 −y × y
3x 1
(e) x+1 × (x + 1)2 (f ) (2 − y) × y−2
5b
(g) 6a × 3a 2 (h) (y 2 − y) ÷ (y 2 + y)

Solutions 2
7 1 5a 2 x 1
1. (a) 30 (b) 21 (c) 18 (d) 12 or 12
x
4a 4 1 ab
(e) 15 or 15
a (f) 12 y (g) 4 (h) 8
x3 x
(i) 4 (j) 9y 2 (k) 4x 3 (l) 4x
(m) 2y (n) x + 1 (o) 6 (p) 4

3
(q) 1 − a (r) 4
3x 1
2. (a) 8 (b) t+6 (c) 2 (d) y 2
5ab y−1
(e) 3x(x + 1) (f ) −1 (g) 2 (h) y+1

4.5 Dividing algebraic fractions:

hammer and boot rule
What about divsions involving fractions?
Let’s jump straight in with a hard one. What do we mean by this division?
1 1 3 12
3 ÷1 or .
2 6 1 16
We are asking how many 1 16 ’s must we add together to make 3 21 ?
The answer is 3 (satisfy yourself that this is right).
Of course this is an artificial problem constructed to illustrate a point. How

do we divide any two fractions?
At the start of the chapter we saw that
n 1
dividing by n = 1 is the same as multiplying by .
n
This principle carries across to any number:
a
dividing by the fraction b
b
is the same as multiplying by a
This is the familiar rule: to divide by a fraction we turn it upside down and
multiply.
4 2 4 3 12 6
÷ = × = = .
5 3 5 2 10 5
If it’s a mixed fraction we’ll need to convert9 it into an improper
(“top-heavy") fraction first:
1 1 7 7 7 6
3 ÷ 1 = ÷ = × = 3.
2 6 2 6 2 7
Some algebraic examples:

2a a 2 2a 9 6
÷ = × 2=
3 9 3 a a
4 4y y 2 4y 1 4
y ÷ y2 = ÷ = × 2=
3 3 1 3 y 3y
3×2 + 1
9
For example 3 12 = 31 + 12 = 62 + 21 = 72 . Or more directly
2
whol e number × d enomi nat or + numer at or
This can be encapsulated into a simple rule:
d enomi nat or
3 5×4 + 3 23
Another example: 5 4 = = .
4 4

There is a more direct technique„ which is usually quicker and easier. I call
it the hammer and boot rule. It’s for whenever we have a fraction within a
fraction, like in the example
3 12
.
1 16
We’ll explain the hammer and boot technique using arithmetic fractions, but
of course it applies equally to algebraic ones. We start with this example:
3
5 3 3 1 3
= ÷2 = × =
2 5 5 2 5×2
We’ve deliberately not finished the calculation because it’s the pattern we are
after, not the answer. What has happened? We imagine hitting the top
fraction 53 with a hammer, and think of it pushing the 5 down to join (and
multiply) the 2 underneath, like this:
3
5 3 3
↓ = =
2 5 × 2 10
Here are some more examples:
1 3 a 5
3 1 1 3
8 1 a
7 2x 5
↓ = = , ↓ = = , ↓ = , ↓ = .
2 3×2 6 9 8 × 9 24 b 7b 3x 6x 2
1
Can you see that the first answer makes sense? (Half of 3
is 16 .) It’s not so easy
to see why the others are correct.

Now let’s see what happens if the fraction within the fraction is on the bottom.
As before:
2 5 2 7 2×7
5
= 2÷ = × =
7
7 1 5 5
In this case we imagine booting the 7 up onto the top.
-2 14
5 = 15
7
Some more examples
-4 -2
1 = 12
1
= 12 6 = 2×7
6
= 73
3 7
- 2y 8y 3 - 5x
3 = 3 x = 10x
x
= 10
4y 2 2
When we have one fraction divided by another, we hammer and kick:

2 x 1
7 2 × 5 10 2 4x a 3
3
= = , 1
= = 2x, 2a
=
5
7 × 3 21 4
2 3
2a 2
QQ
Simplify these for yourself (the answers are in the footnote10 .)

2 4 a
3 7 5 y
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
5 2 3 4
2 ab 1
6x 7 6 x
(e) 3 (f) 3 (g) a (h) 1
x 5 5 x3
10 10 2 a 10 5b
(a) (b) (c) (d) 4y (e) 2x 2 (f) (g) (h) x 2
3 7 15 21 6

Get into the habit of seeing the hammer and boot in action whenever you
find yourself with a fraction within a fraction. After a while you will be
simplifying and doing any easy cancelling in a single step, in your head. For
example take this expression
10x 2 y
3
2x
y
You may be able to see that, having applied the hammer and boot rule, the
2 will divide into the 10, the 3 multiplies with the 2 and there is an x that
cancels, leaving the fraction
5x y
6
Doing a simplification in your head carries risks of course, but if you can do
it reliably it is preferable. Why? you may ask. It is not because it saves a
minute or two; it’s because the simplifying the fraction will be just one step
in a bigger problem, and having to work it out on paper inevitably sidetracks
you from thinking about the wider problem. It’s like a car driver who can’t
change gear without consciously thinking about it; she can’t also maintain
the required focus when negotiating complicated traffic conditions.
Some more examples. They look a little more complex but the hammer and
boot principle applies in exactly the same way:
(2x + 1)2 3y(2x + 1)2

4
=
3y
4
5x 5x(y − 1)
x = = 5(y − 1).
y−1
x
In the last example we had to introduce a bracket to make sure the whole of
1 − y was multiplied by 3x. If we don’t put in the bracket we’ll find ourselves
5x y−1
writing x
.
To apply the rules we must be clear what is in a numerator and what is in a

denominator. That means we may need to modify the notation first (either
explicitly or in your head). For example:
1 x+1
9
(x + 1) 9 3(x + 1) x + 1
1
= x = = .
3
x 3 9x 3x

Exercises 3
Simplify each expression by writing it as a single fraction in its simplest form.

4 1 5
9 2 8 7 12
1. (a) (b) (c) (d) 8 ÷3 (e) 11 ÷6
3 5 20
2 5 4 1 1
(f) 3 (g) 1 (h)2 (i) 3 (j)9
4 4 3 5 2
2 1 3 5 1
5 3 4 8 4
(k) 3 (l) 3 (m) 1 (n) 15 (o) 1
7 8 2 16 5
3 a 1 x2
x 2 y y 1
2. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) ÷b
2 5 2y 4x ab
5p 2
q 3 2y 5b 8
(f) (g) a (h) x (i) 10 (j)2
10p 2 y b x
2x a y2
1 3t 3 3 2
(k) a (l)9t 2
(m) y (n) 2 (o) 3y
b 2 5 b 5
1 4 3
3x 3y ax 2
(p) 2 (q) 3 (r) a
x y2 2
π p 1
p
2 πr 2 x 4 y
3. (a) (b) r (c) (d)
3 3 p1 1
x y
2 2
( 12 )(− 21 ) ( 52 )( 23 )( 12 ) x−1 x−1
(e) (f) (g) 1 (h) 1
32 3×2
(x−1)2 x 2 −1
4. In this question p = 12 , q = 27 , r = 4 and s = − 56 .

p q 1 1
(a) q (b) 2 (c) q 2 (d) p 2 + q 2 (e) pq
rs r +1 p− r1 1 1
(f) 4q (g) s (h) (i) 1+ s (j)
p+ r1 p+ q1
6( 32 ) 1 ( 12 )( a1 ) 6x −3
5. (a) (b) (c) (d)
4 3( x6 ) 1 1
4a 2 2x
³ ´ ³ ´2
xy 2 5p x+1 3
( ) 3 2 2y 2x
(e) x2
(f) q 2 (g) 3 (h) 1
6 ( )
2 x+1 24x

Solutions 3
4 1 1 7 2
1. (a) 27 (b) 10 (c) 32 (d) 24 (e) 11
8 5 2
(f) 3 (g) 20 (h) 6 (i) 3 (j) 9
14 8 3 2 5
(k) 15 (l) 9 (m) 2 (n) 3 (o) 4
3 a 1 x 1
2. (a) 2x (b) 10 (c) 2y 2 (d) 4y (e) ab 2
p 6 2y 2 b2
(f) 2q (g) a (h) x (i) 2 (j) 4x
b 2 10x ab 5y
(k) a (l) 3t (m) 3y (n) 2 (o) 6
3 4y 6
(p) 2 (q) 9 (r) x 2
p
π y
3. (a) 6 (b) 3πr (c) x (d) 4
1 5
(e) − 36 (f) 16 (g) 2(x − 1) (h) 2(x + 1).
7 1 4 25
4. (a) 4 (b) 7
(c) 49
(d) 2 (e) 7
35 3 1 1
(f) − 12 (g) −6 (h) 5 (i) − 5 (j) 4
2 12
5. (a) 1 (b) x (c) 2a (d) x 2
10p (x+1)3
(e) 2y 2 (f) q 2 (g) 12y 2 (h) 3(23x ).

4.6 Adding and subtracting algebraic fractions

At the start of the chapter we said that we need to understand how adding
or subtracting fractions works, otherwise we can’t deal with examples that
involve algebra, like
5 x
− .
2x 10
If you have no trouble with this, you can skip this section. (You might want
to do the examples at the end of the section just to check.)
We are going to start by putting the cat among the pigeons with a story.
It’s the end of their holiday, Cain and Pete have enjoyed their final meal and
they want to tip the waitress out of the foreign currency they have
left—which isn’t much. Cain has $3 left, and contributes $1, i.e. 13 of what he
has left; Peter has $5 left and chips in with $3, i.e. 35 of what he has left. They
will be giving the waitress a total of $4 out of the $8 they have between them,
or 48 of the total they have left. In other words
“ "
1 3 4 1
+ = =
3 5 8 2
3
Except that this can’t be right, because the result is less than !
5
The flaw is that they are fractions of different amounts. Fractions can only be
added or subtracted if they represent fractions of the same whole11 .
11
NB. This does not apply when we’re multiplying or dividing fractions.

So how do we deal with different denominators—or rather, why does the

method we have learned work? Although we are working with arithmetic
examples, their purpose is to clarify the principles that we can then apply to
algebraic fractions.
Suppose we divide a cake into 8 equal sized portions. The size of each
portion is 18 of the whole cake and we’ll take 5 of these portions. These
represent a fraction (or proportion) equal to 58 of one whole cake.
We then cut up a second cake, identical to the first, and add a quarter of this
cake to what we have taken from the first one. Because the whole is the same
size in each case, it makes sense to describe the total amount of cake as the
result of the addition
5 1
+ .
8 4
The question is: how does it makes sense to add these fractions? (As to
opposed to: what do we do?)
If we cut the 14 in half, to give 2 pieces each the size of an 81 of a whole cake,
we can combine these with the other 5 pieces that are the same size:
5 2 7
+ = .
8 8 8
7
The total is 8 of a whole cake.
Vital though it is to understand what is going one when we add fractions, we

obviously don’t want to have to go through a thought process like his every time!

Arithmetically what we’ve done is make the two denominators the same, using
the notion of equivalent fractions. The key point is that
to add or subtract fractions all the denominators must be the same
Whatever the context, fractions that have the same denominator represent
portion sizes that are the same, and can therefore be added or subtracted.
Pictorially:
5
8
+
1
4
=
7
8
Now we apply this to fractions with algebraic numerators:
x 3x 2x 3x 2x + 3x 5x 5
+ = + = = or x
2 4 4 4 4 4 4
2a 1 2a a 6a 5a a 1
− a= − = − = or a.
5 3 5 3 15 15 15 15
Before going any further, a reminder about a couple of issues, including the
notation issue we talked about on page 4-2.

An expression like
1 1
(y − 3) + (2y − 1)
2 5
can be written
y − 3 2y − 1
+ ,
2 5
which we can combine into single fraction in the same way12 :
5(y − 3) 2(2y + 1) 5y − 15 + 4y + 2
+ =
10 10 10
7y − 13
=
10
Notice the brackets we need to introduce in this case.
If one of the terms is not a fraction, we apply the usual trick of giving it a
denominator of 1:
x −2 3x x − 2
3x + = +
4 1 4
12x + x − 2
=
4
13x − 2
=
4
12
By using equivalent fractions to give them both the same denominator.

With algebraic fractions there is scope for sign errors in a way that there isn’t
with arithmetic ones. Suppose the two fractions we just added had been
subtracted instead; we start off as before:
x − 2 12x x − 2
3x − = −
4 4 4
The thing to notice is that at some point we will be subtracting x − 2. But it is
the whole of it we need to subtract, so it makes sense to put a bracket in:
12x − (x − 2) 12x − x + 2 11x + 2

= = .
4 4 4
As a general rule, it never hurts to enclose something in brackets, but it can
be positively dangerous not to when adding or subtracting algebraic
fractions.
Here is a slightly more complicated example:
2 2 x(x − 1)
x + .
3 6
Writing each expression as a fraction, and giving them both the same
denominator:
4x 2 x(x − 1) 4x 2 + x(x − 1)
+ = .
6 6 6
Now simplifying the numerator:
4x 2 + x 2 − x 5x 2 − x x(5x − 1)
= =
6 6 6
We have written the numerator in factorised form. In general
it’s better to leave an answer in factorised form where possible.

We can combine the fractions provided they have the same denominator. It
doesn’t matter what that is. In the last example we could have put them both
over 18, for example. We used 6 because that’s smallest denominator we
could have chosen, i.e. the lowest common denominator (LCD).
It’s not always obvious what the lowest common denominator is. We are
looking for the smallest number each denominator will divide 13 into, in
other words their Lowest Common Multiple. In this example
a 2a 1
+ −
6 9 4
the LCM is 36, because it’s the smallest number that 6, 9 and 4 all divide into,
so we have
6a 8a 9 14a − 9
+ − =
36 36 36 36
QQ
Combine these fractions. Simplify your answers as far as possible.
x
(a) 5 + 3x
10
(b) 2y− 3 y
1 7x
(c) 12 + x+6
4
7x
(d) 12 − x+6
4
13
In this context we mean divide exactly.
14 x 5y 5x+9 2x−9
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2 3 6 6

In this next example one of the denominators is algebraic. The process is

exactly the same; the only difference is that it tends to give rise to more juicy
algebra.
4 3a
+
a 2
In this case the lowest common denominator is 2a (the smallest number that
4
a and 2 divide into), so multiplying the top and bottom of by 2, and the top
a
3a
and bottom of by a, we have
2
8 3a 2 8 + 3a 2
+ = .
2a 2a 2a
In exams at this level15 , you’ll probably find you will quickly spot what the
lowest common denominator must be—from your understanding of what it
means.
15
For trickier examples (you will meet these later on), there is a neat systematic way of
deriving the LCM, using the concept of the union of sets (see Appendix A page ?? or click
on the page number).

In this next example finding the lowest common denominator is not the
problem; it’s the manipulation that follows that is more demanding:
x +6 4
− .
x x −1
The numbers x and x + 1 do not have a common factor, so their LCM16 is

x(x + 1).
(x + 6)(x − 1) 4x x 2 + 5x − 6 − 4x
− =
x(x − 1) x(x − 1) x(x − 1)
x2 + x − 6 (x + 3)(x − 2)
= =
x(x − 1) x(x − 1)
Notice we had to expand (x − 3)(x + 1) so we could combine it with the 3x.
But there is no reason to expand the x(x + 1).
When writing down an answer it’s a good idea to do any factorising that is
possible. In this case it happens that there is a quadratic in the numerator
which factorises.
QQ
Combine these fractions. Simplify your answers as far as possible.
2 5 y x+4 x
(a) x + 3x (b) 4 + 4y 1
(c) x−2 + 5 (d) x−3 − x
1
We end this chapter by bringing together what we learned about adding and
subtracting algebraic fractions with the hammer and boot technique we saw
earlier.
16
If this isn’t completely clear, think of an arithmetic parallel, like 3 and 4. They have no
common factor so their LCM must be 3×4. Compare this with, say, 6 and 10. They have a
common factor of 2 so the LCM is 3 × 2 × 5 = 30.
x y 2 +16 (x+3)(x−1) x2 (x−3) 2
17
(a)
2
(b)
4y
(c)
5(x+2)
(d)
x−3
− x(x−3) = xx(x−3)
−x+3

More algebraic fractions within a fraction

In the following example the expression in the numerator has a fraction in
just one of the terms:
5
3
x +2
4x
Before applying the hammer, we convert the expression in the numerator into
a single fraction: 5x
3
+ 2 = 5x+6
3
, so we have
5x+6
3 5x + 6
=
4x 12x
Here is an even more interesting example:

1 2
3 (t + 5t + 4)
1
6
t + 23
t 2 +5t +4
3 6(t 2 + 5t + 4) 2X
(t X
+X4)(t
X + 1)
= t +4
= = = 2(t + 1).
6
3(t + 4) (t X
X +X4)
X
You will have an opportunity to practise examples like this in the exercises.
The principle is: whenever you have fractions within fractions
write the numerator and denominator as a single fraction
QQ
Multiply out these expressions, simplifying your answers as far as possible.

2 1
(a) x(x+ x ) (b) (1 + y 3 )(4y − y32 ) (c) ( p
2x
+ 1)2 + ( 2p1 x − 1)2
1− 12 a
(d)
1− 14 a 2
This is all you need for now, but if you want to go a bit deeper with algebraic
fractions, and see a lovely example from a C4 exam paper, turn to page ?? in
Appendix A (or click on the page number).
3 1 2(2−a) 2(2−a) 2
18
(a) x 2 + 2 (b) 4y 4 + y− 3
y
(c)
x
+2 (d)
4−a 2
= (2+a)(2−a) = 2+a

4.7 More algebraic fractions

Often it’s when we put a few techniques together that things get interesting.
We are going to see some examples here.
We are wanting to multiply out the brackets; what’s new is that now there are
fractions involved. (Remember that every expression can be turned into a
fraction by giving it a denominator of 1.)
³ x´ 3x x 3x 2
3x 2 + = 6x + . = 6x +
2 1 2 2
x3 1
µ ¶
1
3
x 4 − 2 = 4x 3 − . 2 = 4x 3 − x.
x 1 x
Now some examples in which two brackets are multiplied together (we can
use the happy face rule19 ):
1 a 4a 2
µ ¶µ ¶
1 2 1 2
4a − a+ 2 = 4a 2 − + 2
−
a a a1 1 a a a2
8 2
= 4a 2 − 1 + − 3
a a
µ ¶2 µ ¶µ ¶
and 1 1 1
x+ = x+ x+
x x x
x 1 1
= x2 + 2 + 2
1x x
1
= x2 + 2 + 2
x
We could also do these two using negative indices to describe the fractions20 :
(4a − a −1 )(a + 2a −2 ) = 4a 2 − a 0 + 8a −1 − 2a −3
1 1
= 4a 2 − 1 + 8 − 2 3
a a
8 2
= 4a 2 − 1 + − 3
a a
and (x + x −1 )(x + x −1 ) = x 2 + 2x 0 + x −2
1
= x2 + 2 + 2
x
19
See section ?? on page ??
20
Negative indices are described on page ??, and fractional indices on page ??.

Let’s do a nice juicy one involving square roots:

µ ¶2 µ ¶µ ¶
1 1 1 1 2
p +1 = p +1 p +1 = + p + 1.
3 x 3 x 3 x 9x 3 x
Or using fractional indices:

µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 −1
p +1 p +1 = x +1
2 x +1
2
3 x 3 x 3 3
1 −1 2 − 1
= x + x 2 + 1.
9 3
1 1 2 1
= . + . +1
9 x 3 x 12
The results are the same of course; the root notation is probably the easier
route. When manipulating expressions it is normally easier to use powers
and roots rather than index form.

Exercises 4
1. Combine each of these into a single fraction in its simplest form.
(a) 1 1
2 (x + 3) + 4 (x − 1) (b)
2x−1
5
+ x+1
2
(c) 3a + 13 (6a − 1) (d) 1
3
y + 2y − 5
1−x
(e) x− 4 (f) 2x − 32 (x + 1) − 12 (x − 1)
x(x−1)
(g) 2
+ 14 x 2 (h) 83 (a − 1) + 21 (a + 1) + 18 (a − 1)
2. In each case find the LCD and combine into a single fraction.
4 2 2 1 3b a
(a) +3 (b) a+ (c) − 2b
x 5 a a
6 1 3x 1 1+x 1
(d) x
+ x+2 (e) x+2
− x+1 (f) x2
+ 2x
t −1 t x+1 x−1
(g) − (h) − x+1
t t +1 x−1
3. Perform these substitutions, simplifying the results as far as possible.

5x−y
(a) K = 3 , where x = 13 and y = − 43
a+3b
(b) x = 4a−b , where a = 21 and b = 56
1
(c) y = 3 (p 2 − q 2 ), where p = 25 and q = − 15
(d) T = (3x + y)2 , where y = 12 x
(e) X = 2a 2 − ab + 3b 2 , where b = − 32 a
6y
(f) z = 2x+y , where y = x
2a+b
(g) y = 3 , where b = − 12 a
y 2 −x 2
(h) T = y 2 +x 2 , where y = 34 x
4. Simplify each expression by writing it as a single fraction in its simplest

form.
2+ x3 5y 1
(a) (b) y (c) a 5
4 2
−1 2 +8a
4b b
3 −2
1 1
2 y− 4 x
x+ 34
(d) (e) 3y (f)
2
2
x+ 13
x 2 + 12 x 3a− 12 x 2 −4
(g) (h) (i)
4x+2 a+ 14 1 2
2
x −x
1 2 3 1 2 7
5
x + 5 x−2 (x+1)2 3
y − 3 y+ 38
(j) 1 (k) 3 2 (l) 1
5
x+1 4
(x −1) 2
y−4
5. Simplify these expressions.

x− x1 1 1
x − 1+x
2 1
1−x + x
(a) x+1 (b) x (c)
x
1− 1+x x+2+ x1

6. In each case multiply out the brackets and simplify as far as possible.
³ ´
(a) y 1 + 1y (b) 6x 2 1 − x3
¡ ¢ ¡1 ¢
(c) 2ab ab + 4 − ab
³ ´
y¢
(d) x 2 2y + x3y (e) 5a b − b2 (f) xy 3 + x
¡ ¢ ¡
¢2 ¢³ ´ ³ ´2
(g) 1 + x2 (h) y − 3 1 + 1y 3
¡ ¡
(i) a2
+b
¢2 ¡p ¢ ¡p
(j) 3 + x2 (1 + x) (k) x + x1 x + x1 x − x1
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
(l)
³ ´³ ´ ³ ´¡
(m) p1 − 1 p1 + 3 (n) x + x12 x 2 − x1 (o) 1 + x1 x − 1 + x1
¢ ¡ ¢¡ ¢
t t
(p) 1 − x1 x + 1 + x1
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
7. Repeat Question 6, tackling each expression in a different way.

(i) Re-write the algebraic components of ¡any fractions within the
2 3 2
expression in index form. For example 6x 1 − x = 6x (1 − 3x −1 ).
¢
(ii) Simplify the expression, leaving your answer in index form.

(ii) Check that it is equivalent to the answer you got in Question 6.
8. Choose any number and cube it. Subtract the number you started with.
Divide the result by one more than the number you started with. Now
add back the number you started with and take the square root of the
result. What is the answer?
9. ∗ Simplify these expressions. (There is a hint in the footnote21 .)

1+a −2 x −1 +y −1 p −2 −1
(a) (b) (c)
a x+y p −2 +1
1−x 1−4x −2 1− x2 − 3
x2
(d) −4 (e) (f)
2x 2+x (1+ x1 )2
1 1 3 1 2 1
x 2 −x − 2 (1+y) 2 −(1+y)− 2 a 3 −a − 3
(g) 1 (h) 1 (i) 5 1
x2 (1+y)− 2 a 3 −a − 3
21
Convert each of the terms with a negative index into fraction.

Solutions 4
3x+5 3x+5 15a−1 7y−15

1. (a) (b) (c) (d)
4 4 3 3
5x−1 x(x−2)
(e) (f ) −1 (g) (h) a
4 4
2
12+2x 2a +5 6b 2 −a 2 7x+12
2. (a) (b) (c) (d)
3x 5a 2ab x(x+2)
3x 2 +2x−2 x 2 +2x+2
(e)
x(x+2)
(f)
2x 2
(g) − t (t1+1) (h)
4x
(x+1)(x−1)
5
+4 3
3. (a) 1. Because 3 3 3 = 3 .
1 5
18 2+2 3
(b) 7 . Because = .
2− 56 7
6
1 41¡ 1
¢ 1¡ 3 ¢
(c) 25 . Because 3 25 − 25 = 3 25
.
49x 2 ¢ 7x
Because 3x + x2 = 2 .
¡
(d) 4
.
28a 2 2a 2 2
(e) 9
. Because X = 2a 2 + 3 + 4a9 .
(f) 2.
3a
a
(g) 2 . Because y = 32 .
7 7x 2 25x 2
(h) 25 . Because y 2 − x 2 = 9 and y 2 + x 2 = 9 .
6+x 10y
4. (a) 12 (b) y−2
8 5b
(c) 9a (d) 12
2y−x 3x+4
(e) 3y (f) 3x+1
6a−1
x 2 2(6a−1)
(g) 4 (h) 4a+1 = 4a+1
4
2(x+2)
(x−2)
2(x+2) (x+5)(x−2)
(i) x =
(x−2) x
(j) x+5
= x −2
4(x+1)2 4(x+1) 2(y 2 −7y−8) 2

(k) 3
(x+1)(x−1)
= 3(x−1)
(l) 3(y−8)
= 3 (y + 1)
x 2 −1
x 2 −1 x (x+1)(x−1)
5. (a) x − 1. Numerator: x
. Hence fraction is x+1 = x+1
.
x
1
1 1 1 x(x+1)
(b) x . Numerator: x(x+1)
; denominator: x+1 . Hence 1 .
x+1
1 x+1 x 2 +2x+1 (x+1)2
(c) 1−x 2 . Numerator: x(1−x) ; denominator: x = x
.
x+1
x(1−x) x (x+1)

Hence (x+1)2
=
2
.
x(1−x)(x+1)
x

6. (a) y + 1 (b) 6x 2 − 18x (c) 2 + 8ab − 2a 2 b 2

3x 10a 3x
(d) 2x 2 y+ y (e) 5ab− b (f) y +1
4 4 3 9 6b
(g) 1+ x + x 2 (h) y − 2− y (i) a 4 + a 2 +b 2
2 1 1
(j) 5+ x +3x (k) x 2 + 2+ x 2 (l) x− x 2
1
(m) t + p2t −3 (n) x 3 − x13 1
(o) x+ x 2
1
(p) x− x 2
7. (a) y + 1 (b) 6x 2 − 18x (c) 2 + 8ab − 2a 2 b 2
(d) 2x 2 y + 3x y −1 (e) 5ab − 10ab −1 (f) 3x y −1 + 1
(g) 1 + 4x −1 + 4x −2 (h) y − 2 − 3y −1 (i) 9a −4 + 6ba −2 + b 2
(j) 5 + 2x −1 + 3x (k) x 2 + 2 + x −2 (l) x − x −2

1
(m) t −1 + 2t − 2 − 3 (n) x 3 − x −3 (o) x + x −2
(p) x − x −2
8. The answer is the number you started with.

xX
(x+1)(x−1)
XX
x → x 3 → x 3 − x = x(x 2 − 1) = x(x + 1)(x − 1) → = x2 − x
Xx+1
XX
→ x 2 → x.
a 2 +1
8. (a) . [a −2 = a12 . Multiply top and bottom by a 2 .]
a3
1 x+y
(b) . [Num is x1 + 1y = x y . Then hammer.]
xy
1−p 2 x 4 (1−x)
(c) 2 (d) . [Denominator is x24 .]
1+p 2
x−2 2
(e) . [Num is x 4−4 = (x+2)(x−2) ]
4 4
x−3 2 (x−3)(x+1)
¡ x+1 ¢2 (x+1)2
(f) . [Num is x −2x−3 2 = 2 . Den is = x 2 .]
x+1 x x x
x+1 1 1
(g) or 1+ . [Multiply top and bottom by x 2 .]
x x
3 1
(1+y) 2 − 1
(1+y) 2 (1+y)2 −1
(h) 1 = = y 2 + 2y
1
1
(1+y) 2
1
[Multiply top and bottom by (1 + y) 2 .]
2 1
a3− 1
a3 a−1 1
(i) 5 = = [Because a 2 − 1 = (a + 1)(a − 1)]
a 3 − 11 a 2 −1 a+1
a3

4.8 Dividing polynomials

In Chapter 3 we multiplied polynomials together. If you want a reminder see
page ??.
In Section 3 of this chapter we found we could sometimes divide polynomials
by cancelling. For example:
x 2 + 2x − 8 (x − 2)X
(xX 4)
+X
X
= = x −2
x +4 x+
X XX4
and
4x 2 − 1 (2x
X+X1)(2x − 1) 2x − 1
X
.
X
= =
4x + 2 2(2x +
X1) 2
XX
X
Be careful not to cancel inappropriately. For example we can’t cancel the two
4’s in the second example. If this is not entirely clear to you see page 4-5.
What if there is no cancelling possible and we have no choice but to divide?

We will only be considering the case when the denominator is a linear
expression. But first a review of how arithmetic long division works.

Terminology and layout

We are going to use the same method and layout as with arithmetic long
division. Although this may be very familiar, it is important to understand
what is going on, so that we can carry across the same thinking into the
realm of polynomials. Remember: we are delving in order to clarify the
process, not to find the answer!
1 3 9 1 ← QUOTIENT
DIVISOR → 7 9 7 4 2 ← DIVIDEND
− 7
?
2 7
− 2 1
?
6 4
− 6 3
?
1 2
− 7
5 ← REMAINDER
The task is to find the number (the quotient) which when multiplied by 7 (the
divisor) gives 9, 742 (the dividend).
We start with the thousands column and generate as much of the 9, 000 as
we can by picking the number which, when multipled by 7, gives the largest
number that doesn’t exceed 9. That number is obviously 1, generating 7, 000
of the 9, 000 we need.
That leaves 2, 000 still to generate, so we must treat this as 20 hundreds. This is
combined with the 7 hundred in the dividend to give 27 hundreds. Repeating
the process 3 × 7 = 21 (meaning 300 × 7 = 2100) generates 21 hundreds from
our target of 27 hundreds. This leaves 6 hundreds, which we must treat at 60
tens and combine with the 4 tens to make 64 tens, and so on. At the end of
the process there is 5 left over, the remainder.
One way to express what we have found is to say
8, 270 2
= 2, 756 +
3 3
or
8, 270 = 3 × 2, 756 + 2.
These forms tend to be more helpful than using the notion of a remainder.
You may have met the term dividend in the context of investments. There
it describes the part of a company’s annual profit that is divided among its
shareholders.

We are going to use a similar layout to
divide 3x 3 + 11x 2 − 7x − 29 by x + 2.
In the numerical example we kept the 1000’s in one column, the 100’s in the
next column, and so on. Here we keep all the x 3 s in one column, all the x 2 s
in the next column, and so on.
In the arithmetic example we started by trying to generate 9, 000. Here we
start by generating the term with the highest power of x, i.e. the 3x 3 . We
need a term in the quotient which, when multiplied by x + 2, will generate
3x 3 . That has to be 3x 2 , which we put in the x 2 column. Then as before, we
multiply the 3x 3 by the x + 2 to give 3x 3 + 6x 2 .
Putting 3x 2 in the quotient has generated 3x 3 + 6x 2 towards the dividend
3x 3 + 11x 2 − 7x − 29.
3x 2
x +2 3x 3 + 11x 2 − 7x − 29
3x 3 + 6x 2
5x 2
We can now tick off the 3x 3 term and turn our attention to generating the
11x 2 term. We have already generated 6x 2 so we need a further 5x 2 . The
mechanics of this is that we subtract 3x 3 + 6x 2 from 3x 3 + 11x.
To generate this 5x 2 we need to put 5x in the quotient. But when we do this
we will also generate an x term, so in anticipation we “bring down” the −7x.
Then multiplying +5x by x + 2 we have 5x 2 + 10x. Subtracting this from
5x 2 − 7x gives −17x.
3x 2 + 5x
x +2 3x 3 + 11x 2 − 7x − 29
3x 3 + 6x 2
?
2
5x − 7x
5x 2 + 10x
−17x
We can tick off the 11x 2 term and move on to the −7x term. The process is
the same as before and we are left with a remainder of 5. Notice that
−29 − (−34) = −29 + 34 = +5.
3x 2 + 5x − 17
x +2 3x 3 + 11x 2 − 7x − 29
3x 3 + 6x 2
5x 2 − 7x
5x 2 + 10x
?
−17x − 29
−17x − 34
+5
You will simply be asked to perform the division, stating what the reminder
is (if any).

But what does this mean? It is not like arithmetic division where the
meaning is clear. For example 20 ÷ 3 = 6 reminder 2.
To say x + 2 divides 3x 2 + 5x − 17 times into 3x 3 + 11x 2 − 7x − 29, with a
remainder 5, may not be particularly helpful.
In the arithmetic example we could write the result like this:
20 2
= 6+
3 3
or 20 = 3 × 6 + 2
In the same way we can express the result of the algebraic division as
3x 3 + 11x 2 − 7x − 29 5
= 3x 2 + 5x − 17 +
x +2 x +2
or 3x 3 + 11x 2 − 7x − 29 = (x + 2)(3x 2 + 5x − 17) + 5.
QQ
1. Complete this division
2x 3
4x − 3 8x 4 + 6x 3 − 13x 2 + 23x − 12
8x 4 − 6x 3
+ 12x 3 − 13x 2
2. Divide 4x 3 + 22x 2 + 13x + 7 by x + 5.

3. Divide 3x 3 − 4x 2 − 6x + 5 by x + 1.
4. Divide 6x 4 − 7x 3 − 13x 2 + 19x − 11 by 2x − 3.
The answer to Question 1 is over the page. The other answers are in the
footnote22 .
22
2. 4x 2 + 2x + 3 rem 10 3. 3x 2 − 7x + 1 rem 4 4. 3x 3 + x 2 − 5x + 2 rem −5.

Answer to Question 1.
2x 3 + 3x 2 − x + 5
4x − 3 8x 4 + 6x 3 − 13x 2 + 23x − 12
8x 4 − 6x 3
+ 12x 3 − 13x 2
+ 12x 3 − 9x 2
− 4x 2 + 23x
− 4x 2 + 3x
+ 20x − 12
+ 20x − 15
+ 3
i.e. 2x 3 + 3x 2 − x + 5 remainder 3.

Alternative method for polynomial division
There is another, slicker method. The underlying process is the same for
both methods: constructing each coefficient in turn, starting with the
highest power. With this method we do it by inspection, working out in our
head what each coefficient must be. It is the quicker method but it is
inevitably more prone to errors, so always check your answer by multiplying
out at the end.
We start by writing
3x 3 + 11x − 7x − 29 = (x + 2)( )+?

To generate the 3x 3 term we need to start the second bracket with 3x 2 .
3x 3 + 11x − 7x − 29 = (x + 2)(3x 2 )+?

But multiplying 3x 2 by x + 2 will also generate +6x 2 . We need 11x 2 altogether
so we have to produce an extra 5x 2 . This we can do by adding +5x to the
bracket:
3x 3 + 11x − 7x − 29 = (x + 2)(3x 2 + 5x )+?
Can you see that multiplying what we have so far gives 3x 3 + 11x 2 + 10x? We
have dealt with the x 3 and x 2 terms and in the process generated 10x. We
need a total of −7x so we must produce an extra −17x. We can do this with a
−17 in the bracket:
3x 3 + 11x − 7x − 29 = (x + 2)(3x 2 + 5x − 17) + ?
Multiplying this out gives us 3x 3 +11x 2 −7x −34. We are almost there. We just
need a +5 to make the constant term −29. We can’t correct this from inside
the bracket; +5 is the remainder.
3x 3 + 11x − 7x − 29 = (x + 2)(3x 2 + 5x − 17) + 5
3x 3 + 11x 2 − 7x − 29 5
or = 3x 2 + 5x − 17 + .
x +2 x +2
The first method is more “mechanical”. It is less prone to error, too, because
we do less in our heads. The advantage with this second method is that we
can see what is going on; it is more obvious why we are doing what we do.
Repeat the four questions on page 4-44 using the inspection method.

Example 1
Divide the polynomial 2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15 by x + 5.
Solution
2x 3 + x − 3
x +5 2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15
2x 4 + 10x 3
+ x 2 + 2x
x 2 + 5x
− 3x − 15
− 3x − 15
This differs from the example we have just looked at in two ways. First the 2x 3
in the quotient happens to generate the x 3 we need as well as the x 4 term. We
therefore go straight to the x 2 terms, and bring down the 2x term as well,
anticipating that we will also be generating an x term.
Although it’s not strictly necessary, it is much easier if we to keep the integrity
of the columns: all the x 4 s under each other, all the x 3 s under each other
etc. This means leaving a space in the quotient where an x 2 term would have
gone.
The other difference is that there is no remainder, i.e.
x + 5 is a factor of 2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15.
We can write
2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15
= 2x 3 + x − 3
x +5
or 2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15 = (x + 5)(2x 3 + x − 3).

Example 1 (Version using the alternative method)
(a) Show that x + 5 is a factor of the polynomial 2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15.

(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that
x − 1 is a also factor of 2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15.
Solution
(a) We won’t assume it is a factor; at this stage we will allow for there to be a
remainder.
2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15 = (x + 5)( )+?

To generate the 2x 4 term we need to start the second bracket with 2x 3 .
2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15 = (x + 5)(2x 3 )+?

This deals with the x 4 term. But multiplying 2x 3 by x + 5 will also generate
+10x 3 . This happens to be exactly right, so we can move on to generating the
x 2 term; for this we need an x in the right hand bracket:
2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15 = (x + 5)(2x 3 + x )+?
This deals with the x 2 term. But multiplying x by x + 5 also generates 5x. We
need a total of 2x so we must produce an extra −3x. We can do this with a −3
in the right hand bracket:
2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15 = (x + 5)(2x 3 + x − 3) + ?
Multiplying −3 by x + 5 deals with the x term, and also produces the correct
constant term −15, as we expected. There is no remainder.
2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15 = (x + 5)(2x 3 + x − 3)
2x 4 + 10x 3 + x 2 + 2x − 15
or = 2x 3 + x − 3.
x +5
(b) We could check that x +1 is also a factor by repeating the process. There is
a slightly quicker way. We want to show that x + 1 is a factor of (x + 5)(2x 3 +
x −3). We know x +1 is not a factor of x +5, so it must be factor of (2x 3 +x −3).
So yes, we can repeat the process but with this cubic. We leave you to check
this:
2x 3 + x − 3 = (x + 1)(2x 2 + 2x + 3).
Later we shall learn a simple rule for checking whether a linear expression is a
factor of a polynomial—without having to do the division.

Example 2
(a) Divide 8x 3 − 10x 2 − 17x + 21 by 2x − 3.

(b) By choosing a suitable value for x, use the result of part (a) to simplify the
fraction
64a 3 − 40a 2 − 34a + 21
.
4a − 3
Solution
(a)
4x 2 + x − 7
2x − 3 8x 3 − 10x 2 − 17x + 21
8x 3 − 12x 2
+ 2x 2 − 17x
2x 2 − 3x
− 14x + 21
− 14x + 21
We need to be careful with the subtractions. For example
−10x 2 − (−12x 2 ) = +2x 2 .
(b) We have found that
8x 3 − 10x 2 − 17x + 21
= 4x 2 + x − 7.
2x − 3
Putting x = 2a.
8(2a)3 − 10(2a)2 − 17(2a) + 21

= 4(2a)2 + (2a) − 7
2(2a) − 3
64a 3 − 40a 2 − 34a + 21
so = 16a 2 + 2a − 7
4a − 3

Missing terms
Divisions can be a little trickier if there are terms missing. In the next
example there is no x term in the dividend (its coefficient is zero).
dividing 2x 3 + 7x 2 + 2 by 2x − 1.
The process is no different, but we strongly advise that you keep the different
powers of x in strict columns. In this case it means leaving a space between
7x 2 and −2 in the dividend.
Check through each step to make sure you understand it. Or try it for
yourself first.
x 2 + 4x + 2
2x − 1 2x 3 + 7x 2 −2
2x 3 − x 2
+ 8x 2
+ 8x 2 − 4x
+ 4x − 2
+ 4x − 2
In the next example we find a term missing in the quotient:
dividing 4x 4 − 5x 3 − 6x 2 − 6x − 12 by 4x + 3.
x 3 − 2x 2 − 4
4x + 3 4x 4 − 5x 3 − 6x 2 − 16x − 12
4x 4 + 3x 3
− 8x 3 − 6x 2
− 8x 3 − 6x 2
? ?
− 16x − 12
− 16x − 12
At the second subtraction the difference is zero. That tells us that the x 2 term
is correct and we don’t need to generate any more. We can therefore move
straight on to the −16x term in the dividend. So we bring that down, and
bring down the −12 at the same time.
Whenever this happens during a long division, i.e. a subtraction yeilds zero,
we bring down the next two terms.

QQ
Divide
(a) 4x 3 − 11x + 5 by 2x − 1
(b) 3x 4 + 7x 2 − x − 2 by x + 2
(c) 6x 3 + x − 7 by x − 1
(d) x 4 + x 3 − 12x 2 − 8x + 20 by x − 3.
(e) 6x 4 + 4x 3 − 9x 2 − 3x + 2 by 3x + 2
(f) x 4 − x 2 by x − 1
23
(a) 2x 2 + x − 5 (b) 3x 3 − 6x 2 + 5x − 1 (c) 6x 2 + 6x − 7
(d) x 3 +4x 2 −8 rem 4 (e) 2x 3 −3x +1 (f ) x 2 (x +1) [x 4 −x 2 = x 2 (x 2 −1) = x 2 (x +1)(x −1)]

Example 3
The function f (x) is defined by

f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x + 6.
Express f (x) in the form
f (x) = (x + 1)g (x) + r
where g (x) is a quadratic and r is a constant.
Solution
This looks harder than it is because the question is expressed in a very formal
way. We can see what’s going on if we divide both sides by x + 1:
f (x) r
= g (x) + .
x +1 x +1
In other words when we divide f (x) by x + 1 the quotient is g (x) and the
remainder is r . So let’s do the division:
2x 2 + x + 1
x +1 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 2x + 6
2x 3 + 2x 2
x 2 + 2x
x2 + x
x +6
x +1
+5
2
i.e. g (x) = 2x + x + 1 and r = 5.
f (x) = (x + 1)(2x 2 + x + 1) + 5.

Example 4
The polynomial f (x) is defined by
f (x) = 2x 3 − x 2 − 25x − 12.
(a) Show that x + 3 is a factor of f (x).

(b) Use the result of part (a) to factorise f (x) completely.
(c) Hence find the roots of the equation f (x) = 0.
Solution
(a) & (b). Using the Inspection Method, f (x) can be written
f (x) = (x + 3)(2x 2 − 7x − 4)
= (x + 3)(2x + 1)(x − 4)
(c) f (x) = 0 when (x + 3)(2x + 1)(x − 4) = 0, i.e. when x + 3 = 0, 2x + 1 = 0 or

x − 4 = 0.
1
The roots (i.e. the solution) are therefore x = −3, − 2 and 4.

Example 5
N is an integer.
(i) Explain why N (N − 1) is an even number.
(ii) Divide N 3 + 1 by N + 1.
N 3 +1
(iii) Hence or otherwise show that is always an odd integer.
N +1
(iv) By writing 8, 001 in the form N 3 + 1, factorise 8, 001 completely.
Solution
(i) One of the integers N and N − 1 will be an even number, so their product
will be even.
(ii)
N2 − N + 1
N +1 N3 +1
N3 + N2
− N2
− N2 − N
+N + 1
+N + 1
Notice that there is nothing to “bring down” until the last step when we bring
down the +1.
N 3 +1
(iii) = N 2 − N + 1 = N (N − 1) + 1.
N +1
We know from part (i) that N (N − 1) is an even number so N (N − 1) + 1 is an
odd number.
(iv) 8, 001 = 203 + 1.
We also know that N 3 + 1 = (N + 1)(N 2 − N + 1), so factorising we have24
203 + 1 = 21 × (202 − 20 + 1) = 21 × 381
= 3 × 7 × 3 × 127
Answer: 8, 001 = 32 × 7 × 127.
24
There is a rule that says n is divisible by 3 if the sum of n ’s digits is divisible by 3. In this
case 3 + 8 + 1 = 12, which is a divisible by 3.
p
Then to check for factors of 127 we only need to check for factors up to 127, i.e. we can stop
at 11. We can also speed up the checking process by realising that if, for example, 3 is not a
factor, 6 or 9 can’t be factors either. Similarly no even number can be a factor is n is not even.

4.9 The Factor Theorem

If a quadratic has factors we know how to find them—by inspection. In some
special case we can factorise higher power polynomials e.g.
x 3 + x 2 − 6x = x(x 2 + x − 6) = x(x + 3)(x − 2)
x 4 − 16x 2 = x 2 (x 2 − 16) = x 2 (x + 4)(x − 4)
x 4 − 16 = (x 2 + 4)(x 2 − 4) = (x + 2)(x − 2)(x 2 + 4).
What about a polynomial like
f (x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
where no such technique can be applied?
There is no easy way to find the factors of a polynomial, but—if they
exist—the Factor Theorem will sometimes allow us to find them.
We’ll explain how using the function f (x). With a little bit of multiplying you
will see that
f (x) = (x − 1)(x 2 − x − 6) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6.
Writing it this way shows that
f (1) = 0 and x − 1 is a factor.

You may want to put x = 1 into x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6, although we know the
answer must be zero because if x = 1, the bracket (x − 1) is zero.
Since x 2 − x − 6 = (x − 3)(x + 2), we can easily show that f (x) could also be
written
f (x) = (x − 3)(x 2 + x − 2)
and deduce that
f (3) = 0 and x − 3 is a factor.

Similarly
f (−2) = 0 and x + 2 is a factor.
In general, these two statements are equivalent:
(x − a) is a factor of f (x) and f (a) = 0
If one of these statements is true, so is the other one.
We can express this slightly more succinctly, in the single statement

A
(x − a) is a factor of f (x) ⇐⇒ f (a) = 0.
!
A
A
A
The symbol ⇐⇒ we read as “implies and is implied by”, or “if and only if”.
We’ve shown there is a link between the factors of a polynomial function f (x)
and the roots of the equation f (x) = 0. This is the Factor Theorem.

Returning to the function f (x), having one factor of f (x) we can easily
complete the factorisation:
f (x) = x 3 − 2x 2 − 5x + 6
= (x − 1)(x 2 − x − 6)
= (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 2)
In this example we had a “foot in the door”; we knew one of the factors up
front. Suppose we don’t?
Here is another example:
f (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 − 11x − 12.
We can use the Factor Theorem to hunt for factors. This may seem rather hit
and miss. Of course it is, but in an exam you wouldn’t be expected to look
further than these factors:
(x ± 1) (x ± 2) (x ± 3),
in addition to factors like x, x 2 etc. So let’s see what we can find.

Notice when substituting in values, we don’t need to complete the
evaluation if it’s obvious the answer isn’t going to be zero:
f (1) = 1 + 2 − 11 − 12 6= 0 ⇒ x − 1 is not a factor

f (2) = 8 + 8 − 22 − 12 6= 0 ⇒ x − 2 is not a factor
f (3) = 27 + 18 − 33 − 12 = 0 ⇒ x − 3 is a factor
so
f (x) = (x − 3)(x 2 + 5x + 4)
= (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 4).
Our strategy was: try x = 1, x = 2, x = 3, x = −1 etc, until we find a factor.

We could have tried: x = ±1, x = ±2, etc:
f (1) = 1 + 2 − 11 − 12 6= 0 ⇒ x − 1 is not a factor
f (−1) = −1 + 2 + 11 − 12 = 0 ⇒ x + 1 is a factor
so
f (x) = (x + 1)(x 2 + x − 12)
= (x + 1)(x + 4)(x − 3).
Obviously we don’t know in advance which strategy will turn out to be
quicker. Since f (−1) is normally quicker to evaluate that f (2), we may
choose to opt for the latter strategy.

QQ
Use the Factor Theorem to show that, for the polynomial

f (x) = x 3 + 6x 2 − 9x − 14
(i) x − 2 is a factor (ii) x + 1 is a factor (iii) x − 1 is not a factor.
Factorise f (x) completely.
25
(i) f (2) = 8 + 24 − 18 − 14 = 0 (ii) f (−1) = −1 + 6 + 9 − 14 = 0
(iii) f (1) = 1 + 6 − 9 − 14 6= 0
(x − 2)(x + 1)(x + 7)
We can divide f (x) by x − 2 or x + 1 and proceed in the usual way. But since we have
two factors, we can identify the third by inspection:
f (x) = x 3 + 6x 2 − 9x − 14 = (x − 2)(x + 1)(ax + b)
The coeff of x 3 is 1, so a must be 1. The constant coeff is −14 so b must be 7.

Finding factors by inspection

We don’t mean spotting that a polynomial has a certain factor by doing the
factorising in our head! That is not going to happen. We spot the factor by an
indirect route.
The Factor Theorem tells us that finding a factor is equivalent to finding a
root. For example:
f (x) = x 4 + 7x − 8.
We may spot that the sum of the coefficients is zero, so f (1) = 1 + 7 − 8 = 0.
x − 1 is a factor.
In the very similar polynomial
g (x) = x 4 − 7x − 8
the coefficients 1, −7 and 8 don’t sum to zero, but if we put x = −1 the terms
do:
g (−1) = (−1)4 + 7(−1) − 8 = 1 + 7 − 8 = 0.
x + 1 is a factor of g (x).
By the same reasoning we can see that, if n is a positive integer, the

polynomial
p(x) = x n − 1
has a factor x − 1.
QQ
1. If x + 1 is a factor of
q(x) = x n + 1, where n is a positive integer
what can we say about n?
2. By inspection, identify a factor of the function

x 3 − x − 6.
26
1. n is odd.
2. x − 2. If we call the function f (x), f (2) = 0

Example 6
Factorise completely these polynomials

(a) f (x) = 2x 3 + x 2 − 13x + 6
(b) g (x) = x 4 + 2x 3 − 16x 2 − 2x + 15.
Solution
(a) Checking values:

f (x) = 2x 3 + x 2 − 13x + 6
f (1) = 2 + 1 − 13 + 6 6= 0 ⇒ x − 1 is not a factor
f (2) = 16 + 4 − 26 + 6 = 0 ⇒ x − 2 is a factor
so
f (x) = (x − 2)(2x 2 + 5x − 3)
= (x − 2)(2x − 1)(x + 3).
We used the Inspection Method to complete the factorisation. In part (b) we’ll
use the Long Division Method.

(b) Checking values:

g (x) = x 4 + 2x 3 − 16x 2 − 2x + 15
g (1) = 1 + 2 − 16 − 2 + 15 =0 ⇒ x − 1 is a factor
so we have
x 3 + 3x 2 − 13x − 15
x −1 x 4 + 2x 3 − 16x 2 − 2x + 15
x4 − x3
+ 3x 3 − 16x 2
+ 3x 3 − 3x 2
− 13x 2 − 2x
− 13x 2 + 13x
− 15x + 15
− 15x + 15
g (x) = (x − 1)(x 3 + 3x 2 − 13x − 15)

= (x − 1)h(x)
Now we need to find a factor of the cubic h(x). That will give us a quadratic
and we can complete the factorisation from there.
We can show, for example, that h(3) = 0, so one factor of h(x) is x − 3, and
dividing:
4x 2 + x − 7
x −3 8x 3 − 10x 2 − 17x + 21
8x 3 − 12x 2
+ 2x 2 − 17x
+ 2x 2 − 3x
− 14x + 21
− 14x + 21
h(x) = x 3 + 3x 2 − 13x − 15
= (x − 3)(x 2 + 6x + 5)
= (x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 5)
so
g (x) = (x − 1)(x − 3)(x + 1)(x + 5)

QQ
Factorise these polynomial functions completely.
(i) f (x) = x 3 − 4x 2 + x + 6
(ii) f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 17x − 30
(iii) f (x) = 3x 3 − 19x 2 − 15x + 7
(iv) f (x) = x 4 + 7x 3 + 10x 2
27
(i) (x − 2)(x + 1)(x − 3) (ii) (x − 3)(x + 2)(2x + 5) (iii) (x + 1)(x − 7)(3x − 1)
(iv) x 2 (x + 2)(x + 5)

Factors of the form ax + b

If a polynomial function f (x) has a factor ax + b we must be able to write it
as
f (x) = (ax + b) × another polynomial,
so f (− ba )= 0.
For example we saw (in Example 5) that
f (x) = 2x 3 + x 2 − 13x + 6 = (2x − 1)(x − 2)(x + 3).

1
Since 2x − 1 is a factor of f (x) we should find that f ( 2 )= 0. Let’s check that.
µ ¶ µ ¶3 µ ¶2 µ ¶
1 1 1 1
f = 2 + − 13 +6
2 2 2 2
1 1 13
= + − +6
4 4 2
= 0
In general, the two statements are equivalent:
f − ba = 0
¡ ¢
(ax + b) is a factor of f (x) and
If one of these statements is true, so is the other one.

We can express this slightly more succinctly, in the single statement
f − ba = 0.
¡ ¢
(ax + b) is a factor of f (x) ⇐⇒

Example 7
(a) Show that 2x + 3 is a factor of the function f (x) = 6x 3 − 13x 2 − 41x − 12.
(b) Write f (x) as the product of linear factors.
(c) Solve the equation
6x 3 − 13x 2 − 41x − 12 = 0.
Solution
3
(a) When substituting x =− 2 into f (x) we recommend you break done the
simplifying into modest steps:
µ ¶ µ ¶3 µ ¶2 µ ¶
3 3 3 3
f − = 6 − − 13 − − 41 − − 12
2 2 2 2
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
27 9 3
= −6 − 13 + 41 − 12
8 4 2
1 1 13
= + − +6
4 4 2
81 117 123
= − − + − 12
4 4 2
−198 + 246 − 48
=
4
= 0
So 2x + 3 is a factor of f (x).
(c)Dividing:
3x 2 − 11x − 4
2x + 3 6x 3 − 13x 2 − 41x − 12
6x 3 + 9x 2
− 22x 2 − 41x
− 22x 2 − 33x
− 8x − 12
− 8x − 12
so f (x) = 6x 3 − 13x 2 − 41x − 12

= (2x + 3)(3x 2 − 11x + 4)
= (2x + 3)(3x + 1)(x − 4).
(c) If you want a quick reminder about solving equations, see Chapter 1 page
??
(2x + 3)(3x + 1)(x − 4) = 0

⇒ 2x + 3 = 0 or 3x + 1 = 0 or x −4 = 0
⇒ x = − 32 or x = − 13 or x = 4

Example 8
1
(i) Find the values of a and b if f (1) = f ( 3 )= 0, where
f (x) = ax 3 + 7x 2 + bx + 5.
(ii) For these values of a and b, factorise f (x) completely.
Solution
(i)
f (1) = a + 7 + b + 5 = 0
⇒ a + b = −12
and
µ ¶ µ ¶3 µ ¶2 µ ¶
1 1 1 1
f = a +7 +b +5
3 3 3 3
a 7 b
= + + +5
27 9 3
a + 21 + 9b + 135
= =0
27
a + 21 + 9b + 135 = 0
⇒ a + 9b = −156
We have found two simultaneous equations for a and b:

a + b = −12
a + 9b = −156
Subtracting gives 8b = −144.

The solutions are a = 6, b = −18, so
f (x) = 6x 3 + 7x 2 − 18x + 5.

(ii) The factor theorem tells us that f (x) has two factors x − 1 and 3x − 1 , i.e.
f (x) = (x − 1)(3x − 1) × a linear expression.
We would normally divide to complete the factorisation, and we can do so
here, but since we already have two of the three factors there is a more direct
route.
Suppose the linear expression is c x + d , then
f (x) = (x − 1)(3x − 1)(c x + d )

= 6x 2 + 7x 2 − 18x + 5
We don’t need to multiply out the three brackets but we can see what some
of the terms would be if we did. The coefficient of x 3 would be 3c. But we
know it is 6, so c = 2.
Similarly the constant coefficient would be +d , so d = 5.
f (x) = (x − 1)(3x − 1)(2x + 5).

Example 9
Solve the equation 2x 3 − 9x 2 + 4x + 15 = 0.
Solution
We are not given any clues. (Actually there is a formula for solving cubic
equations just like there is for quadratic equations, but it is complicated so
almost never used.)
This is just one step on from what we did in Example 6. We’ll find a factor of
the expression using the Factor Theorem. That will allow us to factorise it
completely and give us the roots.
We’ll call the function f (x).
f (x) = 2x 3 − 9x 2 + 4x + 15
f (1) = 2 − 9 + 4 + 15 6= 0 ⇒ x − 1 is not a factor
f (2) = 16 − 36 + 8 + 15 6= 0 ⇒ x − 2 is not a factor
f (3) = 54 − 81 + 12 + 15 = 0 ⇒ x − 3 is a factor
so
f (x) = (x − 3)(2x 2 − 3x − 5)
= (x − 3)(x + 1)(2x − 5).
We used the Inspection Method to complete the factorisation. Now
(x − 3)(x + 1)(2x − 5) = 0
⇒ x −3 = 0 or x +1 = 0 or 2x − 5 = 0
5
⇒ x = 3 or x = −1 or x = 2
.

Exercises 5
1. Find, by inspection, a solution to the equation

3x 3 − x 2 − x − 1 = 0.
2. Find, by inspection, a solution to the equation x 4 = x + 14.
3. Find the value of a for which x = 2 is a solution of the equation

x 3 + ax 2 − 7 = 0.
4. The function f (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 + 5x − 9.
(a) Find the value of (i) f (2) (ii) f (0) (iii) f (−1) (iv) f (−3).
(b) By inspection, write down a value of k for which f (k) = 0.
5. Two of the roots of the equation

2x 3 + px 2 + 4x + q = 0.
are x = 1 and x = −2. Find the values of p and q.
6. Find the constants A, B and C in the following identities.

(a) (x + 3)(Ax + B ) = x 2 + 7x + 12
(b) (x + 1)(Ax + B ) = 2x 2 + 5x + 3
(c) (x + 4)(Ax + B ) = 3x 2 +C x + 8
(d) (x − 1)(Ax + B ) = x 2 + 3x +C
(e) (x − 2)(Ax + B ) = 3x 2 − 7x + 2
(f) (2x + 1)(Ax + B ) = 8x 2 +C x + 3
(g) (3x + A)(x + B ) = 3x 2 + B x + 10
(h) (x 2 + 3)(Ax + B ) = 2x 3 − x 2 + 6x +C
(i) (4x 2 + 1)(Ax 2 + B ) = 8x 4 − 2x 2 +C
7. Given that (ax + 2)(x 2 + bx + c) = 3x 3 + 8x 2 + x − 2, write down the
values of a and c. Hence find b.
8. Determine A, B and C in the following identities.
[Find them in any order.]
(a) (x + 2)(Ax 2 + B x +C ) = x 3 + 7x 2 + 12x + 4
(b) (x + 1)(Ax 2 + B x +C ) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 5x + 4
(c) (x − 1)(Ax 2 + B x +C ) = 3x 3 + x 2 − 5x + 1
(d) (x + 3)(Ax 2 + B x +C ) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 16x + 6
(e) (2x + 1)(Ax 2 + B x +C ) = 6x 3 + x 2 − 7x − 5
9. In this question use the Long Division Method described in the text.
(a) Divide x 3 + 5x 2 + 7x + 3 by x + 3
(b) Divide x 3 + 10x 2 + 19x + 6 by x + 2
(c) Divide x 3 + 3x 2 − 12x + 4 by x − 2
(d) Divide 2x 3 + x 2 − 7x + 4 by x − 1
(e) Divide 3x 3 + 8x 2 + 19x + 10 by 3x + 2
(f) Divide 2x 3 − 15x − 9 by x − 3
(g) Divide x 3 − 11x + 20 by x + 4

(h) Divide x 4 + 2x 3 + 4x − 40 by x − 2
(i) Divide 4x 4 − x 2 + 6x + 3 by 2x + 1
10. Find the values of a, b and c if

(ax + 3)(x 3 + bx 2 + x + c) = 4x 4 − 5x 3 − 2x 2 + 14x + 9.
11. By factorising simplify these expressions

x 2 +5x+6 x 3 +x 2 −6x x 2 +x−2
(a) (b) (c)
x+2 x+3 x 2 +7x+10
4x 2 −64 (x+3)2 x 2 −1
(d) (e) 2 (f )
x−4 x −9 x 2 −x−2
12. Use any method to simplify these expressions
x 3 +9x 2 +15x+2 x 4 −x 3 −22x+12 x 3 −11x+20
(i) (ii) (iii)
x+2 x−3 x+4
4x 4 −x 2 +6x+3 2x 3 −15x−9 x 3 −8
(iv) (v) (vi)
2x+1 x−3 x−2
13. If x − 2 is a factor of x 3 + 3x 2 + ax − 12 find a.
14. Find a and b if x − 1 and x + 3 are factors of 2x 3 + ax 2 + bx − 3.
15. x + 2 and x − 4 are factors of f (x) = 3x 3 + px 2 − 22x + q. Find the values

of p and q, and hence factorise f (x) completely.
16. Use the Factor Theorem to factorise completely each of these

polynomials:
(a) x 3 + 6x 2 + 5x (b) x 3 + 6x 2 + 5x − 12
(c) 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 23x − 12 (d) 2x 3 − 18x
(e) 6x 3 + 13x 2 + 2x − 5 (f ) 8x 3 − 42x 2 + 67x − 30
(g) x 3 − 3x 3 + 3x − 9 (h) x 3 − 1
(i) 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 (j) 3x 6 − 48x 2 .
17. Show that 3x − 2 is a factor of the function
3x 3 + 10x 2 − 44x + 24.

Express the function as a product of linear factors.
18. Find the three roots of the equation28
x 3 − 8x 2 + 19x − 14 = 0.
p
Give the two non-integer roots in the form p ± q, where p and q are
integers.
19. Show that x + 1 and x − 1 are both factors of the polynomial
x 6 + 2x 4 − x 2 − 2.
Hence or otherwise factorise the polynomial completely.
20. Show that x 3 + 4x 2 + 4x + 3 = (x 2 + x + 1)(x + 3).

By selecting a suitable value for x, find the prime factorisation of 1, 443.
28
If you want a reminder about solving quadratic equation using the formula see Chapter
1 page ??.

21. Show that x − 1 is a factor of x 4 − 1

Without using a calculator show that 63 is a factor of 224 − 1 (i.e.
16, 777, 215).
22. If m is a positive integer, show that x 2 − 1 is a factor of x 2m − 1.
23. The functions f (x) and g (x) are defined by
f (x) = x 2 + x − 2 and g (x) = x 2 − 4x + 3.

In each part of this question look for a quick method.
(a) Find the coefficient of x 3 in the polynomial f (x)g (x).
(b) Show that (x − 3) f (x) = (x + 2)g (x).
f (13) 3
(c) Hence, or otherwise, show that = .
g (13) 2
24. The functions p(x) and q(x) are defined by
p(x) = x 2 − x and q(x) = x 2 + x.

(a) Find the values of p(1)q(1), q p(1) and pq(1).
(b) Show that p(x)q(x) = x 2 (x 2 − 1).
(c) Find in its simplest form the polynomial [q(x)]2 − [p(x)]2 .
p(x) 2
(d) Show that = 1−
q(x) x+1
1
1+ x−1 x+1
25. Show that the expression 1 simplifies to x−1
1− x+1
26. Show if k is an odd integer, N k + 1 is divisible by N + 1.
27. Use the Factor Theorem to factorise x 3 − x −6. Hence, or otherwise find
all the roots of the equation x 6 − x 2 − 6 = 0.

Solutions 5
1. x =1
2. x =2
1
3. a = − 4 [8 + 4a − 7 = 0]
4. (a) (i) 21 (ii) −9 (iii) −12 (iv) −24

(b) a = 1
5. p = 10, q = −16. [p + q = −6, 4p + q = 24]
6. (a) A = 1, B = 4 (b) A = 2, B = 3 (c) A = 3, B = 2, C = 14

(d) A = 1, B = 4, C = −4 (e) A = 3, B = −1 (f ) A = 4, B = 3, C = 10
(g) A = 2, B = 17 (h) A = 2, B = −1, C = −3 (i) A = 2, B = −1, C = −1
7. a = 3, c = −1, b = 2 [a and b by inspection from x 3 and constant coefficients]
8. It is easiest to find A and C first, and use these to find B .

(a) A = 1, B = 5, C = 2 (b) A = 2, B = 1, C = 4 (c) A = 3, B = 4, C = −1
(d) A = 1, B = −6, C = 2 (e) A = 3, B = −1, C = −5
9. (a) x 2 + 2x + 1 (b) x 2 + 8x + 3 (c) x 2 + 5x − 2

(d) 2x 2 + 3x − 4 (e) x 2 + 2x + 5 (f) 2x 2 + 6x + 3
(g) x 2 − 4x + 5 (h) x 3 + 4x 2 + 8x + 20 (i) 2x 3 − x 2 + 3
10. a = 4, b = −2, c = 3. [a and c by inspection, hence b]

£ (x+2)(x+3) ¤ £ x(x+3)(x−2) ¤
11. (a) x + 3 x+2
(b) x(x − 2) x+3
h i
(x−1) (x−1)(x+2)
£ 4(x+4)(x−4) ¤
(c) (x+5) (x+5)(x+2)
(d) 4(x + 4) x−4
h i h i
(x+3) (x+3)3 (x−1) (x+1)(x−1)
(e) (x−3) (x+3)(x−3)
(f ) (x−2) (x+1)(x−2)
12. (i) x 2 + 7x + 1 (ii) x 3 + 2x 2 + 6x − 4 (iii) x 2 − 4x + 5

(iv) 2x 3 − x 2 + 3 (v) 2x 2 + 6x + 3 (vi) x 2 + 2x + 4
13. a = −4 [Let cubic be f (x) then f (2) = 8 + 12 + 2a − 12 = 0]
14. a = 5, b = −4 [Let cubic be f (x) then f (1) = 2 + a + b − 3 = 0 and

−54 + 9a − 3b − 3 = 0 ⇒ a + b = 1 and 3a − b = 19]
15. p = −7, q = 8, (x + 2)(x − 4)(3x − 1) [ f (−2) = f (4) = 0

⇒ 4p + q = −20 and 16p + q = −104]
16. (a) x(x + 1)(x + 5) (b) (x − 1)(x + 3)(x + 4)

(c) (x − 3)(x + 4)(2x + 1) (d) 2x(x + 3)(x − 3)
(e) (x + 1)(3x + 5)(2x − 1) (f ) (x − 2)(2x − 5)(4x − 3)
(g) (x − 3)(x 2 + 3) (h) (x − 1)(x 2 + x + 1)
(i) (1 + x)(1 + x 2 )
17. f ( 23 ) = 89 + 40
9
− 88
3
+ 24 = 48−264+216
9
=0
(3x − 2)(x − 2)(x + 6)

p p
18. x = 2, 3 + 2 and 3 − 2 [Equation is (x − 2)(x 2 − 6x + 7) = 0]
19. All powers of x are even so let x 2 = X giving f (X ) = X 3 − 2X 2 − X − 2.

f (1) = 0 so X − 1 divides (exactly) into f (X )
⇒ x 2 − 1 = (x + 1)(x − 1) divides into f (x)
⇒ x + 1 and x − 1 both divide into f (x)
Dividing gives f (X ) = (X − 1)(X 2 + 3X + 2) = (X − 1)(X + 1)(X + 2)
so complete factorisation is (x + 1)(x − 1)(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2).
Alternatively, we could divide f (x) by (say) x + 1 to give x 5 − x 4 + 3x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x − 2

Writing the quintic as x 4 (x − 1) + 3x 2 (x − 1) + 2(x − 1) = (x − 1)(x 4 + 3x 2 + 2)
we have the complete factorisation (x + 1)(x − 1)(x 2 + 1)(x 2 + 2)
20. Multiply out the right hand side.

Let x = 10, then 1443 = 111 × 13 = 3 × 37 × 13
21. If f (x) = x 4 − 1, f (1) = 0 so x − 1 is a factor.

Let x = 64 = 26 , then 63 is a factor of (26 )4 − 1 = 224 − 1.
22. Let x 2 = X . Factor Theorem tells us that X − 1 is a factor of X m − 1

so x 2 − 1 is a factor of (x 2 )m − 1 = x 2m − 1.
23. −3 [Coefft of x 3 is −4 + 1]
f (x) = (x + 2)(x − 1), g (x) = (x − 3)(x − 1) [Each side is (x + 2)(x − 1)(x − 3)]
In part (b) let x = 13 ⇒ 10 f (13) = 15g (15).
24. (a) 0, 0, 2 [p(1)q(1) = 0 × 2 = 0, q p(1) = q(p(1)) = q(0) = 0, pq(1) = p(q(1)) = p(2) = 2]

(b) p(x)q(x) = x(x − 1)x(x + 1) = x 2 (x 2 − 1)
(c) 4x 3 [By difference of two squares (q(x) + p(x))(q(x) − p(x)) = 2x 2 .2x]
p(x) x−1 x+1−2 x+1 2 2

(d) = = = − = 1−
q(x) x+1 x+1 x+1 x+1 x+1
A slightly easier way would be to start on the right hand side:
2 x+1 2 x+1−2 x−1
1− = − = =
x+1 x+1 x+1 x+1 x+1
x x
25. Numerator simplifies to x−1 and the denominator to x+1 .
The result follows from the hammer and boot principles.
26. If f (N ) = N k + 1, f (−1) = (−1)k + 1 = 0, so N + 1 is a factor.
27. If f (x) = x 3 − x − 6, f (2) = 0. The function factorises to (x − 2)(x 2 + 2x + 3).

By substitution or otherwise x 6 − x 2 − 6 = (x 2 + 2)(x 4 + 2x 2 + 3).
x 2 + 2 = 0 has no roots and the discriminant of x 4 + 2x 2 + 3 < 0. So the
equation has no roots.

Proof of the Factor Theorem

Suppose x − a is a factor of the function f (x), then we can write
f (x) = (x − a)g (x)
where g (x) is another function (which we could find by dividing f (x) by
x − a).
Substituting x = a into both sides
f (a) = 0 × g (a) = 0.
More generally, if the factor is ax + b, we can write
f (x) = (ax + b)h(x)
where h(x) is another function (which we could find by dividing f (x) by
ax + b).
b
Substituting x =− a into both sides
b b
µ ¶ µ ¶
f − = 0 × h − = 0.
a a
Strictly speaking we haven’t quite finished. We’ve only shown the theorems
hold in one direction. We haven’t shown, for example, that if f (a) = 0, x − a
must be a factor of f (x).
To fill in this last piece of the jigsaw we can use proof by contradiction.
We shall assume for a moment that f (a) = 0 but x − a is not a factor of f (x).
If x − a is not factor we get a (non-zero) remainder when we divide f (x) by
x − a, i.e.
f (x) = (x − a)g (x) + r where r 6= 0.
But that means f (a) 6= 0, which we know to be false.

Exercises 6
Some of these questions involve solving equations. If you need a reminder

about this see Chapter 1 page ??).
1. For the function f (x) = 2x 3 − x 2 − 6x + 3, find
(i) f (0) (ii) f (1) (iii) f (−1) (iv) f (2) (v) f (−3)
2. Use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder when

(a) x 3 + x 2 + 7x − 1 is divided by x − 1
(b) x 3 + x 2 + 7x − 1 is divided by x + 1
(c) x 3 + 2x 2 − 4x + 9 is divided by x − 2
(d) x 3 − 3x 2 − 6x + 8 is divided by x − 3
(e) 4x 3 − 5x − 2 is divided by 2x + 1
(f) 8x 3 − 2x 2 + 3 is divided by 2x − 3
3. Find the value of a if f (x) = x 3 + ax 2 − 8x + 6 has remainder 10 when

divided by x − 2.
4. Find the value of b if f (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 + bx − 2 has remainder 14 when

divided by x + 2.
5. Find the value of c if f (x) = c x 3 + x 2 + 5x + 3c is divisible by x + 1.
6. When the expression x 2 + ax + b is divided by x − 1 the remainder is 5.

When the same expression is divided by x + 1 the remainder is 11. Find
the values of a and b.
7. The remainder when x 2 + px − 2 is divided by x − 2 is four times the

remainder when the same expression is divided by x −1. Find the value
of p.
8. The function f (x) = 2x 2 + ax + b has a factor x − 4, and when f (x) is

divided by x −2 the remainder is −6. Find the values of a and b, and the
other factor of f (x).
9. x − 2 is a factor of x 3 + ax + 2a. Find the value of a, and the remainder

when the same expression is divided by x + 2.
10. Given that x 2 − 1 is a factor of x 3 + ax 2 + bx − 3, find the values of a and

b.
11. The function f (x) = 4x 3 + ax 2 + bx − 1 has a factor 2x − 1. When f (x) is

divided by x + 1 the remainder is 3.
(i) FInd two equations in a and b.
(ii) Solve these to find a and b.
12. When f (x) = 4x 3 + ax 2 + x + b is divided by x − 1 the remainder is 10.

When f (x) is divided by x + 2 the remainder is −5.
(i) Find two equations in a and b.
(iii) Hence show that f 21 = 0.
¡ ¢
(iv) Use this result to find all the linear factors f (x).

13. When f (x) = 3x 3 + ax 2 + bx + 2 is divided by x − 2 the remainder is 20.

When f (x) is divided by x + 1 the remainder is 8.
(i) Find two equations in a and b.
(iii) Hence show that f 31 = 0.
¡ ¢
(iv) Use this result to solve the equation f (x) = 0.
14. (i) Find the linear factors of the function f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − x + 3.

(ii) Hence solve the equation f (x) = 0.
(iii) Write the function in the form
f (x) = (x − 2)g (x) + r
where the constant r and the function g (x) are to be determined.
15. Express 6x 3 + 5x 2 − 3x − 2 in the form (x + 1)(ax 2 + bx + c), stating the

values of a, b and c.
Hence solve the equation 6x 3 + 5x 2 − 3x − 2 = 0
16. (a) Show that

x 2 − 2x − 8 x − 4
= .
x2 − 4 x −2
(b) Factorise the expression f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 6x + 8.
(c) Hence, or otherwise, simplify
x 3 − 3x 2 − 6x + 8
.
x2 − 4
17. (i) Show that 3x − 1 is a factor of f (x) = 3x 3 − 4x 2 − 5x + 2.

(ii) Hence, or otherwise, simplify the fraction
3x 3 − 4x 2 − 5x + 2
.
3x 2 + 2x − 1
18. (a) Show that 2x − 1 is a factor of f (x) = 2x 3 − 5x 2 − 6x + 4.

equation f (x) = 0, giving the two non-integer solutions in
(b) Solve the p
the form a ± b, where a and b are integers.
19. (i) Show that x = 1 is a solution of the equation

x2 1
+ = 1.
x + 1 3x − 1
(ii) Write the equation in the form of a polynomial equation.
(iii) By factorising, solve the equation.
20. When f (x) is divided by x − 3 the remainder is 4. Write down the value
of the constant k if
f (x) k
= x2 + 2 + .
x −3 x −3
Find the values of a, b and c if
f (x) = x 3 + ax 2 + bx 2 + c.

21. Write down a solution of the equation

(x + 1)(3 − x) = 2x 2 (x + 1).
Find the other solutions of the equation.
22. (i) Write down one root of the equation
x 3 = 8 − 9x 2 .
p
(ii) Find the other two solutions, expressing them in the form a ± b 6,
where a and b are integers.
23. (a) Show that when x 3 − 5x 2 − 4x + 18 is divided by x − 2 the remainder

is −2.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, write the expression
x 3 − 5x 2 − 4x + 20
as a product of linear factors.
24. (i) Show that x − a is a factor of the function

f (x) = x 2 + 2ax − 3a 2 ,
where a is a constant.
(ii) Write down the value of k for which
f (x) = (x − a)(x + ka).
(iii) Hence find, in terms of a, the roots of the equation f (x) = 0.
25. (a) Show that x − k is a factor of the function

f (x) = x 3 + (3 − k)x 2 − 2kx − k 2 ,
where k is a constant.
(b) Write f (x) in the form
f (x) = (x − k)g (x),
where g (x) is a quadratic whose coefficients may include k.
(c) Find the remainder when f (x) is divided by x − (k + 1).

Solutions 6
1. (i) 3 (ii) −2 (iii) 6 (iv) 3 (v) −42

51
2. (a) 8 (b) −8 (c) 17 (d) −10 (e) 0 (f ) 2
3. a =3
4. b = −6
5. c = 2 [ f (−1) = −c + 1 − 5 + 3c = 0]
6. a = −3, b = 7 [1 + a + b = 5, 1 − a + b = 11]
7. p =3 [ f (2) = 4 f (1) ⇒ 2 + 2p = 4(−1 + p)]
8. a = −9, b = 4. 2x − 1 [ f (4) = 32 + 4a + b = 0, f (2) = 8 + 2a + b = −6]
9. a = −2. Rem −8 [ f (2) = 8 + 2a + 2a = 0, f (−2) = −8 + 4 − 4]
10. a = 3, b = −1 [x − 1 and x + 1 are factors. ⇒ a + b = 2 and a − b = 4]
11. (i) a + 2b = 2 (ii) a = 6, b = −2 [ 48 + a4 + b2 − 1 = 0, −4 + a − b − 1 = 3]
a−b =8
12. (i) a + b = 5 (ii) a = 8, b = −3 [ f (1) = 10, f (−2) = −5]
4a + b = 29
(iii) f 12 = 48 + 2 + 12 − 3 = 0
¡ ¢
(iv) 2x − 1, 2x + 3 and x + 1. [ f (x) = 4x 3 + 8x 2 + x − 3 = (2x − 1)(2x 2 + 5x + 3)]
13. (i) 2a + b = −3 (ii) a = 2, b = −7 [ f (2) = 20, f (−1) = 8]

a−b =9
(iii) f 13 = 19 + 92 − 73 + 2 = 0
¡ ¢
(iv) x = 31 , 1 or −2. [ f (x) = (3x − 1)(x 2 + x − 2) = (3x − 1)(x − 1)(x + 2)]

14. (i) x − 1, x + 1 and x − 3 [ f (1) = 0 ⇒ (x − 1) is a factor. f (x) = (x − 1)(x 2 − 2x − 3)]
(ii) x = 1, −1 or 3 [x − 1 = 0, x + 1 = 0 or x − 3 = 0]
(iii) r = −3, g (x) = x 2 − x − 3 [ f (2) = −3, so f (x) + 3 = x 3 − 3x 2 − x + 6 = (x − 2)g (x)]
15. a = 6, b = −1 and c = −2. [By inspection a = 6 and c = −2 hence b]

2
x = −1, 3
or − 12 . 2
[6x − x − 2 = (3x − 2)(2x + 1)]
(x+2)(x−4)
16. (a) Expression is (x+2)(x−2)
(b) (x − 1)(x + 2)(x − 4) [ f (1) = 0 ⇒ x − 1 is a factor. Then divide and factorise.]
(x−1)(x−4)
(c) (x−2)
[Numerator is (x − 1)(x 2 − 2x − 8)]
17. f ( 13 ) = 0 [ 91 − 94 − 53 + 2]
(3x−1)(x+1)(x−2)
x −2 [Numerator is (3x − 1)(x 2 − x − 2). Factorising: (3x−1)(x+1)
]
18. f ( 21 ) = 0 [ 82 − 54 − 26 + 4]
1
p p
2 , 1 + 5, 1 − 5 [ f (x) = (2x − 1)(x 2 − 2x − 4) = (2x − 1)((x − 1)2 − 5)]
1
19. (i) Substituting x = 1, left hand side is = 2 + 12 .
(ii) x 3 − 3x 2 + 4x + 5 = 0 [x 2 (3x − 1) + (x + 1) = (x + 1)(3x − 1)]
(iii) x = 1 (repeated), x = − 23 [(x − 1) is a factor, hence (x − 1)(3x + 2)(x − 1)]
20. k =4
a = −3, b = 2, c = −2 [ f (x) = (x − 3)(x 2 + 2) + 4]

21. x =1 [It satisfies the equation.]

x = −1, x = − 32 [(x + 1)(2x 2 − (3 − x)) = 0, so 2x 2 + x − 3 = (x + 1)(2x + 3) = 0]
22. (i) x = −1
p
(ii) −4 ± 2 6 [x + 1 is a factor of x 3 + 9x 2 − 8 = (x + 1)(x 2 + 8x − 8)]
23. (a) Call the function f (x), then f (2) = −2.

(b) (x − 2)(x + 2)(x − 5) [ f (x) = (x − 2)g (x) − 2, so f (x) + 2 has a factor x − 2]
24. (i) f (a) = a 2 + 2a 2 − 3a 2 = 0

(ii) k = 3 [The constant terms must be −3a 2 ]
(iii) x = a, x = −3a [ f (x) = (x − a)(x + 3a) ⇒ x − a = 0 or x + 3a = 0]
25. (a) f (k) = k 3 + (3 − k)k 2 − 2k 2 − k 2 = 0

(b) By inspection f (x) = (x − k)(x 2 + 3x + k).
(c) k 2 + 6k + 4 [From (b), f (k + 1) = (k + 1 − k)(k 2 + 2k + 1 + 3k + 3 + k)]

Revision Exercise 1
Because fluency with algebraic fractions is so important, and it has been a

long chapter, here are some revision questions.
In each case write the expression as a single fraction, simplifying where
possible.
5 1 9 7 5x 2 6y 3 3a+6b 10a
1. (a) 7 × 3 × 10 × 11 (b) 2y × x
(c) 5a
× a+2b
y 2 −4y 3y+3 5x 2
(d) y+1 × 2y−8 (e) 11× 11 (f) a× a
3
5 3y
(g) x 2 × 4x 2 (h) 4x ×2x 2 (i) 27
7 3
4 9 16
(j) 3 (k) 2 (l) 9
5 5 4
5
2y 3 6a
(m) 3x (n) y 4 (o) 4
a
1 x 13x 5 1
(p) x (q) 7 + 7 (r) 9 y − 9 y
y
1 7a 2 a+2 a−1
(s) 2 a − 2 (t) y + 5 y (u) 4 + 3
3−2a
(v) 23 (a + 1) + 61 (2a − 1) (w) 6p − 21 (4p + 3) (x) a − 11
4p 2 +8pq t −4
2. (a) p+2q
(b) t 2 −3t −4
x x 2 −2x+1 x 2 +1
(c) x−1 × 2x 2
(d) x 2 −1
x+2 x 2 +x 1
(e) x+1 × x 2 +6x+8 (f) x 3 +x ×(3x 2 + 3)
(g)
4a−16
8a
× a(a+1)
a 2 −16
2
(h) (y − 1)× y 2 −2y+1
1+ a x
(i) 3 2 (j) 1
3 x−1
7 2y− 21
(k) a 5a (l)
4+ 8 y+ 43
x 2 + 13 x
(m) 2+6x (n) 4x + 12 (x − 1) − 21 (3x + 1)
y(y+2) 1 2
(o) 5
+ 10 y (p) 32 (t + 4) − 61 (t + 4) + 13 (t − 1)
3 4 y
(q) x + 5 (r) 4x − 3x
y
1 2 2y 3
(s) x+1 − x (t) y−1 − y+1
2x−1 3x
(u) x
− 2x+1

Solutions to Revision Exercise 1

3 3y
1. (a) 22 (b) 15x y 2 (c) 6 (d) 2 (e) 5x
5 3x y 3 20
(f) 2 (g) 4 (h) 2 (i) 14 (j) 3
35 1 5 2 3a 2
(k) 18 (l) 12 (m) 3x (n) y (o) 2
y 4 7y
(p) x (q) 2x (r) 9 y (s) −3a (t) 5
7a+2 2a+1 8p−3 13a−3
(u) 12 (v) 2
(w) 2
(x) 11
1 x−1
2. (a) 4p (b) t +1 (c) 2x
x 3
(d) No simplification. (e) x+4 (f) x
a+1 a+1 2 2+a
(g) 2a+8 = 2(a+4) (h) y−1 (i) 6
3x 8 8y−2 2(4y−1)
(j) x−3 (k) a (l) 4y+3 = 4y+3
x 3y 2 +4y y(3y+4)
(m) 6 (n) 3x − 1 (o) 10
= 10
5x+10 5(x+2) 15−4x y 2 −12x 2
(p) 6
= 6 (q) 5x
(r) 4x y
(x+2) 2y−3 x 2 −1
(s) − x(x+1) (t) y−1 (u) x(2x+1)

Summary of key ideas

2 2a 1 x+1
• Important notation issue e.g. 3 a = 3 , and 2 (x + 1) = 2
3a 2 b a2 18y 3 3y 2
• Cancelling algebraic fractions e.g. 9b 3 = 3b 2 , 6x y−9y 2 = x−3y , where
we can cancel every term in numerator and denominator, or we may
x 2 +5x+6 x+2 x−1 1
need to factorise e.g. 4x+12 = 4 , x 2 −1 = x+1 .
• Multiplying algebraic fractions, making sure we understand what is in

a numerator and what in a denominator
x y−1
1 1
e.g. 91 x × 34 = 12 , y 2 −yy
×
= y2
2 6 3x
with a reminder that 3× 3 6= 9 , and that 8× 2 = 81 × 3x
2
= 12x.
• Dividing algebraic fractions: the “hammer and boot" rule

3 x2
x 3 y y x2 4 4x
e.g. 2 = 2x , 4 = 4 , = 2x+3 ,
2+ x3
y2
• Adding/subtracting algebraic fractions

4 3a 8+3a 2 2 2 x(x−1) x(5x−1) x−3 4 (x+3)(x−1)
e.g. a + 2 = 2a
, 3x + 6 = 6
, x + x+1 = x(x+1) .
• Dividing polynomial by a linear factor, by factorising

x 2 +2x−8 (x+4)(x−2)
e.g. x+4
= x+4
= x +2
or using algebraic long division, with or without remainder
3x 3 +11x 2 −7x−29
e.g. x+2
• Factor Theorem, finding an initial factor by inspection

e.g. f (x) = x 3 + 6x 2 − 9x − 14. f (−1) = 0 so x + 1 is a factor.
Then divide and factorise if possible:
f (x) = (x + 1)(x 2 + 5x − 14) = (x + 1)(x + 2)(x − 7)
Factorising with a given factor e.g. 2x − 3, so that f ( 32 ) = 0

Algebraic Division & Factor Theorem Chapter - Pure Maths Guide From Love of Maths

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Algebraic Division & Factor Theorem Chapter - Pure Maths Guide From Love of Maths

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

This book is available (in whole or by chapter) in pdf format via digital

download from our website loveofmaths.co.uk.

"Sometimes a theorem can just be so elegant. It can draw together.

4 ALGEBRAIC DIVISION AND FACTOR THEOREM 4-1

ALGEBRAIC DIVISION AND

4.7 Algebraic fractions with brackets.(Optional.)

4.8 Dividing polynomials with a linear divisor. For example

4.9 Factor Theorem. For example finding the factors of x 3 + 6x 2 − 9x − 14.

4.1 Introduction to algebraic fractions

What am I saying? That students can never do simple fraction calculations?

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-2

4.2 An important notation issue

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-3

Some more examples:

Simplify these expressions

The answers are in the footnote2 .

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-4

4.3 Cancelling algebraic fractions

Turning to an algebraic example, the principle is the same: examine the

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-5

Now look at this fraction

How would the cancelling work in this case?

It’s not uncommon to see students give the answer:

What about the prospect of cancelling this fraction?

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-6

or we could cancel by factorising first:

• factorise, and then cancel, or A

Cancel these fractions as far as possible:

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-7

We won’t always have a choice of methods. Look at this example:

In this next example

4a 2 b − 2ab 2 2ab (2a

The natural next step is to include the possibility of two-bracket factorising.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-8

1. In each case combine the terms into a single fraction.

3. Cancel these fractions as far as possible

4. Cancel these fractions as far as possible.

x 2 +7x+10 2y−y 2 x 2 +8x+15

x 2 +1 12x 2 +4x y+9x+3y x(x+2)−4x−8

5. Simplify these fractions by cancelling.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-9

32 (x−2)2 22 (2x+1)2 2(2x+1)2 4 1

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-10

4.4 Multiplying algebraic fractions

multiply all the numerators;

Who says we can do this? The following bit of mathematical “sleight of

What this shows is that within a multiplication of fractions

we can cancel anything on the top with anything on the bottom.

By the way, students sometimes think they need to find a common

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-11

Make it a practice to do as much cancelling as you can before multiplying.

This is a great deal easier than cancelling after multiplying:

Mixed fractions need to be first converted6 to proper (“top-heavy”) fractions.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-12

Moving on to an algebraic example:

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-13

Satisfy yourself that these are correct.

Simplify these as far as possible:

The answers are in the footnote7 .

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-14

Now for an important special case.

PURE MATHS: AS LEVEL GUIDE 4-15

We often find ourselves multiplying by the denominator of the fraction. For