HIGHWAY AND

RAILROAD
ENGINEERING
COURSE CODE: SVBP 223
 Part 1: Basic Concepts of Transportation
Importance of Transportation
Transportation means the movement of the people and
other goods from one place to the other. Transportation
engineering is the branch of engineering which covers the
study, design and construction of roads, railways, water
ways and air ways along with bridges, tunnels, stations,
harbours, airports etc. Transportation system is the back-
bone of the overall progress of the country. The
economical, social, commercial and industrial
development of the nation is indicated by the
transportation facilities.
The sub-branches of transportation engineering are as
follows:
* Road Engineering * Highway Engineering
* Railway Engineering * Bridge Engineering
* Docks and Harbour Engineering
Different Modes of Transportation
Transport modes are the means by which people and
freight achieve mobility. They fall into one of three basic
types, depending on over what surface they travel – land
(road, rail and pipelines), water (shipping), and air.
Rail
Railways are composed of traced paths on which are
bound vehicles. They have an average level of physical
constrains linked to the types of locomotives and a low
gradient is required, particularly for freight. Heavy
industries are traditionally linked with rail transport
systems, although containerization has improved the
flexibility of rail transportation by linking it with road and
maritime modes. Rail is by far the land transportation
mode offering the highest capacity with a 23,000 tons
fully loaded coal unit train being the heaviest load ever
carried.
Advantages
• lowest overall cost per unit weight
• railway is the safest form of transport
• can be most effective when linked into multimodal
system
Disadvantages
• routes between fixed terminals
• they cannot stop at intermediary points
• rail transport cannot provide door to door service
Road
Road infrastructures are large consumers of space with the
lowest level of physical constraints among transportation
modes. Road transportation has an average operational
flexibility as vehicles can serve several purposes but are
rarely able to move outside roads. Road transport systems
have high maintenance costs, both for the vehicles and
infrastructures. They are mainly linked to light industries
where rapid movements of freight in small batches are the
norm. Yet, with containerization, road transportation has
become a crucial link in freight distribution.
Advantages
 Main benefit: flexibility
 Travel speed
 Use extensive road networks
 Large number of carriers working in the same areas
 Easy to monitor location of goods
Disadvantages
 For shorter distances
 Vulnerable to congestion and traffic delays
 Dependence on fuel price
Water
It is used for big volumes for international traffic
Advantages
 for heavy and bulky goods
 for products with long lead times
 cheaper traffic means
Disadvantages
 difficulty in monitoring exact location
 limited to appropriate ports
 transfers to ships take time
Air
Air transport constraints are multidimensional and include
the site (a commercial plane needs about 3,300 meters of
runway for landing and take off), the climate, fog and
aerial currents. Air activities are linked to the tertiary and
quaternary sectors, notably finance and tourism, which
lean on the long distance mobility of people. More
recently, air transportation has been accommodating
growing quantities of high value freight and is playing a
growing role in global logistics.
Advantages
 speed of delivery
Disadvantages
 it is a costly transport
 weight limits
Pipeline
Pipeline routes are practically unlimited as they can be
laid on land or under water. The main uses of pipelines are
oil and gas together with the utilities of water and sewage
Advantages
 Moving large quantities over long distances
 Cheapest way of moving liquids
 Local networks can add flexibility
Disadvantages
 Being slow
 Inflexible
 Only carrying large volumes of certain types of fluid
Intermodal transportation
Concerns a variety of modes used in combination so that
the respective advantages of each mode are better
exploited. Although intermodal transportation applies for
passenger movements, such as the usage of the different,
but interconnected modes of a public transit system, it is
over freight transportation that the most significant
impacts have been observed.
Characteristics of road transport
• Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like
passenger cars, buses, trucks, pedal cycle and animal
drawn vehicle.
• It requires a relatively small investment for the
government.
• It offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the
vehicle from one lane to another and from one road to
another according to need and convenience.
• Speed and movement is directly related with the severity
of accident.
• Road transport is the only means pf transport that offers
itself to the whole community alike.
Scope of Highway Engineering
Development, Planning and location
• Historical background, basis for planning, master plan,
engineering surveys and highway alignment.
Highway Design, Geometrics and structure
• Road geometrics and their design, rigid and flexible
pavement, design factors and thickness design, overlay
design, design of drainage system
Traffic performance and its control
• Traffic studies analysis, need for new road links, traffic
regulation and control, intersection design and their
controls with sign, signals and markings.
Part 2: Highway Development and Planning
Importance of Roads or Highway Engineering
• They provide conveyance to the people, goods, and raw
materials, to reach different parts of the country.
• They are the only source of communication in hilly
regions.
• Helps in agricultural development.
• Helps in dairy development.
• Helps in tourism development.
• Helps in fisheries development.
• Helps in maintaining law and orders in a country.
• Forestry development.
• They improve the medical facilities.
• They improve the land value.
• They generate the more employment opportunities.
• They play important role in defence activities.
• They become the symbol of country's progress and
development.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
1. According to Traffic Volume
 Traffic volume is the number of vehicles passing at a
given point on a roadway.
No. Types of Road Vehicle per Day
1 Very Heavy Traffic Road Above 600
2 Heavy Traffic Road 251 to 600
3 Medium Traffic Road 70 to 250
4 Light Traffic Road Below 70
2. According to Transport Tonnage
 It is the capacity of maximum traffic flow that can
be accommodated in a highway, or it may also be
referred to as load transported per day
Materials, construction and maintenance
• Highway material and mix design, highway
construction, earthwork, construction of different types
of pavements, WBM, pavement failure, pavement
evaluation, maintenance of pavements.
Economics, finance and administration
• Road user cost and economic analysis of highway
projects, pavement types and maintenance measures,
highway finance.
Scope of Traffic Engineering
Basic object is to achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of
traffic with least number accidents.
Scope:
• Traffic Characteristics
• Traffic Studies and analysis
• Traffic Operations
• Traffic Planning
• Geometric Design
• Administration and Management
No. Types of Road Vehicle per Day
1 Very Heavy Traffic Road Above 1524
2 Heavy Traffic Road 1017 to 1524
3 Medium Traffic Road 7508 to 1017
4 Light Traffic Road Below 508
3. According to Importance
According to importance of connecting places, stations or
major cities etc., roads are classified as follows :
• Class I Roads - international and national roads /
expressways and national highways.
• Class II Roads – region to region or neighboring
parts / major district roads.
• Class III Roads – region to region or neighboring
parts / major district roads.
4. According to Location and Function
defined clearly therefore it is more acceptable for a
country.
a.National Highways (NH) - the main roads that
connect all major cities to the capital of the country.
They run throughout the length and breadth of the
country. A minimum two-lane road is provided for
national highways.
b. State Highways (SH) - the highways linking up
with the national highways of adjacent states, district
headquarters and important cities with the states are
known as State Highways (SHs).
- The geometric design specifications and design
speed for NH and SH are same. These highways serve
as arterial routes of traffic from district road within the
 state. The responsibility of construction and
maintenance of these roads lies with state government.
However, the central government gives grant for
development. The length of state highway roads varies
from 7 m to 10 m.

c.Major District Roads (MDR) - The important roads

within a district serving areas of production and
markets and connecting these places with each other or
with the main highways are known as Major District
a. Flexible pavements are those consisting of a mixture of
Roads (MDRs).
asphaltic or bituminous material and aggregates placed on
a bed of compacted granular material of appropriate
- The responsibility of construction and maintenance
quality in layers over the subgrade. Its design is based on
of these roads lies with District Authorities. However,
the principle that a load of any magnitude diminishes as
the state government gives grant for development of
the load is transmitted downwards from the surface. The
these roads.
load spreads over an increasingly larger area, which
carries it deep enough into the ground through successive
d. Other District Roads (ODR) - The roads serving
layers of granular material. This is why materials with
rural areas of production and providing them with
high degree of strength are used at or near the surface
outlet to market centers, block development
without the need for steel reinforcement
headquarters, railway stations etc. are known as Other
District Roads (ODRs). This have lower design
b. Rigid pavements are associated with rigidity or flexural
specification than MDR.
strength or slab action so the load is distributed over a
wide area of subgrade soil. They are usually laid in slabs
e.Village Roads (VR) - The roads connecting villages or
with steel reinforcement, with design based on providing a
group of villages with each other or with the nearest
structural cement concrete slab of sufficient strength to
road of higher category are known as village roads.
resist the loads from traffic. Rigid pavements require high
- These roads are very important from the rural area
modulus of elasticity.
development point of view. They are generally un-
metalled with single lane width of stabilized soil or
7. According to Traffic Types
gravel. The responsibility of construction and
a. Pedestrian ways – built for pedestrians exclusively,
maintenance of these roads lies with the local district
and no vehicles are permitted to pass
authorities.
b. Cycle Tracks / Bicycle Tracks – built for cyclists
5. According to Material Used
which are provided on both sides of pavement so they
a. Earthen Roads - are laid with soil. They are cheaper
can travel safely.
than all types of roads. This type of roads is provided
for fewer traffic areas or countryside areas.
c. Motorways – also known as expressways. Only few
vehicles are allowed to use these roads such as
b. Gravel Roads - also low-quality roads, but they are
vehicles that accelerate at high speeds. It makes
better when compared within earthen roads. A
travelling quicker and provides comfort for high-speed
compacted mixture of gravel and earth is used as
vehicles.
pavement material in this case.
8. According to Topography
c. Murrum Roads - a matter obtained from the
Hilly Road Plane Area Road
disintegration of igneous rocks by weathering agencies.

d. Kankar Roads - an impure form of limestone.

Kankar roads are provided where lime is available in a
reasonable quantity.

e. WBM Roads - Water Bound Macadam (WBM) roads

contain crushed stone aggregate in its base course. The
aggregates are spread on the surface and rolled after
sprinkling water.
f. Bituminous Roads - are prevalent roads around the
world. They are the most used roads in the world.
g. Concrete Roads - is used to construct the pavements
in case of concrete roads. These are very popular and
costlier than all other types of roads.
6. According to Rigidity
Flexible Road Rigid Road
9. According to Speed and Accessibility
a. Freeways - also called as access-controlled
highways. Freeways are wide roads designed for fast-
moving  vehicles to travel long distances with higher
speeds. These are generally designed in four lanes, two
lanes in each direction. Traffic movement on freeways
is continuous and unhindered because there are no
railway or road intersections and no signals.
b. Expressways - one of the superior types of access-
controlled roadways where the entry and exit of the
expressway are fully controlled by ramps.
Expressways are designed to travel quickly with great
 comfort and safety by avoiding sharp curves, busy
traffic intersections, railway junctions.
c. Highways -It is a public road, especially an
important road that joins cities or towns together
• It is not convenient because roads are perpendicular to
each other. This increases the rate of accidents due to
poor visibility at a perpendicular junction.

d. Arterials - are the roads laid inside the city or town

for the movement high volume of traffic. An arterial
road joins the central business point to the outside
residential areas. Arterials provide access to the
highways.
e. Local streets - don’t carry a large volume of traffic
like arterials. The speed limit is restricted to 30km/hr
in a local street.
2. Radial or Star and Block Pattern 
Pros
f. Collector Roads - collect and deliver the traffic to
• Less risky as compared to the rectangular pattern.
and from local streets and arterials. The speed limit
• It reduces the level of congestion at the primary
usually ranges between 35-55km/hr. Pedestrians are
bottleneck location.
allowed to cross only at intersections. Parking can be
• If one radial road is blocked, then another can be used as
allowed except at peak times.
an alternative.
Cons
Main Types of Roads in Philippines
• Lack of safety appurtenances like rail transitions, crash
1. National Roads are those connecting major cities.
attenuators and post support bases.
2. Provincial Roads are those connecting cities and
• It is only effective when two-lane ramp traffic does not
municipalities. They connect national roads to barangays.
have to merge at the downstream end of the ramp.
3. Municipal and City Roads are roads within cities or
towns. They connect to provincial and national roads.
4. Barangay (Village or Suburb) Roads are other public
roads within the barangay.
5. Expressways are highways with interchanges.
Expressways in the Philippines are toll roads. Toll rates
vary and payments are made in cash. Electronic payment
is an option on some of the major expressways in the
country.
3. Radial or Star and Circular Pattern
10. According to Economy
Pros
a.Low-Cost Roads - The road that is constructed and
• It is safe as compared to the previous patterns because
maintained at a low cost by utilizing the locally
vehicles travel in the same direction.
available materials & labor is a low-cost road. It is
• Roundabouts present in this pattern improves the
also referred to as a cheap road.
efficiency of traffic flow. This also reduces fuel
consumption and emissions of the vehicle.
b. Medium Cost Roads - The funds required for
Cons
constructing medium-cost roads are higher than the
• Providing a good curve during the implementation of
low-cost roads. Road to travel from village to nearest
this pattern is quite challenging.
town is one of the examples of medium-cost roads.
• It affects the driving ability. Mainly, old drivers face this
These roads are considered when there is occasional
problem due to declines(decrease) in vision, hearing,
high traffic. These roads are generally built using
and cognitive function
bitumen.

c. High-Cost Roads - These roads require huge capital

to construct. State Highways and National highways
are the best examples of the high-cost roads. Bitumen
or Cement concrete is used in High-cost roads

Road Patterns
1. Rectangular or Block Pattern
Pros
• The rectangular blocks can be further fractioned into
small rectangles that may be used for the construction of
buildings placed back-to-back, having roads on their
front.
• It is widely adopted on city roads.
• Construction and Maintenance is quite easy
Cons
4. Radial or Star and Grid Pattern  
Pros
• It increases the efficiency of land usage and unit density.
• It provides high safety to vehicular traffic with a high
proportion of 3-way intersections.
Cons
• Splitter islands should be extended far enough.
• High construction cost because of the need for extra
traffic signals, road marking and lighting.

5. Hexagonal Pattern  the ground is called its ‘alignment’.
Pros
• Three roads meet the built-up area boundary by the sides
of the hexagons.
Cons
• Traffic signs, pavement markings, and lighting should
be adequate so that drivers are aware that they should
reduce their travel speed
6. Minimum Travel Pattern 
Pros
• These types of potentially serious crashes essentially are
eliminated.
Cons
• Traffic signs, pavement markings, and lighting should
be adequate so that drivers are aware that they should
reduce their travel speed
• Intersections can be especially challenging for older
drivers
Planning Surveys
Economic Studies
Details of the existing facilities, their utility, distribution
of the existing population in the area, population growth
trends, existing products in the agricultural and industrial
sectors, future trends of development in these sectors,
existing communication and education facilities, and the
per capita income are to be collected.
Financial Studies
Source of income; Various financial aspects such as the
sources of funding, estimated revenue from taxes on
vehicles, toll tax, and indirect benefits of raising the living
standards of the people due to the proposed road network
are considered.
Traffic or Road Use Studies
Details of the existing road facilities, traffic volume in
vehicles per day, traffic flow patterns, classes of traffic
such as passenger cars, busses and trucks, loads carried,
average speeds, anticipated future trends of traffic growth,
and other traffic-related studies are to be conducted.
Engineering Studies
These include study of the topography, soil, road life and
special problems, if any, relating to construction, drainage
and maintenance.
Highway Alignment and Surveys
Alignment
The laying out of the center line of a proposed highway on
A new road should be aligned carefully since any change
in alignment may not be possible or may be expensive at a
later stage, owing to increased land acquisition costs and
roadside structures constructed after the road has taken
shape.
Components of Highway Design
Horizontal Alignment of Road
• Horizontal alignment is a straight portion of the road
which is connected by suitable curves.
• All the curves of roadway need a super elevation for
banking of the curve, to resist vehicles from slipping,
allow all the vehicle to run at a uniform speed.
• Horizontal alignment is designed on some basic rules
and regulations like driver limitations, curve radius,
vehicle characteristics, cost, profile and design speed.
Vertical Alignment of Road
Vertical alignment of the road comprises of gradients and
vertical curve. Vertical alignment is defined as the height
and depth in a vertical axis with respect to the horizontal
axis, this height and depth, it creates a gradient and
vertical curve.
Vertical alignment of roadway consists of the following
factors:
• Gradient.
• Grade Compensation.
• Vertical Curve.
Requirements of an Ideal Alignment
• Safe: The alignment need to be safe during construction,
operation and maintenance especially at slopes,
embankments and cutting.
• Easy: The construction materials if present at the place
of construction makes the construction easier.
Similarly, it should be easy during the operation of
vehicles with easy gradients and curves.
• Short: The distance between the initial and final point
need to be short so as to reduce the construction
cost.
• Economical: The overall cost of construction and
maintenance of the road, as also the operation cost
of the vehicles should be as low as possible.
• Comfort: The alignment should be fixed such that it
provides comfort to the drivers and the passengers.
Engineering Survey for Highway Locations
Map Study
The study of the topographical map is done to find out the
possible routes of the road. Following information are
obtained from the map study:
• Alignment avoiding valley, ponds, lakes.
• When the road has to carry a row of hills, mountain pass
may be the suitable alternative.
• Approximate location of the bridge site
Reconnaissance Survey
Simple survey instruments are used in the reconnaissance
procedure. Following information are obtained from the
reconnaissance survey:
• Valley, pond, lakes and other features that were not
present in the topographical map.
• A number of cross drainage structures, High Flood
Level (HFL), Natural Ground Level.
Preliminary Survey
Sophisticated survey instruments are used during the
preliminary survey. Objective of the Preliminary Survey
are listed below:
• To collect necessary physical information and details of
topography, drainage, and soil.
• To compare different proposal in view of  the
requirement of good alignment.
• To estimate the quantity of earthwork.
• To finalize the best alignment.
Methods of Preliminary Survey
Soil Survey: The soil survey is conducted in working out
details of earthwork, slope, and stability of materials,
subsoil and surface drainage requirements and the type
of the pavement requirements
Material Survey: The location of construction materials
need to be known.
Traffic Survey: Survey regarding the number of lanes,
roadway width, and pavement design need to be done.
Determination of final center line: After completion of
all the above mentioned steps and calculating the amount
of earthwork, the final center line is determined.
• Taking aerial photographs with required lateral and
longitudinal overlaps
• These photographs are then examined under
stereoscopes and control points are selected for the
establishment of the traverse.
• The spot levels and contour lines may be obtained from
the stereo –  pair observations.
• Photointerpretation method is used to grab information
on the geological features, soil conditions, and drainage
requirement.
Final Location and Detailed Survey
This survey serves the dual purpose of fixing the line of
the road, physical data are collected which are necessary
for the preparation of complete construction plans, profile,
cross-section & road structures.
General Features of Detailed Survey or Final Location
Survey:
1. Pegging the Center Line
The centerline is pegged with references to the
preliminary traverse or baseline
2. Centerline Leveling
Profile levels are taken along the centerline at
regular intervals & at each point of chainage where
ground configuration changes. This profile should
generally be extended 150 — 200 m beyond the origin &
endpoints, to allow for transition from a given road
3. Cross Section
Cross-sections should be taken at each station, at all points
of significant change in the ground slope & for a
reasonable distance beyond the beginning & endpoints.
4. Property Lines
The position of all property corners, lines, fences,
buildings, the boundary of land, nature of ownership
including name at landowner & number, types of  land,
other manmade features are accurately determined & note
during final location survey.
5. Temporary Watercourse & Stream Detail
All temporary watercourse & streams within the area of 
constriction should be carefully located. Cross-sections
are also be taken to provide the information required for 
the hydraulic design.
6. Intersecting Roads
The direction with respect to the pegged centerline of all
intersecting roads should be measured. Profile & cross-
section of intersecting roads should be taken for some
length.
7. Material Site Survey
Location of all available sand, stone, boulder queries
should be referenced with respect to the center in either
side of the road.