الفيزياء النووية Nuclear Physics pdf تحميل مباشر العلوم كوم

The atom and the nucleus
, – % ( , B ' – C B
B ' ( < – 5E –
)/#( #F) – F) '
5 5* B '
11

"# # $ %& ' ( .

)
%& * + , - ./ * +0 +
3 '# #4 '+ & ( element ) + , * . '
# # 78(( .5 )/ )/* '+ "6 (
#9 #,/) #+ ,#( # 9 $ %& '
'# ;( 6 .$: $ 4
<# ( / + 9 + )/ =
4 + , .
. .>0 ?,/ 4 %& @/ $4
"# # ( 5 ( 9 * + (

# (H2O) # #( 9 / " ,& .(compound) /
#+ # ( %& 4 +
"#6 ( * A . 4 /
.5 ) <
(/ 4 -+
The atom 21

# ) @+ %& $ ( /( . + , (
* ' #(( .# ( 7>(
/ + , 7
( .. <
(nucleus) ' #/ 7#, @+ < +
# # # # . < 13– 10 % $)F 7+ G /
'# (( . < 8– 10 $)F 7+ G / . %& . (H
.# ( (protons) .# (// 7#,( . $/
.(neutrons)
The proton

# #( # #/ <
10 × 1.6726 (/ ( G /( ./ (H
27–
(atomic mass units # # ( . <
( . <
.( .A. ) ( ' 1.007276 (/ ( ( amu)
The electron

/ '
.F %& <
#( # * *) (/ ( C ) (F /
%/ (/ ( @+* (H ( .< 19– 10 ×1.6
'# 0.0005486 *) < 31– 10 × 9.11 G /( J ' 1840
( (
The neutron

# # 3 * ) # #,( < $
G# /( J# #(/ # ( #/C( # #( ( (/
#( # /: .(.A. 1.0086649 *) < 27– 10×1.6749
* ) ( 6 J (6 (/ (3 ( (
"#6 #5C ( A0( <9 CF 15 ' )( %& K, ( ' ;
.(6 (/
<# .# ( .# (/ ( $

. %& . (H ( ' / 7, '
'# ## ##F* L( .0 (
(orbits or shells) .F *
%#& ( k-shell) k '#C * </ 7#, )C& (H
.# (6 9 L </ 7, % 9 L(
# (6 9 M </ 7, J9 L(
. (6 9>9 9 N $ L/
%#& / . (/ * J / ,( '

#/ ..# %& / . (H L 5 =( '
' #/(,( .< %( ))
( ( 1B1)
3 %#( '# ' %$ >)H " . )/*
(/ ( (( J ( %& . ( " ((
. '9 : ' ( K %& (6
4 1
2 He 1H

(11)
! !""#
Mass and atomic numbers $ % ! % 31

%& . ( . (/ M $ ' ! %
# # ( ./ /C( ' ( , $ NO . (
( ./ ( * + 5 % ( , * J
, $ %&
3 .N+ , > F C (&
#* .A #/ % ( , .$@+ E . (H (
/ ' %& . (/ '/ & ,
# & Z = 1 #,/ 11H ' (( A " .Z
# Z = 2 $& 42He < ' * . A = 1 % (
%# ( Z = 6 ,/ 126C / ' (( . A = 4 % (
..# ( ( . (/ ( " ( (( J A = 12
$# * # %& Z = 92 $,& 23892U < ' *
146 (/ 92 " < ' (( J A = 238 % (
,/) %& ' + , C9*
P < /(, . (
#)/ A# " * % ( * . + ;( 6
# * # #0( .$: 94Pu < ( / 9 +
% 0# %& - ( "4 (> &8/ + ,
. 4 , %& % ( - 4
The isotopes '() 41

# #0 #, "# # #+ , . ((
% , .. ( 0 (
* " (( F * 36 . (/
% ( - @( %& @( 3 + , , * $
'# # + , 6 -$ %& C .. ( , ,/(
:%$ 5E 9>9 * >
9& . 5E
" (( 3 (/ ( (( : 11H 1

(A = 1 Z = 1 ) . (
( (/ ( (( : 21H 2
.<( </ 7, (A = 2 Z = 1 )
* ( (/ ( (( : 31H 3B
.<(( </ 7, (A = 3 Z = 1) *
. + , 0(
5E (2B1) /
# 9* "6 * +( 5E +
# %& 'C( 5E ?,/ ( . + , E
.# .,#6 #+& (radioactive) )

R O,/
-5#E ?,/ )
%& ,/) %& + ,
+ ( 6 6 ,/) %& ' >&
R O,/ *
. .>, * .>0 <
(/
2 1
1H 1H
3
1H
(2B1)
+ , 0 (
5E
L# %#& (( + , 5E * "6 'H (

# # #$ #+ , , * J 5 +
5 )/ 5E +& 3 S& A .5 +
.=
* 5& )/ O,/ +& <( 6
( @#+ , . * ) 00
+ , / /
# # #F* * #/* * . ( *
'/ )( 4 . + , / / * .. (/
.. (/ ' /* . ( &
Z # #, # , $ / 0
# #, G# / J# #CC -$ < 5E NO(
.240 230 % / % ( , T( %& 92<
The size and the mass of the nuclues * 51

7#+ 9/ @+* ' ' )F 7+ *
#5 %/ ' -E ' )F 7+ C J ' )F
# # # * " E * ' "6 E .' 7*
7#+ ' %& O,/ / +( . (/ . (
# '#/ .4π R3/3 # '#/ A/ R $)F
( A % ( , '/ * ) ' %& . ( . (/
'# #)F 7#+ #6 # * F .' <
:( F>, <
(/ ((( /)
R= 1.2 x A1/3 x 10-13 (cm) (1-1)
%#& ' = L 240 1 / T(( A * J
.<12– 10 =,( 3 ' /* )F 7+ S& ,/)
# A %# ( #, * # C& ' ( / / *
#5 ( ' CC ( S& CC %& .' ( C(/
;#(( S& )/( ( ' "C/( % & .% ( , F*
( "6 ' .0( 36 O,// . -$ )/( F) "6
' ( S& ( F) / ( * F>, ,/( .4
. #O,/ L# ' . A( "6 U( )/( F) "6 (
. ( ( M F* ' ,0 ( N/+( A/
<#/ 7#,( . = ( VC ' .
( F
#/( " 0( C .(atomic mass unit) ( '
VC/ . ( ' 12 M(126C) 12 / E (
# ( M(11H)=1.007825 # E ( ( A "
Mn=1.008665 %$ ( ( MP=1.007276 %$ (/
.#/ A# Me = 0.0005486 %$ (H ( * %&
. (
# '#/ %#$ %( (amu) ( ' S& $
10×1.6555 $C ( ( (126C) / ' ( 12/1
.< 27–
Atomic units of energy +(" ,* 61

' * " ,/ .(5&( ' F) * ( * ./9*
F .' "6 (( * $/ F) F) "6 (( *
( J F) ' / )/( %( F>, ( * X( (
:%$ F) ' U&( F> </ &, F>, %$
Eo = mo C2 (1-2)
' ( mo / F) F Eo :* J
(C = 3 x 108 m/Sec) 9/(/ O C . /
' <
(( .3 %& F) /,(
.eV unit .& – (H ' </ 7,( '@+ '
$C0 * /( %( F) '/ .& – (H
. .& -C & -( ( (/ * ) (6
19B
:* < 10 x 1.6 – (H * J
19–
10 x 1.6 = * ,. – (eV)
:%$ ' -$ .0O
,. 3 10 = ,. (KeV)

. 1610 x 1.6 =
,. 6 10 = ,. (11 (MeV)

. 13– 10× 1.6 =
' (/ +

.F>, ?,/ 0 6
:(R F) . ?,/ "6
4.18 = , 1

6
10× 3.6 = . ) 1
( ' F ( S& .F>, -$ <
(/
:* J .& (H/ * / Z
( < ) 27– 10 x 1.6555 = ( ' 1

2
( 9 / ( 8 10 × 3 ) ×
10– 10 x 1.49 =
19B
10×1.6 / 10– 10×1.49 = A 1
.& (6 @ 931 =
The nuclear binding energy " +(" 71

/ . (/ , " (( ' .
& ( =F '
. (/ -$ / (( S&
* J . / .& L/ L / ( (( ((
* LF( S& @ '@+ ' %& . (/ / .&
6 (( 3 ' * J/ @ '/ & ( =F F (
A $ * % , ( ' C/ * 36 .A0(( S& . (
/ =C -$ .' & ( =F =F* =
* =F
(/ (/ / 9U( %$ =C/ 7,(
-$ . 6 ( (/ / A ( (
L / =C * ,/ & ./9 F . O,/ / .
S& A . 5&( . -$
( (/ /( ( V)
.(nucleon) < * " )
/ & . O,/ O,/ . ( $

)/( "6 A U .( < 13– 10 F* ) '@+ . -$
% .' </ 7, )/( / ( . -$
, S& . "6 ' A0((
M ' ( C( )/( F) ( * 6 F)
/ ' ,0 ( / 0 $ . . (
( )/( F) * )/( ( " ( ( M
.F) ( / U&( F>,/ / & )/((
. ( M ( ' )/( ( * *

F) * %(/ . ,0 ' ( T) '
:%$ B )/(
B = (N Mn + Z Mp – M ) C2 (1-3)
%$ Mp ( ( %$ Mn ,0 ' ( M :J

& . (/ Z ' %& . ( N (/ (
. , *
<( ' )/( F) R

A 2.013547 %$ <( ( * J ( (/
B = 1 x 1.008665 + 1 x 1.007276 – 2.013547
= 0.002394 amu
= 0.002394 x 931 = 2.23 MeV
(6 @ 2.23 %$ <( ' )/( F) * *
F) * ' . " C -$ C/ ..&
(6 @ 1.165 %$ <( ' %& )/(
= VC /9/ )/( F) F /(,( ..&
( ' . C -$ . & . ' C( A(
: 0( 9* ' * % , $ S& C -$ . F 'C(
.'C(
= )/( F) * "6 'H (

'@+ ' ( ( <9 < 5E 9 ) 00

@ 8.5 % (/9 (( % ( , '/ ( <9
%& */( <9 ( )( = .& (6
' .& (6 @ 7.5 % ) C9 = ?0
3
'/ F) >) "6 U / $ $ .( <
>) <9 9 =
4 C9 + , < )
. 5E 9 00
+ ; /* F)
% '34 '(3 81
( + , . 9 ))

( < B1
14 9 3
6C , 4 Be , 1H
./ ( ./ (H ( %$ B2

[.& (6 @
.C( 9\ [E % ,( B3
* /( 6 226 < ' )F 7+ * B4

.' " '
10
)/( F) 4 < ' )/( F) B5
4 < ' ( * . 6 ' -$ %&
. A 4.001506 %$
F) A 16 4 ' )/( F) B6

' ( * . 6 ' -$ %& )/(
)/( F) $*) . A 15.994915 %$ 4
.( ' %& . (H
17 4 <* 16 4 ' C( 9* * B7

: %$ 17 4 ' ( * . 6
[ A 16.999131
( ./ 12 / ' )/( F) B8

' ( * . 6 .& (6 @
. A 12 %$ 12 /
11
12

Radioactivity and radiation
– !+2 – .# – # .# – %4

– +, /" (*+, .#
+ A7 ! %0 – <0 *+, +
./ 5 – *+,
12
) –

) & (( !" !"# $ %&
.(radiaoactivity) *+, + $
/"01 ) Decay .#

*+, +
/ ! %2 3 *45 (Disintegration
) . !+2 8" %7 6 # !
% .+ /"01 .# 9: ; <%0 *
*; ! *; <%0 .# 5
=2 +,

.:> !
1 /&% $ 4
0 0 / ) =5 ?7"2 % .# 5
.@ ..
α - decay 2–2
13
E#& ( D
/4 C ) 54 B
> B G9:
F; 6.9 . *;
5 / 7 7
% 6/ / =5; . ? 4 )& B =2 .# 64
146 6 92

* 23892U $

144 6 90
23490Th $ =2 .#

: 9 6α # $ .# 9: <
G9: .# 5 / .

$5
: %
238 234 Th 4
92 U 90 + 2He (α)
%% $ .#
6 9:

% 6.9 .# $ %2 3 $ *: ? 4
$ %2 3 21482 Pb D =2 .# 21482Po $
:
6#
214
218
84 Po 82 Pb + α
5

I # $ +
*
85) # $ (daughter nucleus) % *5 J

0 *; 6.# * + =5 Parent nuvleus $C $

* K .(.#
=5 % $ 85
+ 840
I # $ %F .#
$C 3
:*
Mp – ( Md + Mα ) > 0 (2-1)
$ 5 Mα 6% 5 Md 6$C 5 Mp <0
/4 C E B 2 + 9: 840 .#

.D
)&C
% %%0 %% D
.# ! %, 4
F; )&C B
9&

% # ! 7
=2 +, %
, #5& !0 *; % ! 92
.%0 7
"
? ; .%%0 $7 ! 9 #5& # ! !7
9%;
14
7 9& 210 $
% # ! 7
%
% # ! .!;

2 L 5.305 *: %0
4.149 6!;
2 L 4.198 :
7 9&; 238 $
234 $
=2 .9 *; I % .!;
2 L
C 4 # ! 9&; 1C 0 *;
%7 %
# ! 9&; 0 *; % G9:
%7 675
% # ! 7 I0

.75 LC 4
<0 67 5 M;

+ 7" $ %& .9

:*: .#
E 7
E = { ( Mp – ( Md + Mα) } C2 (2-2)
I % # $
7 G9: J
6(0 4
7) $& 4
4 4 .9 5
0 *; .#
7
C /0 # $
I0 / .7 G9:
?% ?L ? % /0
Md % 5 E .# 7 % Eα # ! 7
60 7 $& 4 7 8 .9 6 Mp $C 5
:

<0
Eα = ( Md / Mp ) E (2-3)
/ .# 7 6 B /
<0
.# % %0

% # ! 7

G9: !7 9& %7 61C 0 *; % =2 $C
!0 *; %
N % %%0 %% 7 !
!7 %%0 ) : # ! )
/4 .9 .#5&
9: * !
6&O
)5&
.) 9: / & (1(2) /+
.G>
%
β - decay 32

$ ) B& ! + E B %
!2
! G9: .( β - particles) !
15
K5 $
(positron)
.!
.#
J 9: <%0 . K0+

, 5
54 !
*; B5 ( .# $ ) )
.##& $
Nαβ
Eα
Nβ
Eβ
Nβ
*5& % /0 !2
)
Eβ
16
! ) (I # ) ( :(1(2) /+
*5& % /0 !2 + ! ) (P
17
%, ?4
* K )
;
! ! %%

I !
1
R 9: *; ( N/Z )
5 1.6 * 0 =2 / =0 % % ##& 5

<0 4 (126C) 12

0" " ? ; .54
.1 = 6/6 = N/Z *: ; ! =2 !
( 6C)14
.##& B
G9:
14
:U G9:

2 <0 4 > *;
N / Z = 8/6 = 1.33
4 (13355Cs) 133 $
0" 6.9
(13755Cs)137 $

0 *; 1.42 U
C
=0 (2(2) /+ U1 .1.49 U
C 4 >
%%
7"
=0 9: . .# 4
! 9F; .4 5 Z ! %% N !
=0 =5 7
V V5 ! ! %%

G9: ! & 92 . .# ?4
4
..# 9 ? +

F; =0

# .# ?4

6.9
"
? ; .U0 A .# 4 > K
% .# ) .# 4 238 $
%2 3 .# ) # .# 4 > 6( $
$ *: %%
α $ : %, . (α $
::% 238 $ 5 N/Z I0 % .234
N / Z = 146 / 92 = 1.587
:*:
% 234 $ 5
N / Z = 144 / 90 = 1.60
18
=0
! & ! =2 !

.# 4 > U $
% 6 9 . 4
:* .# 9:
. $ %2 3
234 234
90Th 91Pa + β–
3 234 $ =2 .# 234 $

% .V# 9 K 0" .(
2) I $ %2
%%V /V7
0 *; 6%0
%4 /& % ! %%
$V *; N/Z U; %0
%4 !
. .# 4 840 *: 6 1.571 *:
(2(2) /+
.# 4 =0
19
Types of β-decay 132
The electron decay
V /0
W

2 %2
0"
V V UV *V .V9 6

=2 !

.V# 9:
. 4 *: ! !
:*O
1 1
0n 1p + β-
=V2 ( 60Co ) 60 !V5 .# *, .# 5

137 $V =V2 ( 137Cs ) 137 $ .# ( 60Ni) 60 /
.(137Ba )
:The positron decay !

*V; ! =2 !

0C E *;
V0 G9V: *; . 4 840 *
/7

/V0 .9 85 6
=2 ! %0 /0
G9V: *V; .# ) .
0+ /0

:*O K 6* .# 0
1 1
1P 0n + β+
=V2 ( 22Na ) 22 $% .# * .# 5

.( 22Ne ) 22

The electron capture $% #

4
=2 ! %0 /0 <%0

VX
XV .9 $ .* .# *; 9 )"& B&
V ) V
V 4 % !,
?2
X
, 9: %0 ( L %
557
0 *; K %
.V $V %V2
%

; ! %0 3
:*O K *, C 0 G9: *; .# )
20
0 1 1
-1e + 1P 0n
*V, .# *: .# J " % KF; 9:

*V; .(electron capture) *V, C (β+) * (β-)
. !
% *, C 0
8V5 .#
J <%0 % K % ; ! %4
. (V) ν – (neutrino) V $ ) !

V K
5 0+ /% $

.4 " J C

9: =5 . ( mν=0 ) #5
:*O
( *2 .#) 1
0 n 1
1P + β- + ν ′
(* .#) 1
1P
1
0 n + β+ + ν
( *2 ) 0
-1e + 11P 1
0 n+ν
6 .(anti - neutrino)%1 $ ν ′ )

%V KV 3V =7" 92 9 : K =5 %1 $ )
W % 5
# F; %%0 0
!+2 ) L !+2 /+ *; 7 # 9:
.( +
4 > 4

92 ;

:+ 840 9F; . .#
J C
A
ZM > ( AZ+1 M + me ) (2-4)
%V V $C / *: me 6 AZ+1M 6 AZ M <0
.!V, %, +
6I
,
:+ 840 92
A
Z M > ( AZ-1 M + me ) (2-5)
21
6*V .V# 0 *; % 5 *: 6 AZ-1 M <0
* KF; ?& .! %, +

:+ 840
I *, Y +
(me + AZM) > AZ-1M (2-6)
V: 8V40 %7 (6(2) +
% (5(2) + 840 9F;
*;
! %, +
F; 6.9 .&O
.V#
FV; 6.9V .*V, Y + K# !7
AV *, C
? % K0 *
+ 840

% (6(2) + 840

KF; .U0 >
V *, Y +
% 69% .(5(2)
.! %, + >
Energy of β- particles $& ' 232

7 9&

% # ! 7
9
A#
% β ! .75 %%0 7 %0
#V
V 675 $7 9&

7
F;
KV =V2 .9 *; I 3 . / B7 7 =0
: &[ $ %Z 3+
% $ =2 ;1,
.#5 .# 7; . %1
:7" :%%0
6
*,
E = { AZM - ( AZ+1M + me)} C2 (2-7)
.V#
7
* .# 0 *;
:*: .9
E= { AZM - (AZ-1M + me)} C2 (2-8)
V
V

0 5 *; .# 7 J
6*, .# 0 *; %1

, :
VC 0 *; .* .# 0 *;

V V5 1 ! .#

7
*,
:*:
22
E = (AZM – AZ-1M ) C2 (2-9)
%%V0 > .# /

7 3
#V
V % 7 %1 7
%4; .
) .# 7 / (*, .# *;)
, /0 .9
V V4 7 .#5 B4 7 9%
, 7
.V# 7
%1 /0 %7 .(end point)
/V0 %V7 6.9V .V7 G9:
*7
, /0;
V V7
, 7
; 5 .# 7 %1
V % %%
% !, 7 A7 % .#
V 7 ! 9 !, %%
7" $ + B
=0 K5 9 ! ) =5 /0
7

.(I1(2 ) /+ *;
K+
7
U1 : + ) $ =0 9: )
\ % 67 9&

% !
$V )V .# 7 7 *: 7 =7 =0 #
)V
V ! )
/4 KF; 6 9 . 4
V7 %V0 7 9& 9 # ! ) A =5
.%%0
Gamma radiation &

( 42
V# .#
% B

0C I5> *;
!"V# BV& 5
B ) .#
V7
9: * .( excited state 0 *;
6(4V ) 1C 0 *; 7
=5
!
V0 *V; 5

0 *; 5

0 =2 0
/4 69% .(ground state) 1C
.V9 6V , V7
D5&5 1C 0 =2 2 /7
V .V !+2 $ ) L !+2 %F
%V V7 G9V: 3 , 7
D5&

23

V K4 K % & ) % !, %0 =5 :
V %%0 7 K "0 9

, 9: 85; (
(internal conversion) *5& % /0 $ 5 G9: ) .7
%V2 8V
V V , 2
=2 +, %
/4 <%0

( !+2) L !+2
<%V0

6.9 .1C 0 =2 + 0

/V7 V0 =2 0
/4
X /0 =5 /4
.V1C 05 /
=2 6 9: ... /7 0 =2 $ 2
\ 22 $% .# <%0 % KF; 6/ / =5;
V *, C 8

* .# 8

:* * .#5 4; 622
: %%
22 22
11Na 10 Ne* + β+
:*, C .# 4;
e- + 22
11Na
22
20Ne
*
V <0 6 0 *;

: * "
1.275 : %4 2 7 0 *; .# * *; 22

=V2 0
22
/01 $ .!;
2 L
V K7 (
; ) J+2 %2 3 1C 0
.5 G9 & ( 3(2) /+
. , 7
(I3–2/V+ ) 60 !V /"01 .# & /

%V; . /0 =5 1C 0 =2 0
/05
60/V V =2 /0
, %2 60 ! .#
: .# %
60 60 *
27Co 28Ni + β- + ύ
: %4 2 7 0 *; /

G9:
60 / (/01 ) /4; .!;
2 L 2.505
1.332 *: /7 2 7 + =C 0 =2 0
24
L 1.173 : %4 7
; %2 3 !;
2 L
/4 $ .(

0
7 8; ) !;
2
22
Na
(3(2 ) /+
7 ! &
22

1.275 β+ + EC
γ
0
22
Ne
60
Co
β- 2.505
γ
(I3(2)/+
1.332 7 ! &
60 /
γ 0
60
Ni
%V2 3V 1C 0 =2 =C 0

/
V # .!;
2 L 1.332 : %4 7
;
i % 0
/4 E γ
; 7

%%V0
V0 *7
8#5 2 /7 f 0 =2
:7"
E γ = Ei – Ef = hν
25
V7 V Ef 6 5 % 0 7 Ei <0
34–
ν 6(V ./ 10x6.63 = h) ." ! : h 6 0
.
# %%
The internal conversion )* + 14–2

/"01
W
0C E *; K =2 +, 8
PV&

% 9 M L K ! +4 !2 %0 8"
/ V V0 G9: *; .9 P&
<
;
%%V0 7
2 / 2 /"01 W
;
*V;
V, V 7 0
; 7
.%%0 +4
V M L K +4
45 !, )
G9V: *5& %V /V0 !VF V5 /"01
8V; !^ 7 %%0 3; *# & *; !,
/V =V5; .(P1(2) /+ .#
!, )
198 8V =2 I .# /"&
198 I:9 .# /
% .) 2 . 412 2 ; 6 # 6=C K0 *;
"V0
; 85 1C 0 =2 198 8 /"01
%V
V# 9V: /#

.) 2 . 412 : 7 8;
!V2 /
4 % !, %0 3 K7"
.5V; (< /# 3 ) K7 / K0; M L K +4
"V0 85 K .; =5 7 G9:

,
*V1 CV 9% 5 ) 67
*7
.
# 85 * 9 A# *; *5& %
!, %0C

, 7 85

6.9
V7
, 9:

+
; 8" % +
V0 6V K V+45 * * !,

69V% 6 /"01 ) .M +45 % 06 L +45
26
)V5& . *5& % /0 !2 /"&
/"01 KX
!2 7
*5& % /0
!, G9: 7
/V; /0V .9V .
85
#5 *1 C
. *5& % *1 C !2
*5& % /0 !2
*: $7

Ee = Eγ –Be
*7 8;
; 7 Eγ 685
, 7 Ee <0
.
^ 7 Be6 /"01, <%0 9 ,
V+4 *;
, 7
198 8 0 *;
V G9:
/0 !2 7
.9 .) 2 . 83 *: K
:*:
Ee = 412 - 83 = 329 KeV
% . K +4
45 !^ .9
<0 6(LC /0 :) L +4

!, 8"
6) 2 . 8.9* 0 _5 I:95 +4 G9: *;
, 7
:*: L +4
*5& % /0 !2 7

Ee = 412 - 8.9 = 403.1 KeV
%V
V 7 %0 !,

&
9:
. ! ) 8;
!,
) K +4 *2 %0 8" %
*; ; .:
9% /4 6>; K . KF; L +45
*V; % !, % 6* . M =0 L K +4
8" .9 <%0 6 # G9: /L+
%C ! %
.40 %

7 8; /0 +
K V+4
*5& % /0 <%0 * /0 )
%%V =V2 K V+4
45 !, %% K =5 αk
27
VL 6 .B G9:
A#
!;
% K7 % 1 6 #
αk *5& % /0 / 7
! +45 *5& % /0 !" %%0 . 5 Z 9 %%
V V /V4 !"V G9V:
2 I5C A# M 6 L
. K +4 !"
V+ V *V

%% .:
% 6 9:
# ! 2 % G9: .# .* *+2
8"V V ; /"& + .9 3 %7 6 5
=2 !0
% ! /"01 !+2
.1C 0 =2 2 /7 !0
X - rays $
% 52
V V# !V )"& 9
+C %
V
V 8V# I .
% * !+2
+C 7 J I5 <0

#5& +C

#5&
::

) ,! $
% 152
!V, /V4 % +C
J 9: %
/7` 7 ! 9 ! % =2 =5 7 ! 9 (! +7) ! %
9
/V7 V7 9 % *; 2 ; % %; .# 9 *;
6V # G9V: /LV+ =5 7 9 %
!, %0 /4
(VL ) +
; # 05 *; 85
!V7 $VV7 !V V .
% *;
, *7 8;?"0
)V5& %0 5 %%0 9 ! % *; !,
V V45 +C !; 9& KF; 6&O

V V75 V %%0 7 ! %
!, /4
% K * 9: . )"& $4 G9: )5& 6%0 5
V I5V X %0 ! 9 ! % *; !, 2

28
(V ,
D5& 0) 9: ! 9 % , I
8V5 .V5 5 %%0 !7 ! 9 !;
V V % 5 +C $ +C G9a5

.5 *# * /50 !5 *; % $%& 6K
AV# V0
5 +C $
6/V / =5; .
, 2 /4 * +4 D&
+C G9: $ K +4 =2 L +4

, /4 % KF;
L V+4 =V2 M +4

, /4 % . K )0
V 9 =5 $ 4 . L )0 +C $;
6.9V 6
V0 *V; 9&M 2
, 2 /4 * +4
! .9 /4 $ * +4 A# # !
%VC V# +4
/4 %; .2 /4 $ * #
6 Kα1 V $ K +4 =2 L3 +4 *: (7 =5C )
$V K +4 =2 L2 # +4
/4" +C
! %V ) # ! +45 & (4(2) /+
. Kα2
/V4
VV VV +C $ (!^ #
.! +4 G9:
!,
:
9 ! %V *V; !V, V V7
!5 92
V& $V: 7 *: ; .* /% *; *: D
.D5 +Y #
M3 M2 M1 L3 L2 L1 K +4
2P3/2 2P1/2 2S1/2 2P3/2 2P1/2 2S1/2 1S1/2
7
3.066 30554 30851 13.035 15.200 15.861 88.005
)..
:+
29
V+4
V
, /4
W Kα1
)

V V V+C V7

.9 . K +4 =2 L3 #
:*: 82Pb D
Kα1 (L3 –> K ) = 88.005 – 13.035 = 74.97 KeV
Kα2 ( L2 –> K ) = 88.005 – 15.200 = 72.805 KeV
Kβ1 = ( M3 –> K ) = 88.005 – 3.066 = 84.939 KeV

Kβ2 = ( M2 –> K ) = 88.005 – 3.554 = 84.451 KeV
MV M1V
M111
M11
M1
Lα1 Lβ1 Lα2

L111
L11
L1
L1
Kα1 Kα2 Kβ3 Kβ1

K
30
(4(2) /+
+C & 9 *; !^ # ! +4 ! +4
=%Y =5C ! +4
!, /4 % +
+- $
% 252
( V *V; %%V+ D7V ) %%+ R <%0 %
9V: /# I 6 # 3
0+ $ C 6
^
9V5 %%V+ * / 3
0+ $
,
IV (
0+ $ )
, :%4# * 7 85 5
V7 8V; /V0 V V+
; *; K D7
9V %V +C = ./# % /7 $
,
V0 V+C ) .0 +C I5C
V#5& 7 !# 7 9& 6 ) KX (5(2) /+
$V
V, 7 7 =7 % * #
%
$V *V V+C .5 0 +C 5
.U
*V; * D&+ *; %& +C I *; :%
$ %&V !V, / $ <0 6#5& !4
(%VC ) % %a5 5 !, U $ % 8;
.0 +C 85;
Nx
Ex
31
0 +C ) :(5(2) /+
32
Auger electrons & ( 352
) V ; <%0 % K % 4 (1(5(2) 4# *;
9V
/V4 KF; M L K ! +4 %02 *; (*2 b ;
V !V, %0 > 0 =2 %
V !V,
%% # G9: /L+ =5C %
=V%C ! %V 3 /LV+ =% ! %V =2 =5V ! %
8" K5 I .9
% .!,

4 %%V
8V# V /
# 7
+
.
+4 *7
/V =5; .
#5 8"
0C E *; <%0 K 2
V2

K +4 *; ; % % K 0 /
#
9% 6 K +4 *; % b # /L+ L +4

<%V0 %7 K 2 . +
; 8" 3 L +4 *;
2 .L +4 *; # /L+ =5 +7

2 : .9 %
V;
V % 6 M +4
&[
2 8" 0"
=V5 8V5 .M V+4 *; ;
9 . +C
, 9V: /0 .
2 M +4
85
,
: Ee 7
Ee = h ν – EM
= EK – EL - EM
L +4
/4 % 85
*L 9
# 7 h ν <0
.K +4 =2
*5& %V /0 5 K+ 5 G9:

9 %
V !V;
% % !2 8"
E& 9
+
; /0 *
2
2 .

8V5 .K %
2 8"
# 8" $%
2 =2
%V %V KC 6 KLM
2 0 G9: *;
2 =5
33
M V+4

2 8" =2 5 ! K +4 *; ;
L +4 =2 M +4

, /4
W
#
%
V V !V2 8"V 2 =2 +, %

I7 +4 : / )0 " 9% = =5 !
V 8V5 *V +4 # ; ! * =
.:> K L M /
2
K =5 ωK !2 8" <%0 /0 ) =4

%% =2 K +4
45 +C !; %%

. K +4 *; ! #
The radioactive decay

6–2
!+2 # $0 %2 3 *+, .#
A K <0 60, #
4 1& 02 5
.V V0 *; .#

* B 37
,
V
V 7" B K .# 9
4 % 2

.0,
The radioactive decay law

.' 162
*V; .# /0
: ( %)
E#
:
6 % L /0 9:
6%0
0<λ <<1
V: dt G %4 7
/"& G9: .# /0
.9 =
* 9; N : % .# $ * + B %%
9F; . (λ dt)
. N λ dt : dt
/"& B
%% 9: / .# /0

::
9: /"& .#

9 B %%

dN = - N λ dt
34
/V4 .#
% *4 N B %%
+, *
9& N %% =5 &C % G9: *; 4 .
% 5
N0 : t = 0
% + B %%
3
; /
:
%
N (t) = N0 e- λ t (2-10)
=V0 .V#
% 4 + B %%V: N(t) 6<0
) 6
. 7" G9: ) . t 05
(/"01 ) λ
The sample activity

)
, 262
A(t) BV %%V ; : I5

0C $ *;
%%V0 .V#
% 4 B %% A 6 *; .# *
%0 *; .# * B %% ) .(10(2) 7"

*V+, + G9 +, %+ $ +
% /1# .9 %+ G9: %%0 / .(Activity of a Sample)
:
6
5 (10(2)
A(t) = dN(t) / dt
= λ N0 e - λ t = λ N(t) (2-11)
9V 6 t = 0 05 % +, %+ A0 = λ N0 )
:
F;
A(t) = A0 e- λt (2-12)
The half-life and mean-life

$ / 3–6–2
V 3V+ V5 ( *#V ) )

V +, G%+ "& E#& * #
:
V : )
F; &[ = .) =2 9:

6V 6*#V 5 . B %% ) .# $"
35
t = t1/2 6 N(t) = No/2 3V1 KF; ) 9: #7 . t1/2
:

(10–2) 7" *;
N0 / 2 = N0 e- λ t1/2
:

t1/2 = ln 2 / λ
= 0.693 / λ (2-13)
λ .# ! A7 %0

F; *:
%0
2 <0
.( 1( ) /1 *:
τ V %V K 9 +

=V5 V4 B 3 J
; ()
:*O (10(2)7" $ %& G%%0 / :%%
∞
τ = (1 / N0 ∫ dN(t).t = 1/ λ = t1/2 / 0.693 (2-14)
0
V7" V1 V τ 6 t1/2 6 λ
"
% 9:
.7
: %02 ; 6
) t1/2 / λ .

462
$ %&V +
%%5 λ .# ! %%0

* /+ *; K
9 (12(2)
4
ln {A(t) / A0 } = - λ t
.( e = 2.71 ) *V AC $> (ln) / <0

/V+ V&C 7" 9&X + AC $> $ %& %
:*
log {A(t) / A0 } = - 0.4343 λ t (2-15)
36
$> 0.4343 = + AY %% $>
C
:
6* AY K# %%
log A(t) = log A0 – 0.4343 λ t (2-16)
V
V % 5 +, %+ A7 % KF; 6 9:
$4V & =5 /0 F; 6 t
log A(t)
7" $
/V 4 . S = -0.4343 λ K5 _5 ( 6(2 ) /+ *;

.λ .# ! 7 %%0
&C 4 G9: 3 %%0
V t1/2 )V 7 % 2 / .# ! ;
! A4 .(14(2) (13(2) !7" $ %& G9 τ
% %V
V V ;V =5 G9: 31 λ .#
AV7 $V ( !+, %% / $%& ) !+,
IV .V ! ; /"& (counting rate) R % /%
*; 5 ! %%
: ) R % /%
0"
V 31
5 +, %+ 3 I (
%0
:
2 ; / L $ % %5
R(t) / R0 = A(t) / A0
log A
t
( 6(2 ) /+
t
log A +, %+ $>
7"
37
*V> )V * $ 8 $%& λ %%0
/V %%0 . / *; $>5 7 P &
=L =0
%%0 .9
./4
=5 >5 ! % %% $4

2 <0 6+ (16(2) 7" $ %& λ
λ = { log A0 – log A(t) }/ 0.4343 t
A0 " $4 =5
%
4 & 0 G9: *;
.
&
4
/4 * 8# : t
A(t) 6
6V+ )V V %%0

K =2 +, %
$V V % R(t) %V /% A7 %; .(12(2) 7"
.9
=V0 =V5 /0 t
[R(t) α A(t)] <0 R(t)
7"
6V+ t1/2 ) %%0
K 6(7(2) /+ *;

.) =2 %+ K"& E#& 9

K2 <0
= 2(2/1) V %+ U ) *; /"& K 0"
V %+ U ) ! ; 7 /"& 65C %+ (4/1)
UV ! ; + /"& 5C %+
( 128/1 ) = 7(2/1)
% 0.1
/7 65C %+
(1024/1) = 10(2/1 ) %+
UV %+ /4 !7 KF; 9: . 5C %+

.# =2 / 5C %+5 5 7
V λ .V# ! %%0

K =2 +, %
*#V : R * 5 4 G9 t1/2 )
V: _V5 *V 5 .! % * %

*#V GV _5 9 " 238 $ ) 7 *#
!V #V :2 %%0
KF; ( 9 10 x 4.468
V +, %+ *; E#&
<0 4 G9 .#
! V+
9: =0
/"& 0

*#V V ! 9 V5 .# ! %%0 KF; 6 9 .

38
*V; *; % + ! %% ; I KF; /
:
.
0
| dN / dt | = λ N
= A = R/C
5 * ! %% %%0 !
C <0
%V /% : R 6
% ! 3 %% =2 % %
N V *; + B %% C ! R % /% ; KF;
.
5 ) I0 * λ .# ! %%0

R0
½ R0
¼ R0
t1/2 2t1/2 3t1/2 t
(7(2) /+
t
R(t) % /%
7"
8V $%&; L *# ! 9 5

.# $: %%0 B&
)* 01)

+ 562
V V5& =5 0 4 >

0 <%0
%%0 %%
5&
9F; .5& + E
VC !V#5& (V C =5 "
) +

39
*#V %%0
KF; 65 ;"& G9 #

% !
%a0 5& *; /
.K# J
#5&

% 5 R(t) % /% A7 I 6.9 ,

E# R1, EL . t
log R
7" $
/V+ *; a =0
64;

5& =5 0
. t 6 log R
7" %%0 (8(2)
log R
4
a
2
c
(8(2)/+
t
log R % /% $>
7"
4;

5& =5 0
/V (8(2) /+ *; =0

C
0"
*#V 9 5 .# & : 4 &
% .*# G L # J &O
2 <0 6C
b $4V =V5 /0 =2 a =0
$4 %
V b $4 R . /C 5 .# / 9
40
$4V V 9 c : &[ $4 =5 /0 a =0
9V:
V $4V / / %%0 . 7C 5 .#
.%0 =5 / λ2 6 λ1 .# ! %%0

4
2
662
The successive radioactive decay
%V
%7 KF; % =2 $C .# %
$V )V V
=2 % .# 9% .+2 +
V *; / =2 5 6 9: .(grand-daghter) %#0
. 3 *+, .# 5 G9: ) .4 =2
*#V : )226 $% .# / / =5;

V: ) &C G9: .# .222
% =2 ( 3 10 x 1.6
BV&C *: * 6218 $ =2 ( $ 3.82 *#
=V2 V5 9: .( 47% 3.05 *# : ) +

.4 206 D =2 *; /
! 9V %%V V; : 3 .# %

EL
.55 G9: 1
1 / *; (B )
!V N1 t
% $C % ! 9 %% 9F;
:% * N2 % % ! 9 %% 6 λ1 .4
N3 %V#0 %V ! 9 %%V 6 λ2 V: .# ! +
! 9 %%V
t = 0 05 % K 1; 92 64 :
:: / /
N1 = N10 , N2 = 0 , N3 = 0
6$C %V ! 9
V 5 ! 10 % K
%V .# /%

0 *; 9&C 6(11(2) 7" $ %&
%V .# /%
6% %
/% $C
41
5

KF; 6%#0 %
/% %
: <" !% 5
d N1 / d t = - λ1 N1 (2-17)
d N2 / d t = λ1 N1 – λ2 N2 (2-18)
d N3 / d t = λ 2 N2 (2-19)
.9 $C %5 .# /% (17(2) 7" %%0
*; (18(2) 7" .*+, .#5 *C

45 4
%%0 (19(2) 7"

0 *; . N1 λ1 /%
% %
.N3 4 %#0 ! 9
/%
KVF; (19(2) 6(18(2) 6(17(2) !%V /0
V % 555 " 1C

J / ! 9 %% %%0

:*O .9 6t

N1 = N10 e – λ1 t
N2 = { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 ) } N10 ( e - λ 1 t – e – λ 2 t ) (2-20)
N3 = N10 [1+ {λ1/ (λ2 – λ1)}] e- λ2 t - {λ2/ (λ2 – λ1)} e- λ1t ]

(2-21)
.#V 0 % N20 = N30 = 0
92 00 7" G9:
% ! 9 %% U; #
N30 6 N20
/ )5& 92
::

% %#0
N2 = { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 ) } N10( e- λ1t - e- λ2 t ) + N20 e- λ2 t
(2-22)
N3 = N30 + N20( 1- e- λ2 t )
+ N10 [ 1 + { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 ) } e- λ2 t - { λ2 / (λ2 – λ1 ) } e- λ1t]

(2-23)
42
V % N3 6 N2 6 N1
/ L # (9(2) /+ U1
=V2 .V# <V0 6105 $ 3 .#5

.4 105 $%" =2 G% .# &C 9: 6105 $%
β- β-
105 105 105
44Ru 45Rh 46Pd
t1/2 = 4.5 h t1/2 = 35 h
100
50
4 8 12 t
(9(2) /+
t
3 N3 6 N2 6 N1 ! 9 %%
/ L
105 $
%V#0 %V $C B %%

* 0
V
0 *; 6 N10=100 6N20 = N30 = 0 $C B %%
%
V4 D7 N1
0" .

*4;C 0
43
V4 % % $ t = 0 % #
; N2 .*+, .#
4
V4
% 7 =7 =2 /
=2 (20(2) 7"5
.%%
E#& $ *# )1 "
% % $ #5

; N3 %#0 B5
V V14 % 2 (%100 )

I4
.( % 5 *# )1 5 * 0 ) /
Radioactive equilibrium
.! 762
G9:
* ; C

F; 6
.
5 L
F; 3 .# 55 1 3 =5 ) 9: 4 9F;

:
6
5 N3 6 N2 6 N1
/ L $% * 9:
d N1 / dt = d N2 / d t = dN3 / d t (2-24)
:*: 3 .#5
+
F; .9
d N1 / d t = - λ 1 N1 = 0 (2-25)
d N2 / d t = 0 = λ 1 N1 – λ 2 N2

λ 1 N1 = λ λ 2 N2 (2-26)
9V:
C *V;0 G
<%0

6
.( # N1 <0) λ λ1 = 0
+ $C 5 *
V+ 3V E : +2 + >
* 9:
. 5 *+,
The secular equilibrium 3% .!

<%V0 .
=2
I7 *: !0 840

) #V
I4 % L λ1
% !0 G9:
44
= 9% .λ1 < λ2

0 *; ( % $C 5 *#
V JV 9: 840 % .%C

J 9:
9& 6(20(2) 7" *; L $4 λ1
E KF; 6

:* /+ 7" G9:
N2 ≅ (λ1 / λ2 ) N10 ( 1 – e – λ2 t )
λ 2 N2 = λ 1 N10 ( 1- e- λ2 t ) (2-27)
e- λ 2t
%0 I4 t
% K (27(2)7"

:
% * 6#
λ 2 N2 = λ 1 N10 (2-28)
B5 +, %+ U <0 %C
840 K
(10(2) /+ A .$C B5 +, %+5 %
$C BV5 +, %+ a &
<0 %C

V .( % *#
2 <0 ) λ 1 N10 *:
!V7 % % *; ( b =0 ) % B5 +, %+
%V+ c =0
.λ 1 N1 *: 4 A# /
=2
.

" 5 +,
log a
c
2
a
b
1
2 4 6 t
45
%C
:(10(2) /+
V5 λ 1 .# ! A4 %C

$ %&

9V .(28(2) V7" $ %&V .9 *# ! 9
*# 9 % 5 λ 2 .# ! ; I 6EL
3 $C (! 9 ) B % $C ! 9 %% 6L
.λ 7 %%0 / .9
<%0 % % B
:
51 =5 0 K % 238 $ R"
U5
3V .V#5 V
$% 9: 226 $%
%
/V %V0 9
*: G9: ! 9F; .238 $ 5
V: $% 5 *#
!5 92 6$ 9 6 10 x 2.8
.$ 5 *# : ; 1620
:+
:%C

7

λ 1 N1 = λ 2 N2
:

N1 / N2 = λ2 / λ1 = t1 / t2
6I $% $ 5 *# 5
6 <0
:
F; &C 7" *; *; E
2.8 x 106 x 1620 = 1 x t1
:

t1 = 4.54 x 109 years
The transient equilibrium - .!
46
*V4
V $V )

&[ J %
V %V

J 9: <%0 .(transient equilibrium)
) %V 5 λ 2 .# !
L $C 5 λ 1 .# !
V
) #V
V 7 ! λ 1
( λ 2 > λ 1

λ 1

0 G9: *; .( A $C 5 *#
%V0
J #
I4 e- λ 2t *C %0
F; .9 3 .= 0
9V& *4
<%0 )
% KF; 6.9 . e- λ 1t
:* /+ (20(2) 7"
N2 = { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 )} N10 e- λ1t
= { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 )} N1 (2-29)
.$C B .# /% A# .# % B
* 9:
BV $C B
/ A +, %+

6.9
:*: %
A1 / A2 = λ1 N1 / λ2 N2 = (λ2 – λ1) / λ2 (2-30)
%V U % B5 +, %+
7" G9:

K01 9: .$C B5 +, %+
;
BV $C BV
/ +, %+
9 (11(2) /+
V t = 0 %V % B %%
92 t
*; % %
.#5
log A
2
a c
b
1
47
2 4 6 t
*4
:(11(2) /+

$4$ 72
The natural radioactive series
VX 82
V C 9 %% ! 9 3 B
*V; !V %% % I .9 6+2 4 >
G%V 9: %M . ; B7 /
.# ! %2 # .# /"&
.5 E .# =2
! =2 ! % % ! G9: %,
BV G9: E *; .# + # =2 %M *;
.(V !V ) !, %2 3 .# 9: <%0 %
V J+, /" ) ! <" *; %
5V5 6 $% – $ 55 6 232Th $ 55 *:
*V: 6$ 55 *: .: ! .$C
: /C *#
C
O *; %
%V4 9V 6EC
/7 : 6 6 10 x 2.2 :
6/" G9: D& $: (1(2) /%
. 9 10x3 * 0
. 54 5 .# /" $ 0 ;
+, /" :(1(2)/%

555 /C 5 $
! *# : 5 4
10
10×1.39 6232($ 208(D $
9 – $
10×1.47 6238($ 206(D
$%
8 $C
10×8.12 6235($ 207(D
$
48
6
10×2.2 6237($ 209(!
EV V *; % +, /"5 ;1,

62Sm $V 19K $V / B&C +
147 40
! %, + X G9: .:>

.( 9 10
) % : 6(!2 )
The induced radioactivity 5+$

82
P2
5
+ =2 ;1,
V G9V: WV .* 3+ " ) =5 %
!V
#5& J X 4 )97 8
&C
.V !+2 ! ! # ! /
!V5 %V V !"# EL 9 $%&
V# !V / 0+ ! 5 % !C !"
. !+, % .9 654 !C =0 !
%% ! %& K + : 60 !5 P, " ;

3+ $ 64 59 !5
10 #5& ! *;
!V5 )97 % . /# /& % ! G9:
/V# 9: %6 60 !5

4 59
./#5 4;
; /# 0 A# *;
59 60
27Co + n 27Co + γγ
*V+, *V VC /V# /# 9: )
.9

$ <0 6(neutron radioactive capture)
./V0 *V; VC 9:

; % 3 %%
.V# 6 5.27 *# G 63+
60 !5
: 6I $ % 60 / =2
60 60
27Co 28Ni + β - + ν′
49
V+ V
V ! P2 6*0 !7 *;

=V5 /05 I5C A# $%& .I5C 9
$ ; *: 6$
/4 %%
*; % > G9: .(Trans- uranium elements) $
.L *# :
C
V /# /& % 238 $ % % " ;

V: 239 $V .9
; 6 $ X

V: %V% V V $ %2 3 .# 3+
:*O .9 6239 $
238 1 239
92U + 0 n 92U + γ
239 239
92U 93Np + β - + ν′
.9 $ % .# 3+ G% $
239 $5 : %%
239 239
93Np 94 Pu + β - + ν′
V !V !"V# /V& % $5 W 9
6V .V 05C *; 7 P2 *; 9: $%&
=2 ) 95Am $+C 54
%% P2 $ KF;
. (V V %V =V2 V ) 96Cm $ (
98Cf $#V (*V5 V& =V2 ) 97Bk $5
9 :> (*; $5 ) 100Fm $# 99Es $+C
.K# I5C
3V+ $ %&V V

=2 +, %
!V % .9 !, % .# *
.! =5
+ P2 *; * 3+ $ %& ;1,

0+ ! $ %& +
%% P2
KF;
G9V: / EL 9 .54 !C # ! !
50
$V !7 =0 !" 0+ !
V . V+ V .9V

; 4 )94
! $ %& + E P, 5 !%
.0+
31 2 32
15P + 1d 15P + p
V)
%V 4V 31 #V# )97 % K
V 6.9 .
85 3+ 32 ##
(
%
:* 3+ 17 5# P2
14 4 17 1
N + He F + n
7 2 9 0
4 14
)97 % K &C /# 9: *
KVF; 6.9 .
85 3+ 17 5#
α # !
V

C
/ /4
X 238 $ )97 %
.! P& 250 $#
238 16 250
U + O Fm + 4 n
92 8 100
V =5 /05 54 !C !"# $%&

.$
! ;94 + P2

=2 +, %
G9V:
V /V ( ) / % I5 0+ !
LV %

/# <%0 /0
C !
12
10 %%V0 *V; * 8;% ;

I 6.9 . %
VC <%0 /0 6 *; 2$ /
16 10 =0
9V: V !"V# 3 840 .
*; *
<%V0 /0 ) ./7 %
; !" .I5
/0
: (cross-section) *1 34
/#
0 *; % %0 =5 %0 $ )97 /# <%0
51
%0 *: 6 (barn)
*: *1 34 %0 .2$ : %4
:
6 2$ 24– 10 : %4 0 /% L
( 2$ 24– 10 =
1 )
2
+$
6 $+ 182
V; I KF; /# *; 3+ + P2 %
B %% $ 3+ % %; .3+ % 5 +, %+
V /C 6
% .:
..# *; :% % 0
.# % : &O + B
/%

:: 0 B L

F; (18(2)%5 4
dN2 /d t = λλ1 N1 – λλ2 N2
63V+ 8

/%
: λλ1N1 <0
V W $ + ! 9

2 <0 ..# /% : λλ2N2
V I KF; 4 ! 9 3+
W
$C 9 .#
* N + ! 9 %%
)
.&[ I5X λλ1N1

! 9V %% 3 % I ) 3+ *;

*V; ! %%) n ! ; 3 N10 *; 4
3 .9 * Y σ *1 34 %4 ( $ 0 %0
:
6 vν!
λ1 N1 = N = n v νσ N10 (2-31)
:
% 64 7" *; 4 λλ1N1
E
dN2 / d t = n v σ N10 – λ 2 N2 (2-32)
:
% 6 N2 %%5 51# % G9: /0
λ
N2 = [ n v σ N10 / λ ] ( 1- e-λ 2t) (2-33)
52
. / $
%
4
0 %0 )
:
% t1/2 *#
L 3+

9F;
( 1- e- λ2t) ≈ λ2 t
:* /+ (33(2) 7" 9&X 9%
N2 = n v σνN10 t
( X; *# )1 " ) 5 % 3+ 92
:
% F;
( 1- e- λ2t) = 1
:* /+ (33(2) 7" 9&X 9%
N2 = n v σ N10 / λ2 (2-35)
%%V % % U *; + B %%

= .3+ 0 =2 !5
2 /4 3+
%
V .V9 % B% KF; 6 9 .%C

840 %7
&[
%%V V V
0 B %%
C 3+
! 9 %% % I 5 +, %+ % .# B
3V1 ) n !V ; % 3+ /7 N10 4
.(=5 K; ! ;

*;
Units of radioactivity
7' + 92
*: 5 +, %+ A4 C %0 !
(µµ Ci) (mCi) *55 *: GM Courie (Ci)
*V; !V# %%) +, %+ KX & %7
%V+ V %V .226 $%
%0 $ ( %0
*V; .V# 10 10×3.7 !% $% $ +,
:: K ) U .9 .
10
*; .# 10 x 3.7 = 1Ci %0
53
*; .# 7 10 x 3.7 = 1mCi *55
*; .# 4 10 x 3.7 = 1µµCi
( V# )
0+ $ 6% 6%0 .#
W
JV+2 %V2 V5 *; A !0 $ *; .9 I0
. !+2
/f V *V: V+, %+5

O % %0
V4 .V *; %0 .#
/ . (Becquerel)
!#V1 $%&V 6 9 . % L %0 K % /
V7 / /LL /L /5 *: /
:*
*; .# 1 = 1Bq %0 /
*; .# 3 10 = 1 K Bq /5
*; .# 6 10 = 1 M Bq /L
*; .# 9 10 = 1 G Bq /L>
*; .# 12 10 = 1 T Bq /
*: $ %& % *+, +5 %0 .:

V *V; .# 6 10
*: Rutherford (rd) %;9
.:> *55 *: %;9

&) 0$ )0$ 102
V V7 /:2 3 9 / / % $ %& (1
: .# I5 %%0 % !^
225
88Ra , 22888Ra , 23089Ac , 23492U , 23490Th
54
V ! 92 %%0 9 / / % $ %& (2
%V, V 4V V+2 +
g+ !0 *; .# J 6 ββ !
111
47 Ag , 6529 Cu , 5627 Co , 2411 Na
g .# J *: (3

210
84 Po , 24195 Am , 21483 Bi , 22688 Ra
.# .# + X 5
.# I5
X 5 .# W *: (4
g /
7

137
55 Cs(β -) , 9038 Sr(β -) , 4019 K(β +,β -), 2211Na(β +)

2 %2 3 .# 215#
!5 92 (5
61C 0 *;
W

21

1.75 6 0.350 2 *7

0 *;
V !V+2 !V7 *: .!;
2 L
g:%% .

%
V !V+2 V 6V# ! )

7 (6
.+
%
.V#
*; I +, /" *; (7
gI .#
#
: !4 W

+ *# I0 (8
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 #

()
200 270 360 490 660 900 1210 1640 ( /%
%
55
.g!4 %
15 % % /% :
. 5.27 *# : 60 !

.% (9
. .# ! I0

92 / +, %+ I0
.$ *55 1 10 %

.! + % G9 +, %+ %
6V 140 : 210 $5 *#

92 10
V; 6$ *55 10 %0 10 .%
g
% 10 % %+ *:
%V !V5
V 1%+ 5 I0 (11
V: !V55 *#V
!5 92 610
. 5.27
:* .#149 $%

!5 92 (12
149 149
60Nd 1.8 61Pm 47 14962Sm
: 10 % + $% ! 9 %%

.% 5 B& ! 9 % 69 8 10

V J / %% L # !0 2 % $
.

% ! 9

V $ 1: %4 4 .% ! 0 *; (13
V; 6 235 $V
.VV# VV%
!VV5 9FV V
:*: 235$
235 231 Th 231 227
92U 90 91Pa 89Ac
8
$ 10 × 7 $ 25.5
. 8 10 6 6$ %231$ ! 9 %% I0
56
/V# /& % 59 !5
$ 2 5 !1 (14
24 %V 3$V/
13 10 K; ! ;
.
92 3V+ *; G9 +, %+ %
*V; !V VC *V1 34
!5
!V V V
V7

V V 3 VV: 59 !V V5
.!;
2 1
).2.. %V0 !^ 7

!5 92 (15
*V; V *V: A0 9 #5& ! +4 *;
V V+C & !7 I0 .* /%
.A05
M3 M2 L3 L2 K ,
0.075 0.077 0.933 0.953 8.980 '

57
!

Interaction of radiation with matter
# & – #$

– # $%
, –

–
.@ #@! –
13
.

! " # $
)(

! ) # $% # &
, )
*
# + # &
.
/ .
)# #-
#
0
$ 1 23 4%& 5 2 #
% (2
) 7
4
%6
9 :.+/
; .4 45
+ ! 23 8
%6 <
:3 45= :.+ :.+
%6
.& 0

23
Interaction of heavy charged particles with matter
The energy transfer
123
! )# $% # & =$
9 #5= $ 0 )
>

55
B .#=5 :5 ! 0, A
0,
(inelastic #

> C
= ! $ /
A . 4.+
2

, " collision)

#=5 # & 9
0, 9

, &! $ 7! )
94
%,
.( 1

, 7!) 4 6 ! ( 0! #5= 7
+D
A 6 E
2@ 6 F&
% 30 2& 2@/ 6 % .4 # $%
# ! . 23 & B :5 A 6 2,
)7 % 6 :
3 6 2, % 70 2& 2 # 5
#
C= 2 2@/ 6
, A
B # %
0 . 6 0,
7H3 )
. (δ- electrons)
,
4II " A
45= # $% # & $ )
#
#
5 J ! 0, 4
2 $ +
@ F& 3 )=5 B
K

,
B # 6
,
#

& ! 5
3 10 0, / 9 5 .=5
.#
0, =5 B
.2 ! –2
, K* &
6 # )
# # - – #
K*L n 2 < 5
#
C
= B+ E )7 % 2@/ 6
E #=5 # & #5= #3
.#+
#*. #5= W #= # $ M& 1 N3 n K*-
:# #5. & 2 ! – 2
, K*
W = E/n (3-1)
& K* #*. W # 5 ! $
! #=5 #5= 0 / 4 0 &P
56

I W # 5 ! . 9 # = 0
#
:
; 23 Q4 # 3
, 35 7 243

#=5 ! 2 .

& #
=IP

I # 9 $3 .:5 ! 5 # I

)
9
I / #=5 N3 B 23 #5=
23 # $% # & (the track)
%! ! 23 M
%- = ! ;&. )E .B $ =+

4 9 #5= 0 # $% # &
=! 1 # .
.& 45= =
$ & # $% # &
%D
" #=5 # & ! 0,

# .4
! /, .4.+
2 R

% 5! R " B & ! F & #5= $3 @
.
" B &
! " 223

Range of heavy charged particles
#3 =
23 & B R
. 9 23 )1=$ 9 23 )B 4=$ 2 # $
$% B R N3 B $ =+
$% B
%!
! C 23
5 . 23 B
%!
1
45= =
$ & #
%- =
" =5 B B ! #;&. M .& # @/
) #3 :+ $3 .#& # @&, #

F& 0, 7H ) = 3.+
%- = :+ )2
#5= 7 1 R 23 : = :.+
R 23 S
! :.+/ :
.&
.(straggling) R 23
% & #5=
57
< $ E) Q4 23 ! R < 5
) 9
#+ 3 2 !
#*& 23
#
+ ! ! #=

.(!) 0 & (1T3) 23 #
)(# * #$ P
0 & B :
(M) 0 & A 0 & P
$ 0 .R 23

% # = JP )
% 2P

:
.(mearange) = R R
4
05! ( 1 / e = 1 / 2.71 ) <$ 7 ) M 0 & ∆ R
% ∆ R * 3 .

% # 5 < $ 4 = 0 &
.J & <
R 23
Nα !
∆R
M
(1T3)
Q4 23 α R T!

% 2P 0 & TM
1 N3 # B- ! *I 23 # $% R < $

* & 23 # #3 0 :
% P
)#+ =IP *I +, B B% 7 Q4 U

58
* .=IP : 23 2 M&
#5. B
. : :5 0& =IP
B% .(!) 0 & 4 0 & 0 & 3 *I =IP
#+ 3 0, #% #3 #3 #+ =IP &
#5. 0 & 3 )# = :
; % =IP
M- E 23 M .(1T3) 23 # R #3 N
# ! .#%
: # H
# * # 5 0 #;3&
* & 23 :
% R <$ 3 #
0, A
E * /!
I EV "P B% U

#5. B
B% . : :5 !
. $ E
# $ % & 323

The specific ionization and the stopping power
The specific ionization S % &
– #
K*- 1 ! 0 S 2 6 :

7 Q4 23
%- &
.+ # # -
S # 5 .C@* B 760 =IP # @ W 15

& #

E )
%-
K* :/D ! #
.3
, I & 23 ! #5=
& B S 2 6 #5. B

23 # #5. 0 & B
#3 !

I 2 6 ! .(2T3)
.
* 15= 7!
%- # 23 ! B
1 # 5 05! 0, ! 0, A
2 6 *
.
I 15= J 7!
%- # 4 23 ! B J

,
* ! 0, E 23 M "

#
+ . = J B 2
4
59
0, 2 7H
* * .15= $ 7! )B
. 6 & *
#3 S 2 6 #5. B

0 & 0 & ! # * #*& #

1$ = 3.+ :+ 0 & .(3T3) 23
:
.
% 0, :.+/ 23 M "
.
%- # 4
.2 6 (Bragg curve) U
0 &
+- 2 &
(:/X) S
6
1 2 3 d
& B S 2 6 #5.: (2T3)

B
#3 !
(:/X) S
6
60
1 2 3 d
2 6 U
0 & :(3T3)
The stopping power ( - dE/dx) # $

15= # #5= 7 B $3
2
II #3 * #5= $3 2 #
. +
:# #5. S 2 6 :$
5 =
. 23
( - dE / dx) = W. S (3-2)
K* #*. #5= #= # $ 2 W F &
:$
5 :

+- #5. 9 .2 ! _ 2
,
.
%- &
23 B $ 2 #5= # 4 ! 0
) 0 W )1 B #5= 0 S
. 15= B 0 :$
5 N3

$ #
; #5. C$ (H.Bethe) 2 * $
:2 ) B 1 #= :$
(-dE /dx) = (4πe4z2 /m0v2) ZN [ln ( 2m0 v / I )ν- ln(1-v2/c2) – v2 /c2 ]
(3-3)
# 2 m0 )=5 B #
# & v ) z F &
Z ) 3B
N )

c 9
6 (4) = I ) 7

#=5 # $% #5= N3 .U
23 QP #
2
( 3
, I
& 7! )
I
# !
2 QP #
#
I 4

@ ) ( v / c = 0)
7 QP #
B #

:#5. #= :$
5 0=
( - dE/dx) = ( 4πe4z2 / m0 v2 ) N Z ln ( 2m0 v / I )
61
= ( 4πe4z2 / m0 v2 ) N B (3-4)
F &
B = Z ln ( 2m0 v / I )
& / (4T3) )(3T3) 5. ! 0,

F& F &
I 5= B+.
& M 5. 23
I # 5 N3 )E .B
.

:
R
+! # @ * 3 # 5 + P #
>- 23

5 . (Relative Stopping Power RSP) # :$
5 B
7 #
2 # :$
23 < R #
:
; Q4 23 #
.
! Q4 (4T3) #5. B+
RSP = ( - dE / dx )air / (-dE/dx) abs = N air B air / N abs B abs (3-5)
# 0 abs )Q4 0 air F &

.#5=
1 N3
2@ M
23
#+
# @ =
#5= ! SP , M
# :$
5 0
%! 7! / #4
2@ M
23 # 1 N3 ) .

23 :$
5 # M
23 :$
5

! 7! )M
23 M
/ 23 +- " & 0
:2 #
23 :$
5
(- dE/dx)comp = (N1/N0) (-dE/dx)1 + (N2/N0)2 (-dE/dx)2 +……
(3-6)
62
)(-dE/dx)1 )#
:$
5 2 (- dE/dx)comp F &
.… )# % 0- 23 :$
5 2 …) (- dE/dx)2
3
N2 , N1 B M

N0 )M
4 #
.3B # % 0-

:$
5 #5. , (4T3) #5. B+
:! F & )4 23
!
{ (- dE/dx)α (4E) / (- dE/dx)p (E) } = 4 (3-7)
#
!
$
! ! :$
5 ! #5. 9 2
#5= ¼ 7 45= 2
:$
5 :P!
R ! :
3 .4 B+ E )!
I 5 2& 45= , B 3.5 7 Q4 23 !
= 4 ÷ 5 15= \ 7
R )E .3
,
:
; B 14.0 = 4 × 3.5 )3
, I 1.25
:$
5 ! % JP .

& =IP 4

I
$ 9 $ .(
5 ! 7!)
!
.1 & ! B #
):$
5 #/ R & 1 ! 0,

:# #5. $= E
R E
R= ∫ dx =
0
∫ dE /( − dE / dx )
0
(3-8)
#5= R #5. # 9 :

(range - energy
1 N3 (4T3) #5. :$
5 ) relation)
! F & #$ 5
> # $ 9 .R # 5 ,
.R # 4 B+. J / (4T3) #5.
$'

33
Interaction of electrons with matter
63
$' 133

, I ½ 5! ) #=5
#5=

%, C
= 45=
9 $ (3
#5= $ M! <
9 6 !
#

#& 23 2@/ 6 # \ . 0, $% B
-
; .7 % 6 A 25 % 20 2&

#
$% B # # # I
I
#
1 7 $% B #
#
$ # I

#
M
$
Q$ * ! 2 .#5= <
6 + 0, 7H )# I
I

23 :/D \ ! 2 6 N3 . S 2

` 2 6 ! ;&. 3 )1 4 :P
%- #
.1 4 #@ 2& 0,
%- # 23 10 R /
1 N3 ( B+* #5= ;&) B+* #5= Q$ $ $=

# @P # $
, " $% B B
B # M F & ) 4m0 / M * /
0, B #5=
! 3
, " =5
B ! . $%

, 0, =5
#$ #5= # 5
#& 23 1 ! 7! .& B 23 =5
#5= :
=5
#5=
# $ / & E

* 0, 7H .#

&! 0, & B 23

%
! ) ) F & )
#& 23
%
I
; 1 N3 E 0, #3P .# $% #& 23
%
R
, =5
N3
#
%! .=5

0, 7H 5
.
=+
23 =5

$3 0, #3P 1 N3 #=5

#5= *
(
6
%, ) #

> C
= #5=
64
:
,
23 45= #=5
$ !
# B$ .(bresmsstrahlung radiation) S / , B
#5= $3 23 2-
( #5= $3 7!)
+-
.
9 #5= * #=5

C
3 1 ! /, .1 M- 45=
* $
$ ! 3 .
%- # 4

* 7

N 1= 1 N3
%- # 4 15=
*
) 3 3 E (
*
)
4 5. P 2. #3

; 2
. (annihilation)
$ $)

( 233
Energy loss by inelastic collision
C
=
#& 23 #5= $
; :+ /
# 4. % ( 6
%) #

>
:$
$ #
; # $ 0 & .# $% # &
#5= #
$ (E < m0C2)
I 45=
`
:# #5. E )4
( - dE/dx) = ( 4πe4 / m0 v2 ) N Z [ln (m0 v2 /2 I ) + 0.15]
(3-9)
# $ (E > m0c2 )

#5= , !
:2 :$
$ #
;
(- dE/ dx) = ( 2πe4 / m0 c2 ) N Z [ln (m0 c2 /2 I ) + 0.15]
(3-10)
Energy loss by radiation *

( 333
B ("
) 1 N3 )
4 $ $=
4 M # = I
4 ,
B N3 &
M
$
,

.(
) # "
"
65
A . #% :
& / .:
& 9
N3 Z 4 &
, B :
# = I
4 ,
$ F& / .15= Q*
$3 0, 7H )S /

0 E F& , )M&3
0 #5=
M& 2 )
: = S / , : = .
#

$3 # #- M ! "
E
.( - ) 0 45=

0 S , 23

, $ 2 #5= M&
:# #5. B+ +
= &
(- dE/dx)rad = [4Z(Z+1)e4 NE /137 m02 C2] (ln183Z-1/2 + 0.125)
(3-11)
#& C
= :$
5 % 2 #5. 9
#5= , ! .(E >> m0 c2) 7! )

#5=
. C
= #5= $3 , 1 N3
I

:2
` # # :$
5 N3
(- dE/dx)tot = (- dE/dx)inel + (- dE/dx)rad (3-12)
C
= :$
5
I # (4T3) JP
(-dE/dx)rad C
= (-dE/dx)inel #

>
)#=5
#5= # (-dE/dx)tot #
$ E
(-dE/dx)
rad
b
c
total
inel
a
66
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
E / mc2
(4T3)
#=5
#5= # :$
5
I
0, E #=5
#5= # 2$3-
& % F &
:$
5 a 0 & % ) m0c2
` #5=
c 0 & ! :$
5 b 0 & #

>
.:$ ` #
$ % 3

Absorption of electrons $' + 433

:+ 0 =$
E ! ;&/
2& % .# $% E
3.+
B $ =+ 0 / 23

%! ! 23 :.+/
#
23 # $% # &
:+

%! = N3 E 0, #3P ) (5T3)
23 B 4=$ 2 # $ #3
R3 ) 9

# R B4 N3 ) .( :5 0& 1=$ 9
.

>
2
3
67
(5T3)
23

%!
#5=
# * #*& =$ 1 N3
E , ) (absorber) # 0) 0 &

N3 )
9 8/ :
> 9
! 7! .
3.+ #+ 5=
+X M K
+
9
; 1
$ # I

5= 23 A
%
E *
% * .# $% #& 23
# # * ! E 0, #3P .#
23 3 B5

) :+ 0,

F &
B
! 7
/
+-
; 9 :
.(5T3
0, 7
/ 7H ! .( back scattering) :+
E )#
# $ # *
# 5
$ M ) .
M
$ # B!
.
# $ $& # $ & # 7
/
+,

2 #
@; "
: =!
1 N3 23
` F&
; )
: =!
+ 94 8 F& A
8/ 5 ! $ .# ! #$
=
:# X
23 M M
$ 1
N = N0 e- µ x (3-13)
N #=5 N0 :F &
:
3 µ ! x 9
$ # E C
+
! ) (linear absorption coefficient ) 2=+ 8/
. 1TB 1& 7
* * # 0
68
# ρ #3% 0 µ 2=+ 8/ #5
2 8/ B :
µm 0 &
:! 7! )(mass absorption coefficient)
µm = µ /ρ
)B
/2B 2 2 8/ < 5 &
Z/A # :.+ = 3.+ :+
+-
(13T3) # 23 2 8/ B+ .#
2 E
xm & x E
M
:! 7! )
/ (2B/B
) & 2
xm = x ρ
B/2B #& 9 23 x ρ & ! B* )E
The half-thickness x1/2 % -

! (the half-thickness) χx1/2 2 E J= B+
+ (The half value layer HVL) 2 E #$=
E
2 E .
8 M&
: 8 1.+ F& 7
0, 7H 7 E E 1 ! 7! )
+X : C
+ #=5
7! ): 0, 15
+ 2 ! # +
:!
N = ½ N0
:! (13T3) #5. B+
x1/2 =µln 2 / µ = 0.693 / µ (cm) (3-15)
xm1/2 = ln2 /µm = 0.693 ρ / µ gm/ cm2) (2-16)
+, . $' " 533

Range determination from the absorption curve
69
# ! .

>
R B4 !

4 .
R & 1 N3

# E # N < 5 M )
I
0 :
% B E .x
.#+ #3% # S! 4 "P )# #3
. E < 5 B
log N log N log N
(K) (M) (!)
x x x
(6T3)
.2$
8 0 & T!
M

8/ 0 & TM
, 1 5 23

8/ 0 & TK
J 0& E * .E < 5 B

: C
0 x ) N #5. B
B%

.8/ 0 & A 0 & :
. 2
>
! - .#+
#%.% 8 & #%.% (6T3)
& =
2$
8/ 0 & %
M

8/ 0 & % M 2 % .
0 & % 43 K F% ! . : =!
7!
. , 1 5 23

8/
8. 25 0 & :.+/ R (!6T3)
70
) . $ =+ < $ 23 % 2 (13T3) #5.
2 4 "P 0
& 8/ 0 &
0
%
%H / 9 .
0 :
)x
& 0 & 25. #=$
9 & 7 R
& M ) .
J 7!
: #=$ 9
(background radiation) # , # + - M
. R
+!
7! ! # #-

1

, # 2 % M
# # + : P .# , # + 23 ! ( K 0 & )
M 1 N3 ) . (K6T3) 23 8/ 0& 0, .
, 4 0& Q
$ " # # + # 5 S
= !
.0 & # 4 #=$
/

43
Interaction of gamma radiation with matter
./ / 143
0, , #5= $ M ! :+
# & 4 $ 2 M - E
3.+
$ ! 1 N3 0 3 =$ 3 . 0,
:# # @
F.% R&, C
= 4& 15=
$ 1.+ :(The photoelectric effect) %12$3' $!& 0

=

&- 4& 15= 3
(
)
$
, &- 7! )

. 2 2 )
# +
3 $ 1.+ : (Compton effect)

' $!& 4
=
/ # P !
&
&- 4& 15= Q*
71
:
& 2 )(
#
+

, &! 7! )

.9

F& ! : (The pair production) 567 5/ 5

"

5 M
$
15= 3 $ .+ .4 2@
4
/ . 0 2 )
* –
, *

2@
4 " F& !
#5= 2 )3
, 1.022 0! #5= , /,
.
*
2 K #*.
%& ! # % 0- ! 0 6 2I

#- E 23 # = I
4 5= "
! .3 #%% # ! .S / , (x-ray) #
& #5= # = I
4 #- #5= * , /, F&
R
+! # E )E 0, #3P .9.!
E )Q* # 4 23
: # #- ,
# #- #! 8
; #4 4 ! B M
. 23
%( / 8 243

Attenuation of gamma radiation in matter
# #- ! , # * #*& =$
–
&! " 7 K
+ # 0
15= 8 M E #*& – F.% 76
( K*- K , ! 2@P
4
%6 2 .+ ) 1@ 3
)E .(
%6) 9
13
& ! 1 M !
"
= #*& K
+ 2 dN
:! 7! ) dx (#) # E " N0 #=5
dN = - µ N0 dx (3-17)
72
(linear 2=+ B :
M % µ :F &
8/ . 5 :+ attenuation coefficient)
85 2 3 #
! .(linear absorption coefficient) 2=+
23 II #3 * C
+ 2
E * #*& #
+ * 7!)
/ I B+ 0 :
R
) .(#
23 (17T3) # # P )E . N
:2
dI = - µ I0 dx (3-18)
#3
#5. 0 & (18T3) # 23
=
:#
I = I0 e –µµx (3-19)
2 I ) 0 #=5 2 I0 :F &
# ! / x 9
$ 5
+ 2
.E + M A 5 # % ,
0 µµ 2=+ 3 JP

#*& 7& 1 N3 )E . 0 , #5=
M& 1 N3 #+ 5= = + 0 ,
.(19T3) #5. B+ & 0 #5= #5
+
:2 C
+/ # J )E
- µi(E) x
It = ∑ I oi e (3-20)
i
23 n
µ 2=+ =

σ (E) 2 2P
"=$ # 3B
23 7! ) II # 3 . "
" I0 #=5 " M ( B
7! )σ 2 2P
"=$ ) n ( 3B1 ) B& & 23

:!
73
- dI / dx = n σ (E) I0 (3-21)
:! JP (18T3) #5.
+- #5. 9 #
$
µ(E) = n σ (E) (3-22)
M
P &
µ 2=+ ! 7!
σ (E) 2 2P
"=$ 23 3B 23

. E # #5=
& 1 6 σ (E) 2P

"=$ :
C 5
23 &
0 & B =$ , F&
" , .2B 1 1& "=$
4 2 2P
"=$ :
N3
F.% C
=
:! 7! )& 0 # P
"=$

σ (E) = σph (E) + σ c (E) + σp (E) (3-23)
%6 # P
"=$ 2σp (E) ) σc (E) )σph(E) :F &
1 N3 ) .M
K*- K ,
%6 2@P
4
:2 µ 2=+ #
µ (E) = n { σph (E) + σ c (E) + σ p (E) }
:! 7!
µ(E) = µ ph + µ c + µ p (3-24)
E # #5= # µ 2=+ ! 7!
%6 # @* .

9 µ p K*- K , ) µ c
%6 ) µ ph 2@P
4
.#5=
B :
R
+! . B+
%
! (The mass absorption coefficient) 2
. 9 =
.(The atomic absorption coefficient) 7

:# 5. 2=+
+-
74
µ mass = µ / ρ ( cm2 / gm) (3-25)
µ atom = (µ /ρ) .(A/Na) (3-26)

Na )2 A )# #3% 2 ρ F &
.( 7
B

23 10x6.02)
3!
%6 )µ ph 2@P
4
%6 # @* .
, #5= 0
µ p K*- K )µ c
0.2 5! , #5= 1 N3 )# # .
µp & 23 µ ph 3
, I
# @
# @ 2@P
4
%6 ! 7! .

2=+ F & #P+ #5=
.µ ph 2@P
4
%6 5! µ c
%6
& 23
P+ µ ph + , #5= *
# !
%6 J )E .@ = #5= * µ c +
.3 K*- K , ! .3
, I 1& 23 5=
!
I 10.22 5! , #5= , 5.=, F&
# 0, 4& B* 2 #5= ! F & ) 3
,
.( 3
, I 10.22 2 2
* 2
S*
K*- K , # J
1 N3 , #5= *

I # (7T3) JP .#%.% # B!
.8

# #5= # µ p ) µ c ) µ ph
0 & % .# #5= F.% # !
# 8

2 23

E M& 2 B+ !

.#5=
:.+/ /! E .$ 5 < , # 5 *&
, B-
+X M .#5= :.+
5 .( K*- K ,
%6 # ) 4 + # %
E B*. E 5! M& E
)E .*& #+ C! 0 4 ! #+

% 5! , A 2 6 ! 0,

75
! A 6 .# & A E
, 4& ! $= 2 # %

C
+/ 0 ,
5 ! )E .4 Q* ! 45=

$ #
$ 2 )

$ #
$ # I

.# $% # &
2 E S.= B+ &- 23

E
(half-value layer) HVL ! (half-thickness) x1/2
:! 7! ): 0, + B*. #
120 µ ph
80
µ tot
µc
40
µ p
0.2E 0.5 1.0 2.0 0.5 10 (MeV
(7T3)
8

#5= # ) µtot )µp )µc )µ ph
I
Ix / I0 = ½ = e -µ x 1/2
: 2 E N3 2

x1/2 = ln 2 / µ = .693 / µ ( cm) (3-27)
The photoelectric effect %12$3' $!& 343
76
, &! 2@P
4
%6 !

&! =5
B # 3 . "
E 0, 46 #5= $
#=

C=
0 .1

C= 7

. (the photoelectric electron) 2@P

4

:# #5. #5= Q$ $ $= C=
#5=
Ee = Eγ - B = h ν – B
=5 #5= Eγ ) C=
#5= 2 E e F &
243 B ! .
ν )E . % h :F &) hν 7 2
, /,
%- F& / .

=
#5=

:! 7! )

=
#5=
! #5=
=
#5= $
! 45= 2 3 . h ν > B

, " 2@P
4
%- F&

#5= * .
: P 4=

;
#
+
%-
0 2@P
4
%- F& 4 N3

=

! #5= J ! 0,
=

, " E
! @ )( h ν > BK 7! ) K
23
F& / 1 ! #;&. M 2@P
4
%6 23

5 C$& B
; )
&
0 2@P
4
%6
B+* Q$ 5 C$&
=

#& 23 ) B+* Q$
.(B+* 25 Q*
C.=
& F &
L

+D
, 1& & K

, K
+

2 2 )4 * # ,
C= 2
:! 7! ) L ) K
23 =
25= C
3
h ν1 = BK T BL
"=$ # 5 #
; #5. , M X 0&
"=$ B 5 B ) .σph 2@P
4
%6 2P

#
; 1 #5. E " .(7T3) 23 # &
C.= #& 23 2@P
4
%6 2P
"=$ B 5 &
:2 #5. 9 K

77
σph (k) = 1.068 x 10-32 Z5 [( m0 c2 / hν )]7/2 cm2 (3-29)
23 QP #
c )# 7
Z :F &
/ .=5
ν )
` # m0 )U

3 . #5= * B+.
+- #5. 9 J
:2 (29T3) #5. + m0 c2 << h νν #5= J
σph (k) ≈ 1.068 x 10-32 Z5 ( m0 c2 / hν ) cm2 (3-30)
78

%6 2P
"=$ ! #$ (29T3) #5. ;&.
P) E .# Z5 "
= M 2@P
4

B
8

7

94 #P+ 5= #+ , # 5 *&
.
C.= &

I #5=
9 0 7 9 23
! 2@P
4

C.= & * #5= * .=$
# 5= .=$ 9/ # #
90ْ 5! # *
9 M
5 9 23
!
C.= J
=$ 9 23 5.=, 2@P
4
C= / .=$
C.= (8T3) .B+* Q$ 5 M
ν F & ) β = ν / c #+ B 5 2@P
4

.U
23 QP #
c ) C.= /
#

Compton effect
' $!& 443

0 /, 2@P
4
%6 F& /
0
%6 F& ! 1 N3 ) =

#=

8+ .
=
/ # P
!
&

M
&
, 0 h -ν 15= 3 =$ 1 ! 23
%6
$ # #
C= 3 #5= 9 Q*

.9
2 ( & ) ) hν′ 15= J #5= 9
B+* #5= # 5
4; F & # 9 (9T3) JP
9 .1
# m *
. 5 B
:#3
#5. 1 #=
#
m = m0 / ( 1 - β )1/2
h ν′ P = h ν′/c
79
E=hν φ
ν P = h ν/c θ θ
mβ c Ee =me c2
(9T3)
5
B+* #5=
1 N3
/, B 23 E
/ 1 ! F &
/ 23 ( #
& # ) B+* #5= Q$ / #
:# #%.% (32T3) / " 2!
2$3-
h ν = h ν′ύ + mc2 – m0 c2
h ν = (h ν′/c) cos φ + mβ c cos θθ  (3-32)

0 = (h ν′/c) sin φ – m β c sin φ θ
#5= # 5 , / # 9 &
C.= # * # * #5.
:2 & 0

h ν′ = h ν / [ 1 + γ ( 1-cos φ) ] (3-33)
:F &
γ = h ν / m0 c2
cos θ = - ( 1 + γ) tan (φ/2) (3-34)
#+ * ! ! 0,

# * * 3 φ 1 # * 0 h ν′ 15=
.(33T3) #5. 1&P 15= 5 1
80
M& (Klien and Nishina) 5
#5. "=$ & )
; σc 2P
"=$
:#
σc = ( πe4/m02 c4) (1/γ) {[1-2(γ+1)/ γ2] ln(2γ+1)+1/2+4/γ-1/2(2γ+1)2}
(3-35)
A
$ σc
%- 2P
"=$ ! JP
)=5 #5= *
µ
%- 2=+ 0 &
c
σc

%6 2P
"=$ #3
E
3
N = n Z 7 # B 1 23 N

! 7! :
µ c = n Z σc (3-36)
3
7
Z B 1 23
2 n F &
.#
The pair production 567 5/ 543

I 0.511 = m0c2 2
` #5= ! :

9 :P
! =5 #5= .3
,
F& 1 N3 )( 3
, 1.022
! 7! ) # $
) Q 3 1 A 2
4 =5
#
& 25= $= M
* M
, (K , !
(10T3) .M
0 T + , T-
*
`
, 4 #5= Q$ 5 B+ .# 94 & P
:! F & )

*
#
& 25=
h ν – 2 m0 c2 = T- + T+ (3-37)
e-
81
h ν > 2 m0c2
γ
e+ e-
(10T3)
K* K , # 2& P B

* Q 3 B% 2
* 2

I 10 =5 #5= , )% 03

I 1.022 9
$ #5= 9 I 1 N3 3
,
# $ * )
*
2 K , 23 3
,
3
, I 8.978 = 1.022 – 10 2 )#5= # 5
F & .
*
#
& #5= 23
M
*
# 5 #5= * ! )!
$
!
* #5= ! @&, .#+
M & 23 "
3
* -
#5=
.4

K*- K σσp 2P

"=$ M& 1 ! 5
:# # # #$
=
σp = 5.93 Z2 x 10-28 (barn) (3-38)
! 4 #5. B+ 1 N3 25 # !
23 JP & #
B $ ! B+
K 2P
"=$ ! (38T3) #5. JP .(7T3)
.# Z2 " 7! )7
"
" M σp K*-
# 5 *& # $%
# P3! H
82
& . 94 # 5= ,
23 n (R )
#/ K*- K 2=+
:#5. σp K*- K 2P
"=$ 3B
µp = n σp (cm-1) (3-39)
$
$!0 %
9 463
The nuclear resonance scattering and the Mossbauer effect
F& ! #$ # @
M - 0, #3P
$ ) , # . R
+! !
:
. 9 #%! .45= 9 4$
=
8 F & (photonuclear reaction) 7 B
B K
+ 8/ A =5
7
)E .
> !
!

. " #=5 . ! &! 2
8
; #4 #4 . 9 "

%6 #

$ # P
4=$
I E
.K*- K , ! ! 2@P
4
(nuclear resonance 2 7

E "
%6 B #3

; 1=
/ #+ # ! scattering)
#5= , 1 ! 23 2 7 8+ .

(# 5= /&) &-
% #5= % =5
0, # P
- #& E $ 8 !
F& 1 , #& 9 23 $ .& #5=
% #&
F N3 .(resonance absorption) 23 2 8
(# P
- #& 0, 0& )
%
F & )8 #5= # I @P
$ 5! 15=
#5= B #3
# I
I #5= 9
&
! / F N3 )E .
/
5! &! 15= - 1 #= 1
83
1 N3 # I
I
/ #5= .2 8/ #5=
#5= #% : P ! , F 8 !
.

%6 B
; 9 :
.
/ #5= 7
#5= 23 # =
I 7- # & C@3

%6

#$@ 1 & M .
/ #5=
I
; F
.# # & M= 2 $ Q
, 23

%6 B+
$

53
Interaction of neutrons with matter
B

0 3
! C
: .(3
, I 939.52) E 1.0866 1 # &
:# - 0, #
& 45=

2 #

&
:1
$ $$ $
23 3
, 1 2& #
& 45= $ 2

, 1 45= S
2 2 #@ =
! &
.3
, 0.1 )=3
0.1 45= S
2
2 :
$
.3
, 20 )
10 – 0.2 45= S
2
2 :$ $
.3
, I
10 0 45= * 2
2 : $
.3
, I
:+ 8@+ * 1 N3
# & B
;
/ 1 ! 8@+ 9 .# & 8@+
%
/

H ! / ( 1
) 1
) .
! " #
4 . # ! 1 F&

R " .
B , 1 N3
C
+ 0

5 1 )U

4 #
84

0, 1
+ @$
E .
:E $3 P
B
o
n P+ + β- + ύ
.#$ 5 15 2 9
\
The neutron sources $ $ 153

.
# # =
@; # = 23 /
7 (25298Cf)252 B

; K ,
+- 23 !
\ :

& 2
; X 0&

#+ )#+ # . + 5 .# 2.65

# +
0 (α,n)
! B
= / . " . 9

X 0& . %.%

)
&
2 7 K /
.
9
Californium 252 Sources ;$' $ 0

. 23 2& 5 23 252 B
K , B
&! ! B
@$ 252 B

; E .#
:# $=

E 5
252 251
98 Cf 98 Cf + 10n
# % 23
6 10 x 2.3 2
F / \

C= . 252 B
B

1
.3
, I 6 – 1 S
5= 252 B

Radium-beryllium source ;$

– ;$ $ 4
A .

8+
!

! B 9 B
:5
23

:2 $=
C= 3
85
α + 94 Be 12
6 C + n + 5.76 MeV
&! !
(226 Ra) 226 B

; B+
# =+

P& .1 /
! B B+
& B
=+ 3 .B
C& R
+! # " B

0 & B
C&
" B

7! (Neutron yield) 9
\ 2

.# % 23 "

6 10 2& & # % 23 1 #%
#5
> C.> #& # + = + "P M
.!
F F& / 0&
5= !

226 B
! :

$
; .3
, I 7.68 ) 4.79 "$ &
S
)B
C& 23

Q %! 45= !

, I 12)1

5=
; )E )# 1600 B
2
.3
E )M 4 . @ #%

7 5
*> 0, E 7 B

0 #

9 K , :5 $3 " B
M
# & #
0,
. &

;$
;$7 0 ;$
;
$ 5
9
\ 7 210 B
; 2& 5 23 B+
226 B
/ !

138 2
2

; 1 ! /, .B
"

P&
241 B
-
& $3 210 B
;
$
/ .210 B 226 B

&
$ = B; 23 #
2 B
241B
-
.#
The photoneutron source % $ $

86
R :5 0
1 ! 8+
B; B$ .
F E A 3
. B+ 0

γ + 94 Be 2 α + n – 1.67 MeV
γ + 21 H 1
1H + n – 2.23 MeV
4 6 N R :5 # . *
& #=5 , #5= * , /, B / 7! ) #
, #5= $ /! M - # 3 .(
#5= $ /! M 3 2 % # ! .3
, I 1.67
.3
, I 2.23
4

#5= 6
9 *
: = 2 B
B

< & # 5
(2411Na) 24 B
; B+ .
4 3

1
, #5= \ F &

" 24 B B
& "P 3 .3
, I 2.76
#
$
; ) &= 9 B

#=5
9
2

0 1 & (C
+/ 0
1 #%
#5= )# %/
6 10 2& (1 7!)
.3
, I 1.0 2&
$ $' > =8

Particle accelerators as neutron sources
:$ E & #5=
0 &
# #5= 0& 23 # # & # + R
:# . $=
2
1H + 21H 3
2He + n + 3.29 MeV
1
1H + 21Li 7
4Be + n - 1.65 MeV
87
2
1H + 31H 4
2He + n + 17.6 MeV
2
1H + 126C 13
7N + n – 0.26 MeV
2
1H + 94Be 10
5B + n + 4.35 MeV
0 & M
+ 1 N3 )
# #5=
I .& #5=

B+ ) .#= # $
#5=
I

B #3

23 F%
#5=
B
I 4 . (neutron generators)
B
: 4 :$ 3
, 150 0,
& .3
, I 14.1 #5=
F 3
0, 1 (neutronflux) 2
C3 0
%
.2B .# %/
12 10 T 10 10 2&
The nuclear reactors > –

C.= 0

R5! # .

) 13 10 . +
#3% S
! F &
. 23
A .2B.# %/
19 10
# . F& # B B
7
=
S
+
: = ! 0,

.1+
.#
#

&

$

253
#
$ . 3.+
:+
45= $
3 . , ! # &
B!

>

.=$3 " 4 #
0

.15=
4.+ $ 2
! .4@ =
#5= $ # B! # + R
$3 23
M .3 # $% #= R 0

>
88

, I
!)
5= # /,
#5=
.(3
$ $ 353

The neutron elastic scattering
:
& A 2 0 E0 15=
=$
B N3 .# 7$ 15= Q* $ 9

#
& 45= 23
I F& 7!) # + #5=
I
T3) #

=/ !
0 (=$3
.(11

#5= , B+* #5= Q$ 2 5 B+
:2X
E = E0 ( A2 + 2A cos φ +1 ) / (A + 1)2 (3-40)
23 # * 2 φ )
#5= 2 E F &
23 θ # * #=
2 )$% *
%&, #
:# #5. # %& #
cos θ = (1 + A cos ) / ( A2 + 2 A cos φ + 1 ) (3-41)
n A θ
(11T3)

89
5!
#5= ! (40T3) #5.

7! ) 180ْ = # * , 4
@ .(1T) 7 180 B M ! F & ( :+

:2
#5= J
E = E0 ( A2 - 2A +1 ) / ( A + 1 )2 (3-42)

4 2 , 1 ! JP )E

#5= :+ 1 N3 (A = 1)
4 2
15= J #& 9 23
! 7! .
# E
.:5
4
# *
! #5=
$
$ 2 #5= # 5 * # # * # .

2 2 + & B 23

!
4 #
) .4
F&
@4 P3! 4 23 1
# 0 7& 2

$ ! ) .(neutron moderators)

23 B+ .& B 23 15=
I !
Q*
+ B
> = B :
R
+! # 5 # 2&
B = 2
> + / ! )& B 23 #5=
:2X = 2
> + / :
.ζ &
ζ = ln E0 – ln E = ln ( E0 / E ) (3-43)
:! (40T3) #5. B+ # $ 9 M&
ζ = 1- [( A-1)2 / 2A] ln [(A+1) / (A-1)] (3-44)
2 .ζ = 1 ! ) A = 1 F &
4 #
2.71
$ B = 23 +
#5= !
#5= ! 7! .( 2 = 2
> <- 7 7! )

15= %37 # = 23 J B

.B 5
90
= , ζ + / = #3

# $ # - # $
#5= + #*.
2 2 B 5
#5= # - # $ N3 .#=

$ #5= 0& 1@4 B* % 0 3
, I
= ( #

&
#5= 7! ) 3
, 0.025
: #=
N = ln ( E0 / E ) / ζ
= [ln(2 x 106/ 0.025)] / ζ

=
4 # 1 ! 7!
: #=
N= 18.2 / 1 = 18.2
= - @4 P3!
4
)E

0, 4 & #

#@4 #*.
! #;&. M .( 19 T18 2& ) & #

&
# *I #& 23
4
B &
B& & 23
4
- E # I : P &
# 5 :.+ & 23 "P ! M .
I *I
E ) :.+
σs 2P
"=$
"=$
I # (12T3) .
#5= :.+
#
#5= #
σσs 2P

! M b4 2 1 N3
+! .
4

I! 9 23
8/ 2P
"=$
0& .#@4 8.

/ 0&
& B+ & 23 9 " +!
:
#@4 8@+
σs
103
91
102
10
0.1 10 103 105 107

E (eV)
(12T3)

4 #
#5= σσs 2P
"=$
I
The slowing down power (SDP) 13 . $ 0

#5= + B
> = M
P &
2
& 23 9
23 # & B
:! 7! ) 94 σs 2P
"=$ 23 n B&
SDP = ζ n σs
= ζ σS ( Na ρ / A)
= ζ ∑s (3-45)
# $ 0 .2 A ) #3% ρ )

>3! Na F &
(
=/ ! ) 7
4 2P
"=$ ∑s = n σs
&
(Scattering macroscopic cross - section)
. 3B1 0

The moderating ratio (MR) 13

4
"=$ 0 #@4 0
$ #5 &
2
:! 7! )8. 7
4 2P

92
MR = ζ n σs /n σa
= ζ ∑s / ∑a
= ζ σs / σa
9 +
8/ 2P
"=$ σa F &
#@4 # ! 7! .8. 7
4 2P
"=$ ∑a )
23 #
0, !4
#
2
.
$ $ $) 453

The neutron inelastic scattering
F& 2 $

> F&
F& / .
% #& 0, # P
- #& 4
# 5
! ! #
#5= , /,
2
/, F& /

> N3 ) .# # &

, @

0 45= *
#@4 # 23 4

> M / )E .3
.
I 5=

The neutron capture %$ $7 553

6 !
23 F&
#& 23 9 .
; E #
(capture cross-section) σc
L 2P
"=$ # 5 .
%
:+ #5= # B 5
* *
#5= 0
8/ !
- B $ 9
- :
.R
+-
#& # .(resonance absorption) 2
:
)E . , E
# P
- #& 0,
%
(radiative capture) 2
- 8/ &!
93
2P
"=$ # 5 M& .(n , γ) )
!
:# #5. 1
1 ! 5
; σc 2
L
σc = C / [ (E-Er)2 + b] (3-47)
E ! )
% 4& 0 % b ) C F &
F& 2
#5= 2 Er )=5
#5= 243

# 1 ! E .(resonance energy) M
σ c 2
L 2P
"=$ M #

& 5=
:! 7! ) v
9 #
"
σ c = 1 / E1/2ν = 1 / v (3-48)
#$= ! 0,

.
#
2 v :F &
- F& 2 5= #$= #$ #

& 5=
.48Cd B
Q %
# I # 2
5= M
$ 2 8/ F&
4 # 3
1 5 6 σc 2 8. 2P
"=$ * .#

&
# #
B+ )E .# I #
.#

&
# 5 *&
5 J !

# 5=
&! #

!
8 3 .
)
> !
! ! % # $% # &
. 9 #%! .
#5= M& E
# $% # &
, " R #

23 ) )F& 7 ) 14
" #

2&
% 7 # P
-
= & 7 :.I
.1 % 80
14 14
7 N+n 6C +P
7 :.I 23 F& ! 0,

#- #$ #

B= # P
-

94
" 14

; E 3 )
R " #
:2 E M- $=
14 14
6C # 5568 7N + β- + νύ
1 N3 ( 2 % "
) 2 * $ $=
2& 7! )
#
!
M
$

E * F& Q ( # 55680
14
! F & . 23 % 14

J 3
# N3 )
! 2 % > 0 23
@ " 23 2 ) 23 #% 126CO2 ) 146CO2
! 2 % E.4 :5 1 N3 2& @
.# &
23 1 23 146C # ! @ .

23 #$ $& 9 B+ .2 E # 85
.2& - #
%- 3/
! & c
6
8. 2P
"=$
I # (13T3) JP
5= ( σc = 1/v) #$= 1 JP F &
#5= *
"=$ * # 5= .2
- #$= B% #

&
"
5 J3 M 2P

.# $% # &
,
95
? $ %' %2$ 653
The total neutron cross – section and its determination
"=$
σt 2 2P
"=$
:! 7! )8/
# P

σ t = σ s + σc (3-49)
σc )σs 2 & # 0,

.#4 σt 2P
"=$ & 1 ! & 23 )& 0
4 2 "=$ M= E "P E
#*& ! M ) 2
:

23 <$ B% ( # *
#
+

& Q
$ .4 23 :
:# #3
#5. B+ 94
2 "=$
N = N0 e-n σt x = N0 e-∑µt x
96
: 2 N :F &
3B 1 23
n ) N0 )

#% n σ t
$
E . 9 E x )
:! 7! )
2=+ 8/
µt = n σt
$ 1 10 63

5 ) 0, ! B #5= $ : S
T1
. 0,
#5= $ 4
4
5 # $%
% R :
T2
.
` 4
;
)d:$
$ =
: )2 6 T3
# $% 2 6 #
$ B $ 2
d ,

dR 4 #5. 2 ):$

5 :
T4
.
! :$
5
5
.
23 B
B
T5
)d 7

/
T6
.d1 3. : )d1
5= 23 45=

$ : T7
.d#+
97
:
.d 23
` 8/ 5 T8
23
%H 2 2 .8/
.d1& 2 .2 E :
.d1 5
23 45= # #- , $ : T9

.d
) 23 , 8 5 S

T10
.d2=+ 8/ 0
%H 2
8/

%6 : T11
4 #+ \ 2 )d8/ 7

.d
2P
1=$ : .2@P
4
%6 :
T12
#5= 0 # 7
0
C.= / #P / 2 .d
.d2@P
4

0 2P
1=$ : .
%6 :
T13
2 )d #5= 0 7

.d
, C.= / #P /
0 1=$ : )dK*- K , 0 T14

.d #5=
.

%! :
T15
.4 C
B! S

T16
98
.d 0 =$ 45=
$ : T17
B+ : )

S
T18
db4
B 23 #5= + = . :

T19
.#@4 # )#@4 0
$ &
#+ 23

3 M =
2 20
.d
b4
9
)

> :
T21
.d
b4
2P
1=$ : )d2

- T22
d
#5= 0
:
2 8/ :
T23
.d 1=$
, B - 23 ! :$

5 M& T24
:2
R #5= #5.
EP (MeV) 1 1.5
RP (gr/cm2) 0.00343 0.0069
(2B B>/3
, I 580 M)

;
8 #
T25
23 # A@ B - 23 32

.
900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100
E
99
B -
(2B/B)
4 4 5 5.5 18 65 165 375 600 1000
.2 E B - 23 R 9
2+ B& B

! :
T26
# #$ 5 23 E 16.1 F& % &
#
%! #=5 : .#% 1 14

23 7 : 23 M+

.7
%- M+ B
20 #$ 5

2
6 )#
%- #=$ 9
.# 5570 14

;
, #
T27
) 13Al 23 (:, B 2.76 #5= ) 24 B
:2 23 # A@ 82Pb ) 50Ti
13Al 50Ti 82Pb
(B)E (B)E (B)E
1000
1000
1000

788 2.5 923 1 620 1
622 5.0 586 2 384 2
420 7.5 449 3 238 3
387 10.0 263 5 147 4
305 12.5 154 7 57 6
240 15.0 69 10 8 10
50 20.0 14 16
58 30.0
22 40.0
E ! . ( 1TB ) µ A@ 9 !

. 2
100

Nuclear radiation detectors
- @ / +% + – 6 <

*$+ – - @ / +% –
@ ( 66" –
$A ( – - @
@ – $A ( –
@ –
C$ *$+ – B *$+ – " 0
– *+$ *$+ – D$ 66# – !
9G
G
– ! 5E F
14

)

!

" *$+ ! ,-./ ( '( & " #$%
,-./ 34' *# . .
" #$% 0 1/
34' 56
.(Radiation detectors) " #$% (*$ + ) *$+
66 . + 8 " #$% 1 66 7 " 7*$+
. .
: . ' 9 " ,6" :" 56

*$ + 1 *
) ." *$+ " #$%

1 <

#$ +% = $

.( " #$>
. " #$% 34' <
101
. .6 =+ " #$% ,6$ <H
.# *$ + C B
D4 + # <6
:" *$+ =+ " #$% " *$+ 6 5

6" ,6 G- 4 " #$% , => I ,' J 56

66" 6 > + ,6 " #$% 6# . .
9!0 ) I + / – +% H-/
H- + -E
J 6 .( =
1 :" 6 # > . " #$% 1 :" 6 # A W 6
.
+> 35 34' 7,6
+> @ 1 C 6" CK 74 . # *J
:36 H-/ 66" . 4' L CK . 4'
1 MeV = 106 eV ÷ 35 = 2.86 x 104 electron ion pairs
+% $ + . 4' 6 9 :" M4
4' " $ K 75+ 19– 10 x 1.6 ' /
19<
x 4.58 = 10 x 1.6 x 4 10 x 2.86 :' .
..
$ 34' 9= 8 + .5+ 15<10

" #$>
#$O

. 6" ,6 & A . + $ 6 #
+ .,$ ( .& .+ ,$
$ 5
PE :> 9" 0 4' D6& ,6 9" 0
,6 , L D = 5
*# ( 0 5
)
+ - , 5
4' 9 . (recoil nucleus)
+% H-/ + ,6 I 5

./ –
+% 5

#$/ " #$>
H > + =I GB.+ =I " =
. . / +% H-/ + ,6 I # H-/
102
0
+ = $
7M4
D $A J$ / 6
'( - +% + $
,6
.& " #$% 5
*# :> " #$>
#$/
6 :" . " 6 # *$+ 1 M '

+ @ 34' 8 . .6 G + @ Q#
*$+ 1/ 34' 9= - . " #$% + " *$+
" #$% A A> 56
A .K 7M4 .0#B

# #$ " 8 *$+ 9= =+ ,66$
5 *$+ 1 M ' .4(/ 1 #$%
. . 6# ,6 " #$% $ 8 8
:"
- . R ,6 6" C *#
.#$ G J :> 4 34' Q# 9 7,6 4 D
=+ # + =
G J 34. " #$% $ 8
.

24

Motion of electrons and ions in gasses
+> H- + - @ & " #$% 6"
.+ , / +% 9+ + . –
4 / +% 9+ 56 ! + 34.

.C M D4 - @ G-
G- 66"
+"
# - @ / +S

" , " '

) 5 ,6 - @

T .(56 ! 6 5
.+

5
4– 10 – 5– 10 , @B # *J
PG- 5 760 ' @B # *J ) - @ 5J#

+% + 3 + 7 " .( 5 20ْ ' ,
.G .+ 9 =I B A 7 G$" + /
103
The drift motion ! "# 124
=I - @ + / +% 6 6"
+ / +% 34' M E C6$ G .+ 9
O
9 3 80 79 4' =I

6! . +S
C' A 8+ # 3
6 (/ +%
) $ 5

A +
56! "
C+ G .+ 9 =I 1
C+
- .
+ C 9+ 60 - ,6 - @ 4
"
66 + .4+' … 66 1
6 5= 7 .
: E#
A +

v = µ ( E / P) (4-1)
P 7G .+ 9 ,6$ E 7
A + "
v
,6 D) mobility + 9 # µ 9 # *# . - @ @B
,6$ 9+ :" 6 # + - @ 1 :" * ' 7(+ :"
6" @! µ 6 + . P @B E =& G .+ 9
E/P 6 V! 6" = V! µ A> 7@! E/P 6 +
:> - @ +S
A "
9! . +
7 6
x .5
/ 10 66 E/P + 6" =/5
10 – 10
. PG- 5
The attachment % # 22$4

/ +% + = 6 ,' J M '
(,4 ) 96 # X- +% 56 ! 6# .- @
D- +% 4' P! + (4 ) - @ G-
34' *# .
D- + 796 # ( ,4 )
.P !A 5
,' J
6 9 " , " CI h P !A 9 # *#

4' 6 # .96 # D- 6 +> 56 ! 6" P !A
104

+O
C 9! 7- @ 1 :" 9 #
D6& .,+ ' 3<10 / . - @
+% " , +% 6 :> P !A
34' + - 60 A : C CK 7M4 .I "
. - @ 56
56"
4. . +%
.- @ *$+ 1 Q#
+/
The recombination & # '

( 324
Q# .B#
+> 6 6"
.A6 # G- ,4 M4 + 7 . 6# + .K

. (recombination) 5 A ,6 "> 5
,' J 34' *#
5 ,6 5 A ,6 "> 66" D ) 5 A ,6 "> 96#
n - +% 9+ -+ 6
( - ,6
: E# 366 + n+ /
dn+ /dt = dn - /dt = - α n+ n (4-2)
F 75 A ,6 "> 9 # 5
*# = 9 # α

$ + 6" M4 7 10<10 7 7<10 . 36
+ 4> .C@$ D4 -
"- "-
H-/ + 6" 6 + ) ,-+ $
9 # 66- $ 5
(
)= 9 :" / +%
.B ,6 - 5 A ,6 ">
=+ + +% + :> , $% 6

6 :> D6& A 7 +% + K 7M4+ . / +
.G .+ 9 ,6$ - @ @B 8 @
34

The electron and ion currents in gasses
105
$ A - @ / +% 9 9=
+ I C6$ .+ = ' 36 4' .G .+
: E# 366
I = I+ + I– (4-3)
+% / ,6$ " , " ' 7 I - 7 I+ :
. :"
: - @ G .+ + 7 "

7 (diffusion) $A ,' J
M4 7G .+ 9 6 56"
:> -+ =+/
/ +% 9+ $
C6$ G .+ $A 4. + .-+ 9 /

:' O
ID+ = - e D+ (dn+ /dx) (4-4)
:' +S C6$
ID_ = - e D_ (dn -/dx) (4-5)
+S O $A 9 # D_ 7 D+ :
7
@ / -+ @ 96# . (dn+ /dx) .
.
34' @ +% -+ @ 96# . (dn - /dx)
.
@
:> CK E C6$ G .+ 9 6

+ +% / 9+ M $A +
" L . $A + M :> B% 9 4' =I
D )
,6 C6$ G .+
A + 34'
:' O ( C =+
IE+ = e n+ v+ (4-6)
:' +S
IE_ = - e n _ ν_ (4-7)
106
/ 9+ P
A "
' v- 7 v+
. +%
$A 9+ " L + ,6$ 6 > + 7M4

C + M4 7 / +% 9+ G .+ 9
: D 7(7<4 : 4<4 ) 0 #/
I = e ( n+ v+ + n -v- - D+ (dn+ /dx ) + D- (dn - /dx) (4-8)
The gas detectors 44

G .+ $ :" - @ *$+ 9 " 6 5
6" - @ G- 4 I " (/ +%)
G .+ $ 8 .C & " #$%
5
.- @ " #$% " *$+ + ." L
:'
G 1 =E= :> - @ *$+
I ( <

66# <
. – @ ( 66" <
The ionization chamber )* + 144

.& " #$S (gas detector) D- ( *$ + " , " '
34' " / – +% H-/ :" . " 5
B 6. 4' 8 .+ 9+$ " #$%
! - " I ( + .C"
5J# + 70 A +$ 4 6 .9 " 6.
96 B .
F 9+$ :" + /
.# @B : - @ O D . Y0 >
1 :" "
6. 6 #/ - @ @B *
Q# 56
. . :" ." *$+

(1<4) 9+$ .D6 # D . I *(
107
5-E # 6. ! 7
4 I @
8 - . 9! *# . . 4@
4' :" 6. * .(The anode) 6/ 6#!
6. =I ,6 " Z .C *E
56
= . # 6. *# ( 6.) 9 "
66# 56
.@ % .+ - " 6
+ .(guard rings)
# I *(
- 9!0
P
.,+ ! 0
+ A 7C
0 "
6.
6. +
9 9+$ '
' Q@ .
+ 7 * .+
6" # 6. .+ 9
:> M4 D6& .
-

6 66 .+ $ . @ 5 66
1
V
3 2 3
8 - . :>
R

D4 I @ 5
:(1<4) 9+$
108
(6/) <2 # 6. <1
9- " <4
<3
( # 1<4 9+$ ) 5 4' *#
.@ 8
5 9 #0 5
" #$% 34' D6& @ " #$% 6"
96 I " G .+ $ 5 - @ I :>
+ +% / ) :" 9 #0 5
:> ,$
:" 5 4' H
" L + 5 A ,6 "> $A 9 '> 6" .(Q/
:' :" 9 #0 5 $
IS = e ∫ N0 ( τ ) dt (4-9)
= 5 ,6 H-/ 66" ' N0(τ)
! E# 34' .C+ 9 #0 5
9 + 4& .,6
96
66" D) -
= N0(τ) + 4>
+ $ E# 34' # .( -
= @
*# :" 9 + .# 5 9 #0 5 I
.(saturation current) IS $ 5
34'
+ 6" 5 A ,6 "> $A 9+ 9 '> +

V! 4G6" . ,+ ( . 6. P D ) / 9 ,6$
- @ + @! 6. P + 4> .! (9<4) 6 #
,6 "> K
+/ . - @ 56

7M4 . . - @
!! . 6 # 5 A
5 A ,6 "% 60 B CK

/ 4 I *@
. "A P !E
E# 5 A ,6 ">
(∆I s)r 60
+ CK
:
109
(∆I s)r = - IS ( α N0 (τ ) d2 ) / σ v+ v- (4-10)
' v- 7 v+
' d 7$ ' IS
. +% / 9+ P
A "

6 :> D6& + $E

66 + .3 D 6 + $A / M4
: E# $A
(∆IS)dif 60 -
(∆IS)dif = - I s (ε K T / e V ) (4-11)
6. P V 7 , 6 T 7
= K :
O

" , " εε 7
E# (2<4) 9+$ VB .C6 9 6
,- 5
E# 34' *# . V 6. P I
6 #/ :" ,- 34' 9+$ 6 # .I @ – 0
" #$% 1 C@B 56
- @ 1 :" @
6.
9 # 34' =I VB .( . =+ D) .6$ @ ,
,- VB D4 9+$
I @ R (2<4) 9+$
. " #$% 0 6$ 6" - @ " 0
5 A ,6 "> # = $

A 7 @ +
34. " I / =+ 6
.:" 6. 6" A> $ 6
)* + ,- . 244

$ P 6. 5 6" I *( 56

CK .@$ .
.
J .(plateau)# *# '
8 . 6
0 5 9 +$I *( 5 ! +
" . " #$> M4 7 " #$% 1
66" " L
8 I *( 56
+
5
" L (6. ) B 8

7B 5 J I ( 9@$ / 5 J 4' *# .6
110
8 6" 0#B " #$% ,6$ 8 56
( '
0 - ( 56
+ 7 " . " #$%

I Ampere
4
10-10
3
10-11 2
10-12
50 100 150 Volts
I @ 0 ,- :(2<4) 9+$

,@! =+ ' <2 ,@! " #$> =+ 5' <1
,+ =+ ' <4 ,+ " #$> =+ 5' <3
- @ 56

9B0 B *@
+ .@ 96
+ +% B M4 7# @B
9
" 5 : M4 7+ - ! "
B
.C
[ 5
9
A ,-' @ V! ! - 9E
" C 0 Q(O I ( 5 ! 6"

" .B# " / 9-# 6
A- # " :> !
. 9-" = 56
9- # ! @ 5

111
:> M4
.6 " 4 9- # ,6 +
+ 4K . @ @! + 5
" L

+ CK + ( 9- #
:' C (leakage current)
5
*#
Il = V / Rc
+ 4K .(3<4 9+$) 9- # RC 7 6. V :
100 6. P 5 13 10 66 9- #
:36 9- # I1

Il = 100 / 1013 = 10 pico-Ampere
. I s D 5
" L
6 + 4'
9 A 7 " 4 56
9- # + 7M4
.5 17 10 – 16 10 "
V Il Is
(3<4) 9+$
I ( I1

D4 9- " 56
:
66- +
V
R !
9- # V
9E M4 "
9- # V
:" J 7 4 . G$ D/
.,@! + . \6 0J
112
'6 :> B% [ 6
# 7M4+
34. .(9 #0 5 66 9+$ ')
G
9 #0 5 :" + / +%
9 9+$ :" $ 34' =& A : 9- # :"
.
,6 - :> D6& A : 9 #0 5
)* /"# 0 344

. :" +% I ( D :> J +
+ .( 9- # ) RC " , "
+) C C C#
0=+ ' " + CK -
E+$
I ( - 74+' .( 4<4 9+$ :"
8 56
- . K 7M4+ .CC 4 #
RC 6
.(4<4)9+$ Ce #
Re 6 :" C6 D
+ 4 .(4<4 9+$) D- :" .B# ! ! # 34'
:' 8 - . @ C + #
"
C = CC + Ce
:' . +
R = RC Re / (RC + Re)
RC

CC
RC CC Re Ce V
Re Ce
113
(4<4) 9+$
I ( L 8 6
,6
:" v 6. P @ " L 7M4

:Z + *$+ 366 + - . 96
RI = V + RC (dv /dt) (4-12)
0+ 6 > + B 0 6 # 34' 9
6 - 6+ - . 96 :" 6. @
:" , " V 6.
V = RI ( 1- e – t/RC) (4-13)
= 4' + + .,6 - = RC + *#
.(5<49+$ 1: ) "
$ :> 6. 9! @! RC
- 6# $ :> 6. 9! RC ,6 - 6"
.( 9+$ 80 :" 2: )+
(5<4) 9+$
I @ + 6
A :
1.
)
1 )* + &." 444
0 1/ " *$+ I *( 5 ! +
- @ @B . 0! @ 5 * .& " #$%
114
34' :" ." *$+ " #$% 1 :" .6
" #$% 1 I *( 5
+ CK 74 . " #$%
:Z :>
13 "/ 2 "/ )* + 2

$
0
A ,6
6 9 + R
34' K 7,@! / =
6 ,4 9 " CK 7M4 . .6 :> A @
" ,4 ! . .E
34' 96 V
@
9+$ + 700 B# 6 5 + 00 ,6
$@ R A : (25
/5( 1 9 ) 6 P $(
P $@ 4' 9 :" 7
+ -
@ 96 - @ @B *E " L C" @B
. . D @B
! 7 0
" *$+ *@ 1 4' 56

,6! 6 6# ,-./ V
"
" *$+ .+ .

*@ 34' - . 0
. 6 6 5
:" " #$% C $ 6- A D4 *#B
: 3
500 70! F @!/ .6 - ( I (

% 20 R .4 " 4K . 6/5

6
7 +> @ 5
34' + 4> 0
.L6 *! $& + 6" ." L
:
' 0
66" + L6 *! $& + 6"
. 6
250 = 2 ÷ 500
115
:' 5
9+ ,4 ,60 6
∆E = 5 x 20 / 100 = 1 MeV
:' 5
9+ - @ I ,60 6 :.
E1 = 5 – 1 = 4 MeV
,6 $ " , " ' L I ,6$ 6 :.
: D 7 = 60 = 6 1) '6 - :"

I = dQ /dt
= 250 x 4x106 x 1.6x10-19 / 35 x 60
= 7.6 x 10-14 Ampere = 7.6 x 10-2 picoAmpere
"/ )* + 5

,+ PA :"
,6 *#
6" ( 5 ) 7 ,6" :> D . '6 9!
+> @ 1 : 0! 6 D6 .0 @
: + + @ 96 - @ @B K 7M4 .
56
CK C
0
.@ 96 9 +
34' *
. . @ 96 @B P 9 + M
4 4
/
)* + 6
6 5- A CK " #$% G 0 A ,6 J
@! J . " #$% 34' " *$+ ! I *@ ,4
H > + =I GB.+ =I 9+ 6 9
@ 6 V
K - @ 96 H-/
D 6 9 6- M4 7( D4 366" + ) R !
- @ 96 :> +% PE R ! =E= # 34'
A> @! + 34' M
A> .I 5
+4 6 .C =E= # =# +% !
34' PE :> D6& D4 ' " #$> E -
116
= D M 6 @ Z - . +%
9 # " #$> *$+ 1 - 7M4 . . 9
A
.*$ + 4 , 0+ 5
*# 5.
The detector intrinsic efficiency 1 8 '7

:> *$ +
" #$% 66"
" , " '
I ( , 0+
.C"
" #$S + 66#
34'
+"
" #$> " *$+ !
1 :" @ 5 :" *$ + , 0+ * 7M4+ . " #$%
.@ ,6 1 :" 7C@B . 56
- @
,6" " #$% I *@ 4 , 0+ F

.G - ,6" :> * G -
1 )* +

4 .I D ." L A CK ,6 6"
9#0 $
6
6 > DB CK
.I " :> $
34' D6& 7
6 ,6 *$ + 96 B Q@ 4.
E" 0 6 0
. P +
66# 56
7M4 .
C 0
6 = - ( " *$+ ! I *(
.B# 9" 0 - @ 4' :"
6# . BF3
: 9" 0 0
PE M4 " L
1
0 n+ 105 B 7
3 Li + 4
2α
+4 6 .- @ G- 4 I 0 5

5
,=+ 9 " :" * ,@! + *$ + , 0+
4 56
A .@ 5 - @ =+ .
117
6 P :" G 0 ,6
*$+
.@
pulse-type ionization chamber 9 )* +544

D 7,6 :" 5
9+
6 B I *( 56

P 0 Z 6
" #$%
# 6"
+ 7M4 .P
5
9
.A V
-
5
" (pulse-duration) .+ B
-
- 6 # .#
- M4 76 @!
:" 78 - . @ RC - = :" B

'6. B
- VB .

:" D 7
I 6 + :" + 6 " 6 #
=/ + 4K .@ 5
= 3 B
6 56" 4' :> "
+% 9! # 4.
:" " 6. B .J :> D6& 79 A = . D
K " 6# .
0 [ 5
4> .H
:> 9! E P@
3= 9 " +%
7- @ G- 6 !
. - B
. 6. B G .+ * #B> :> D6&
:" 0 '
- B 6. K 7M4 :> B%
6. :> / :> +% 9+ 9! -
."
T ) #
+% + + . #
T ) G / + 7( =/56– 10 @
+% + L 6. K ( =/53 10 ."
.( = 6<10 66 ) ! - 9E C :! :> 9!

- 9E C :! :> 9! / + " L 6.
+
/ 4 @
.( = 3<10 ) +
118
+ t - 6+ / +% + 6. =>
: E# 366
V(t) = n e v t / C d
"
v 7+ / +% 66" n

d 7@ 6 #
C / +S
A
+ 9+ 6. @ 0+ (6<4) 9+$ .
. - 6+ I @ +% + /
"
*E B 6. *E E# 34' 8+#
4' I ( # 7M4 . / +S
A
+$ 56
M4 7#
1 9 " + .G 1
:> + 7 # 6. = -
( 6.) 0! # +$ 34' 6. + .(7<4 9+$)
C #
Q0 :> +$ 34' 9 6> D6& V # 6.
+ 6. E# V! 7 . 5

(6<4) 9+$ (3) : + - +%
7+$ :" B I *( D 4+'

7M4 .
C + A D4 1 - @ *@ O
7M4+ .*@ 1 4' - @ 56
9B0
V(t)
119
10-6 10-3 t
(6<4) 9+$
t - 6+ (2) / (1) +% + 9+ 6. @
-0 +$ B 6# - 6+ (3) +% + 6. @
(7<4) 9+$
I ( -0 +$
(6<4 9+$ # . 6") + 6. P +
:" 6 # A = +S
A "
+ + M4
.*@ 34' 5J# / - ( 56
. 6. P
+ 6
+ = - ( ,@!
,6 " C> * B
.6 - 56" =
A "
B M4 7(%5)
. 6. P ,6 -
" 56
A B I *( :> , $% 6
34. S " I @!
M4
" *$+
120
5
+% 9 66" H > :> D6& 7

.C
3+ #! 0#B L + 76
Energy resolving power ! :1 11 ' 644

5
# ! B I *( RG ! 5'
66"
6# .(energy resolving power) ,6
#
34' K @ ,4 :" ,6 4 0

6
M4 7 . *0 *E @ 96 :> ,4
: CK M4 " EB .0
=#
.
0 @ :> ( " #$> 9= ) " #$% 34' 96
36 + - +> - +> P 9+ K
I " / M4 7/ +% H-/ 0 66"
:> +% 9 6" CK 7M4+ . G !> "
/ - @ 4 6 !
.B# B +
L + ,6 4
K 7
9 . 00 E ( '6. ) ' * .+ B

+ 66" 9
6" CK 7M4 . 1- 6 C
(spectrum) .0 .J . 1- 6 E0 ,6 4
5
∆E *# .(8<4) 9+$ + ,! :"
full width at half-maximum 1 0A *! 6" 9 + Q#

∆E 1- # .(FWHM)
:Z + 7G
+ 7*$ + r ,6 66 E0

r = ∆E / E0 x 100% (4-15)

:" 7 " ∆E =# 6 #
,4 M
9= ,=+ 9 " :" ∆E 6 # + .6 - 66-
6 0 7M4 .3( @ 5 - @ @B
I *@ ,6 F .0 *@
6. P ,4 9+$ 5 # M4 % 7 7 % 0.3
.6 5. *$ + ,6 # . 3( 6 #

34' 9! + CK 0 4
6 6#
121
+ P0 + 4> # *$ + 56
.B# "
34' 9! + A CK ∆E 9 P0 + 4> .∆E
. . 96 .B# "
The proportional counters " 54

6 " 5 :> I ( 6. P ,6 - 6"
:> M4
6# . IS $ 5 P #
,6 -
∆E
E0 E
(8<4) 9+$
,6 4
1-
6. P =I # I " +%
6" .3- D4 6. P 6
+
+
) V! +% 34' .
+ 6- 6. P ,6 -
+ 7- @ ,66 4 I :" ,6 ( +%
" :> 5B 7/ – +% H-/ = "
+ +>
.D 5
9#0 /
D6& ,66
+ 6. =I + "
122
+% K 74+' .D = I ,66 :>
D6& D = I 9 ,6" .# D 5
9#0 / I
D = I # 9 34' . +% 66" 0" B :>
D = I 5.0 " E * + 6. " L
,6$ J 6 6 D4 # 4
" L
B% . +% 66# 9G ' = + I " L .9
6 6" - @ G- # +% 56 ! 6# M4 :>
P / +% G . 66"/ 5 ,6 ">
+ .56 ! 6" G- 34' , =% (
#$)
V
+% [ 66" :> 0 34' D6&
@! .I 6. + - @ G- # 6.
0 M$ + 7M4 .(- @ 6 )
+ 5 I " $ .D = I "
.(gas discharge) - @ G .+ T0 C$ 6 7- @
+%
GB.+ +> + 9 + 4K
+> 56 ! " = +% 66" + γ ' 6
GB.+ +% 66" " , " n γ + 7 n 4 6
6 ! 9#0 66# 4' *" B 5= .D = +> n "
+ :> 36 D6& / 66# 4' . = +> γ n2 +

6. 34' ! " .GB.+ +> n2 γ2
M *" B 9 # 6 > + G6A +% 66" :" C

:'
66#
M = n/(1–nγ) (4-16)
+% *" B 66" M *" B 9 #
1 >> n γ 6 + 4K .(C4 D 5
" D) G6A
*" B 4' + . M = n
66# *" B 9 # V!
J 6 0 # A 7 D = I "
:
.0!
γ 6 " . '> + 7I
/ J (proportional counter)
66# 34' 66#
123
G6A +% 66"
= +S + 66#
.D 5
"
" 6# 6. P ,6 - 6" CK 74+'

9 # 66# 6 I @ ( 9<4 9+$ :" a ) $
'6" P 6. (9<4) 9+$ .
66#+
34' .2 '
66# 9@$
log I
1 2 3
E1
E2
a b c V
(9<4) 9+$
66# 6. E#
I ( <1

66# <2
–@ ( 66" <3
6. 6
( , 1000 :> 1 ) ,+ ,6 - 66-
66"

CK ,6 - 5( :" . V P

7D 5
" / +% H-/
0 D4
96 6# .5
4'
6. 7 0 ." L (9<4 9+$) E2 < E1 +
124
7
66# I (
7 0
V!
66# . . ' 9! +
.
0 - #!

66# + 6 +
5 (10<49+$)
9+$ :" -. .+ /
9! . 7M4 .(6/) 6 D M

9!
/ 5
. # 6.
C" 7( # 6.
D) Q/
:" ,4 34' + + ,4 6 . /
. Q@ C #
.C" 66#
/ 6
.8 - . :> 6.
6. 9!
E G .+ 9 ,6$ 6 > +

/ 66#

56
M4 7
/ r
6# C6
: # E#
E = V / r ln(b/a) (4-17)
6 *! ' b 7(6/) 6. ' V :
M
6. + 4K .D M
*! ' a 7
O
:" 9 ,6$ 9! 5
0.01 = a 75
1 = b 7 1000
6 7M4 .5
/ 6000 :> M
5
0.01

+ 4> .6/ M

6 D = I
9 9#0 A M .K " 6# G6A +%
) C . 6" D = I 9 6 5= 3
.(3-+ 5
0.1 66
C
+
125
R0
HV +

66# :(10<4) 9+$
" 9 154

Pulse shape of the proportional counter
8 B 5 J 7 " 7
66# 56

+ "
66# B L .
5 J

. +% + " 8

/
(I " )
+ :> M4
/ + 6/ :> #
+% 9! 6# .(6/)
6. :" +% = M4 96 # C -
+% + " L 6. 66 + .6/
: J E# 56
M4
V′ / V∞ = l′ / a ln (b/a) (4-18)
6# +% + " L B 6. V′

' l 7B + 6. ' V∞ 7 .G6 * +

6 #/
66" 56
6# . +S

+ D @B 0.5
66# 96 @B + 6" .
0
:V! 4G6" .5
3<10 x2.5 66 l
V′ / V∞ = 0.05
% 5 9+$ +% + " L 6. D
.B + 6.
CK 6/

6 D = I
+ :" Q 6. 6 # A + M *" B 9 # + 6"
6+ B @ 0+ 6 > + .66# D 5

: J E# -
126
V+(t) = [M N0 e / 2C0 ln(b/a)] ln(1+ 2 µ+ V / p a2 ln(b/a) (4-19)
D 5
" G6A H-/ 66" N0
C#
C0 7+% $ e 766# *" B 9 # M 7C
0
6. 66- 7M4 .66# 96 @B p 7 / + µ+ 76
- ,6 - 96# 9 5= 7 - A B
6 :! :> 6. 9! :> 7 ( E# V!
:' C
V+max= M N0 e /C0
:36 t - 6"
t = (b2 – a2) P ln (b/a) / 2 µ+ V (4-20)
6+ H 6. B @ 0+ (11<4) 9+$
0.05 36 @B 6" . 0
,+4 6 #/
66# -
96# JE . 1500 = V D6 6. D @B
B 66- 96# 4' 9 5= 76 #
+ B 6.
B
+ .C :! :> '6. 9! :> ^
( = 1 :> 9! ) ,0 34' 6"
[ 5
D 9
A 6#
( 66# + - 4' 9E
.C

9+$ M4 J 9+$ B

- Q0 +
Q@ 4. ,6 " 56
.0 9+$ 6 56
B
*=+ + (differentiation circuit) B 0 ,6
:" # .+ 96 66# H 6"
= B 0 6 56
B 9+$ 0+ (11<4)9+$
,6 - = Q0 + C JE .* (RC) -
.C
0 '6. Q0 B
- 9 B 0
.
0
" B 6. > , $% 6
.∆V # 66 B F
66# .
0
. ∆E 36
66 0 :> 36 4' D6&
127
,6# M4+ I @
3+4 P
M4

: . '

."B = +% 66" *E 6 <

.A A
*! * + M
8 56" <
.Z + 00 E 3
) C 6" 66# *! 9 *E <H
.(
6 56"

+
66# ,6 K 7M4
66# ,6 6 T .I @
.=
.% 30 – 10

V(t)
RC = 0.5 µ Sec
RC= 0.2 sec

1 2 3 4 t
(11<4) 9+$
* (RC) - = B 0 6 56
B 9+$
The delay time .* )

66# 5
96 J - I 6 C
- L I 4' .H :" 6. B H
:> 66# 96 .+ + / +%
128
+ :"(delay time) I - 6 # 7 .
6 *! C 6 +
+ D 5

: + +S
A "

E
t d = b / v-
M *" B 9 # 6 "
66# " 5'
6 6" B 6. *E :> D6& 6. :"
D4 9 " 6. 56
CK 7M4 . 6. *0 @
.(highly stabilized) "

Geiger – Muller counters – +

64
6# :>
66# 6. ,6 - 6"
M *" B 9 # 66- (9<4 9+$ b 6# )

.(9<4 9+$) G ,6 - 66- G ' ,6 -
6"
0 P 0 PE 9 ,6 - :> M4

D) GB.+ +> + - @ G- +% 56 !
0 34' V! # 6. 34' 6" .( γ 9 A ,6 -
D = I $ . = +% "

/ 9&
'
7G .+ T0 :> 66# 9! 766#
./ +% 66# J 6 @ + M4 " L
' ) – @ ( 66" 5
6. 34' 6" 66# *#
.( 3 0$+
6" P / 4' JE (16<4) E# :> 1

" , " M *" B 9 # V! 4G6" . 1 = n γ V!
: D 7 .A
M = n / (1-1 ) = ∞
66" :" * 6# 5 B 6. K 34'
H- + 0+ C 4> .D 5
" / +%
.B 6. .J T0 " 6 – +>
129

D 5
:" * 6# 5 B 6. JE

66 –@ ( 66" 56
A 7M4 . .
. . J 6
34' 66" 9
> 7
* A .+ T0 I 6 6

9! 56" :
> 4 66# 96
-' + 66# 96 T0 " * > CK 7M4 .,66
– @ ( 66" " 6 .C
66 5
9
A
0> 4 66" ' T0 * > *E 0
.4 0> 4 /
/ . 7 : 8 +

164
Non – self quenching G.M counters
0 D6& ( / 9= ) 9 - @ 66# O 6"
6#! GB.+ +% PE :>
0 P
./ 4 8 (
A C= D4 6= +)
D4 (10<4 9+$ ) 3 +% M
6" .. 3 '6 M 0=+
C +
.J :> D6& 6 . :>
34' M
:> /
34' 9! 6" 7 R0 :" 6. B

= +> ,66
0 P L .

74+' .* A
6 Q0 .
DI CB0 5 5 " V 6.
.(5 910 < 8 10 66 ) @ ,+ R0 + 6.
96 # 36. Q0 " 6# /
M 6#
(6/) 6. 6 D . I R0 :" M.
6.

I 7 Va = V - IR0 V! /
M 6"
V! 7 6. Q0 ,+ R0 + 4K ./
M4 .(9<4 9+$ Vb 9 ) T0
A 5-E 6. 9
5-E 6 9 6. + . /
9! 6" CK
/ 9 - + 4K .66# I0 T0
A
130
6 + 10 66 6 C#
=+ 200 66# 96
66# I0 6# .5 8 10x4 66 R0 +
6 7@ ( C@$ 5-E 6. 9 6. +
6# V !/ :> 9! :> 66 ,6 - 6. 4'
.( = 3<10 6# ) R0 C0 - = + -
66# + :" 36. 66# C 6#
D4 4' 9E
9E 66# :> 5
96 .,66
9
A 6#
(
@ 0#B B + + 9
+ CK - 4'
- ,0 34' *# . +% - . . 8 A
1 4' " 5' JE .(recovery time) 1
A , 5

.( = 3<10 ) 1
A , + ' 66#
8 7 : 8 +

264
Self – quenching G.M counters
Q0 ,+ 6 56# 66# 1 4' -
6. : 7M4 .,@! 56
> (6/ ) 6.
6% .@ ( 6. 6 6 :> Q0 A 6/ :" =
/ - ( 66# O 66# 1 4' 0%

/ 9+ 9= 4 66# + ( %90 )
5= G6A I 6 D 5
96 6" .(%10 )
0 P 6/ = I " C#
GB.+ +% PE :> D6&
0 P
*E 6 + .
@ ( 66" C
0
/

/ 9+ :>

766# 34'
34' R 7M4 .
0 P 0 R ! A #
+% + M4 .. :> 9! A - @ 0
4 8 9+ G- 6 ! GB.+
# J .-0 (6= +) . ,6 4 /
A 0 34' K .I 9+ G- 0 R ! A
74+' .C .+ T0 ! 6/ " =+ 6#
131
G .+ B M4 + . 3 /
M
9! / + .+% + =I A
M4
/ 9+ G- + . :>
M 6" C/ M4+ 7 G- 34'
0 R ! A
6" +>
+ CK . 3
:> 9 36 D4 96 # 9+ D- C 6!
:" / ,4 +% / )
:> 9+ 9! 6" .( 9+ D- +%
7. ,6 = +> # :> D6& A .K .
- @ G- 6 R + 74+' . 4 0% 6
:Z
/ 9+ 9= 4 ,66#
7. :> 0 9! <1

.C GB.+ +% PE
:> / 9! <2
.C = +% # 7.
< /"# ) ) 9 364

0% D4 @ ( 66" H :" B +
3 /
M . / + 4
<4) 9+$ Q#
.J #
E+$ + .
) 4 0% D4 66# B 9+$ (12
6 # ./ + " L DJ 9+$ M4+ 7(1 9!
:" .+$ 6 # + .66#
6. 6 #/ :" B 66 -
= 6# + .(6O) 6#!
G6A I 6 +
B - 66 A 6- 6#! " D 5

.(2 9! ) ." L !
The dead time )
132
/
9 +% *" B " =
8
( 66# + (6= +) . :> (6/) 6#! 9
G .+ 9 ,6$ Q 0A J 766 D 5
9
A
CK . /
9! 6 . 4'
. :> 9 ,6$ 6# "
36.

6. 9! D 5
96 J - *# .!/
- (9<4 9+$ b ) @ ( " :> 6#! :"
8
( 66# + - 4' 9E .(The dead time) 66#
.[ 5
D 9

V(t)
2 4 6 8 t
(12<4) 9+$
.4 0% D4 66# B 9+$ (1)
6#! " D 5
= 6 # 6" B 9+$ (2)
The recovery time < /"# )

@ ( " :> 6. 9! - ,0 *#
.(the recovery time) 1
A - ! :> C!
) 4 0% 4 66#
,@! ,0 34' #
133
- 9E .R0 @!
M4 7 = ( 6<10 x 5
) + + D 5
9
66#
1
A
.9 B (6.
.C !! Q@ *E @ ( 66" * 7 "

1 # M4 7 .6 4 4 1 . 6
- ( . 56
1 M ' . ." *$+ " #$%
M4 ,6 ,4 . 9 # BF3 6 =
. " *$+ . 6
A
The cloud chamber " 74

" *$+ 6
9G
56
@ #
, 9/
. 6
,$ & $

7
@ B
(13<4) 9+$ .51912 5 "
$ @ . @ 6 Y0 O
,I 8+ M 6" .@ , 6 6"
. ^ 0 66 6 90
:> " "

V! , 6 ^ 0 Q 0A :> D6&
4
3
2 1
C
134
7
6

@ :(13<4) 9+$
B 96 ,4 <2 $ 6! <1

* 0$ ( <4 B <3
8+ <6 ! [ <5
. H <7

J 34' 4K .$ P
*=+ C Y0 96 <+> H- + :> 6 $
= .J 7 / :" $ P
34' & + .$
= 9 / :" 0=+
34' ! ,6 # > 5
= 7
@ 9E ! B 9 6K M4 7J
7!/ C#B :> 8+ 6 # ! 6# .@ D# * 0$
@ V! .6 /
@ 6. 9! 5
6I @ -. 5 7 " .
,6 ,6#
M4
. +I ,6 5 78+ ,6 "> ! 8+

. [ ,-' @ V!
:' S $ P

*#
S = Pf / PI (4-21)
M4+ . :" 66 9 6# @B ' Pi 7 Pf
:' E 66
K
E = τf / τi (4-22)

. :" 66 9 6# @ 5 ' τi 7 τf
4>
/ :" *=+ 6 .
135
:" *=+ 6 + . 1.31 7 1.25 ,! E +
1.31 ,! E + 4>
/ 9+
C+ Y0 *=+ 6 1.38 :" E 6- 4> . 1.38 7
7M4 .C +I * 96
+ 6 J 6
.
1.35 66 E + 9B0 CK
:" 9! + CK 9+ /
.
9+ :" *=+ 6 1.10 = E + 6" ,! 9B
.
/
C - 5
$ 66
@ 56
+
,$ 66 6# @ 6 Y0 Q# 4K .C
$

* B C6 =+
@ 9
,G6 - " , "
V! 79 4' =I
! # E#
4' 5+ . R ' *!
.
@ 9 $
+
m v = q BR (4-23)
.C$ q C"
' v 7 D 5
+ ' m
+ CK 7M4+ .(
) $ 1 *A 3 66
.=/ 9 5
66
8
- ! '
*@ " 5'

- " , " 8
- .( = *! )
9!
66 34' 70=+
.@ H .> ,
The diffusion chamber # + 84

( 5 6
@ 8
- @! J
+ .(14<4 9+$) $A @ *# 75 1936
,66
D# % O .0
/ D" '6 > @
9 3 / J 7 (methyl alcohol) = 9+ 9= 9G

136
.@ , 6 ' % 4' , 6 + .*=+
56
M4 7 5 _ (60 <) :> 36 0
%
D) ! + 6
+ = = 9+
.D# 0
% , 6 H6 :> M4 D6& 7(!
90
:> 4' $ D# % 6 9G
6"
+ M4 .1 6" , 6 Q 0

$ 5
6" .@ 0
$ P
+ ." *=+ / + 34'
,6 @ 66"% .5
= ! + 79G

.G .+ 9 56
.6 /
,66

.(= 10 ) 8
+ .
" @ 34' -
. . . . . .
------- - . .
. . .
. .. . . . .. . . .. .
.. .. ... .. . .. .. .. .
.. .. .. .. .. . . . . ..
... . . . .. .. . .. . .
.. .. . ……. ……… .. ....
.. . . . . . . . . …. . . . . . . .
___ _ _ _ _ - ---_______ -_ _ _- _ - -- __ - _
_ _ - _ - -_ -- -- -- -- -_ -- -- __ -- -- -- -- -- -
(14<4) 9+$
$A (

9
7 " 7*@ 34' 56

- @ @B + 7M4 . # 4 $
137
* : @B 20 :> 9! 76 + .6
. .6 # 4
34'
The bubble chamber

94
@ 34' 9 " 5 .1952 5 " " ( 9 5 ! 5
G
9G

6" " 0 + ,' J 56
:"
7@ O ." @
(15– 4) 9+$
, 6 6" ( - 5' ) 6' 9G
7 "

5 .- 9G
520ْ – 76. 5 246ْ– F
9G
: + 7C ( :" , 6 :> 9G

@B 56
P " 7( :> 9 A) 9G

.(9G
1
D @B $" ,6") 6 9 "
@ 6 A
PG 0 9G
K ,I @B Q0 6"
5
6" . @ 6 6 # , > 9
79G
I :> D6& CK @ ,0 34' 9E $
. = 2<10 36 - 9E / 34' :" "
3 1
3
4
3 3
138
(15<4) 9+$
" 0 @
! [ <2 * 0$ F <1
9G
6' <4
@ 0 <3
5 $ 5

9 :" " + 74+'
,6 - G .+ 9
/
" 0 34' !
9
,-' @ V! .9G
( 6 9 66 @B
' @ 34. 8
- . = ,6" 6#

:> @ :" @B Q0 J ,0 " , "
@B ,6 - M4 @ 6 A ) 9G
( 6 J
@ 6 + 8
- ,6 - .(/ C :>
- Q0 A> @ 9G
+ " 6
. = 3<10 :> 8

:Z .
" @ 34' -
A6 " =+ 4 9G

56
<
. 6
+ 7- @
4
9

.( +> @ *A[ ,6") #
.(= ,6")
,6 '66"> - ! <
9G
,+ 6 # 56
+ > <H
96 9 + D 5
6
.9G

6 > 6" " 0 ( 56
9B0 CK 4
. # 9
The scintillation detectors 9 104

9 1104
139

" #$% $

6"
66 NaI 56! 66 9= # 6 :" " #$>
M4 " L 7 '(
A 7
=/ CsI 5-

(scintillators) B 6 5
6 34' *# .GB Q
& " #$% " *$+ ,' J 34' 6
6
. . 66 ."

- ,6" (16<49+$) B *$ + +
8+ # (light pipe) B 9! B ,6 :'
(photomultiplier 0 *" B 7(light reflector) GB
6! ,6 :"
" #$%
6# . tube)
9! " GB B 9 .GB B ,6 34'
*" B / (potocathode) GB (6= +) . :> B
.0
C" B 8+# 5 . GB 8+ # 6

B - B A : O GB . :> C6 ">
C P GB . :" B
6" .5
" L
66" *" B 5= 7GB.+ #A ,' J # +>
9! .0 *" B 96 G 0" B +%
M4 *" B (6) :> . +%
*$+ " R + 74+' ./ H :" .+ B
:Z + 9
B *$+ 56

,6 96 D 5
R ! <1
.,6 34' I , => :> D6& B
9E B :> ,6 ! 9 <2
.B #
GB . :> GB 0 9 <3
.*" B /
140
3
S
1 2 PMT
B *$ + :(16<4) 9+$
B 9! <2 B ,6 <1

GB 8+ # <4 *E@ <3
$ 6! –S *" B – PMT
GB 0 . R ! <4

.C +> #
*" B 96 +% 66" *" B <5
.0
/ 6#! 6" +% 34' <6
.,+ G .+ $ ` +
/ 6 :" # Q .+ $

: E# E
5

Q = eMnph = e MC T F S E (4-24)
66" nph 7/ *" B 9 # M 7+% $ e
B ,6 , 0+ ' C 7GB . 6 ! +%
7(+ 0 :> . H GB 0
D)
66" D) GB .

S 79! 0$ ' F
0 +> 9+ C ,6 ! +%
6. 6" 6 *$ + = E # # .(

141
H :" + .+ $ VB 7M4 .6
.
5
6
*" B
Types of scintillators 9 <2 2104

.B 6 + 66" 56

Q# (1<4) 96 .+ E 6 34' RG ! *
. .!G ! 56
A #G $ B 6

: RG ! ,6 B ,6
5
9 " , 0+ <1
.GB :> D
. . ,6 ! " #$S
,6 0$ <2
.M+0 - @! <3
B 6 Q# RG ! :(1<4) 96

M+0 - 9 . =+ B ,6 5

3
= # B ( 5
/5()
τ (5
)
8<
10x2.7 4400 1.25 (B" ,6 )
=/ ,
9< 4100 1.15 (B" ,6 )
A ,
10x5<3
7<
10x2.5 4100 3.67 NaI(TI) 5 6- 56! 66
5<
10 4500 4.10 Zn S(Ag)B0 6- ! 6+
= B ,6 :> " #$% 96 6

6+ 0 66" @ .GB 0 6!> 6 ,6
: E# -
n = n0 ( 1- e – t )
142
J t 36 - 6# ,6 ! 0 66" n :
τ .,6 ! 0 + 66# n 0 7 " #$% 96
% 63 D 0 (1-e-1) 6!% 5-E - " , " .
.M+0 - 5
- 4' *# . .
5 9+$ =+ + B ,6 / RG !

*$ + Q@ *E * ,6
. .
M4 790 + J 96 ,6 " B ,6 B

.# .> B 9! 6! .
) B ,6 :@ .

6
+ ( GB / 9! 6"
/ 9! .B 8+ #+ 9 # (MgO) 5
@
9! M4 7 H - M

:@ GB
" *$+ B ,6 56
6" .GB . :> B
J ,4 9 "
= $

7H B 9! M4 75 /
.
34' F
C
0

9 52 3104
The photomultiplier tubs (PMT)
Y0 - " , " 0 *" B
. '
G ! " # :" D 6 @0 .
" 7+% - -+ 7GB (6= +)
9+$ .(6/) 7 (dynodes) 66 *#
. 5 .0 *" B /
(17<4)
B ,6 # B
6" +> 6!K
C$ ,6 . ! 7M4 .(GB.+ #A ,' J)
6" .GB.+ ,6 96 , @ 0$

'-+ .. 5 . +% PE
143
9! #
6#+ 9 # D4 +% - -+
66 5 .9/ 66 :> . +%
,6" ) ,+ +>
6# . +% 66" 0" B
.66 D = # :> D6& M4 K ( +> $"
66# 4' C 9/ 66 :" +% 66" *" B 7M4
.! 6" +% + 4K . = 66 :> *" B
'66" *" B C" D = #A 6 ,+ = 66
5 . .66 9+ :" *" B "
74+' .66
:" *" B 6# +% 9G . 66# 4'
+% $ /)
.+ B C" .J (6/)
:> GB . ,6 ! +% M + .(
6. 6- CK 7... 7 = 7 = 79/ 66

9 " 6. 56
M4 P 5 . / 34.
(9+$ :"R11 :> R1 ) ,6" + 6. 5
V
:> L6 6. R 5= V
6. +
+ C :> , $% 6 ) .. :" 0!
V!
GB . --+ 66
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R
- +
0 *" B :(17<4) 9+$
144
R 5= 0!
6. + 4> .
0 P
. 4@ 5 C D .. :" (-V)
V! : 6.
.( 6. 4@ A6
6.

66 :" +% 66" *" B L 74+'
66 :" D = #A 9 # + 4K .D = #A ,' J
+ *" B 9 # + δn / :" δ2 = :" δ1 9/
:' /
M = δ1 δ2………. δn (4-26)
66"
' 66 D = #A 9 # I "
+ 4K .C"
+% 66" :> C ,6 ! +%
' *" B 9 # + ,$" / 66 66"
66 66 9+a" D = #A 9 # + 6 10
: D 3.95
δ1 = δ2 = . . . δn = 3.95
:" 66 9+ δ D = #A 9 # 6 #
+ . ,6 - 66- 7C"
+%
6
[ :> 66 M 6" +% .
+
6
#A 9 # K 766 6. P
*" B 9 # K 4 .66 6. P
VB . V 6. 6 :" + 6 " 6 # 0 *" B
6. P 6+ *" B 9 # @ 0+ (18<4) 9+$
9 # " # + CK 7 " .*" B 66#
:66 66" = 6" E# B *" B
M = K EI
145
G .+ 9 ,6$ E 7/ 1 :" 6 # = K :
. 5 D
66" I 766 9+
V
100
10
104 105 106 107 M
(18<4) 9+$
0 *" B 6. P 6+ *" B 9 # @
+ :> D6& 0 *" B JE 74+'

F 66 D 5
" G .+ B
./ 4@ 56
6. # , 710 7 310
- 5' (*" B) + 9 # # 34' #
@
A + - @ *$+ B *$+
I *( 6
+% ( B ) + "
.+ Q0 9 # 4 + 56

66#
9 1 ) ! :1 11 ' 4104

Energy and time resolution of the scintillation detectors
+ # 6" *" B 6. = 6"
D) B 1

4G6" . = *" B 9 #
M4 . 6
D 5
( !
E * 6/ " B 1
JE CK
146
*EA 4' .,6 4 .
0
00
6. ! ! *0
:Z :> B
. 9! 0 66" *E <1

.B# R !
B ,6 GB
. ,6
00 E / 96 *" B *E <2
#A 9 # / M4 9/ 66 :" !
66 :" +%
- :" 6 # D =
G !> " # D = #A " " EB
.
6 E ,6 4

" *$+ 6" CK 7M4
*$ + r ,6 6 > + 7 ∆ E 36 . 1-
:' 7/ *$+ C
0
/ B
r = (∆ E / E ) x 100 %
Q 0 # ,6 ,6 - :> , $% 6
,6 4 - . 4' 9 r = 0.25 % + 4> 7E= . r
.9 ,6 4 - . 9 r = 2.5 % + 4> 7 "
,6 56
M4 B *$+ ,6 ,6 - +
9! :> ! " C 7 0$ " B
B ,6 G' " D M 56" 7B
: 70 *" B / 4' GB 9!
+ 1- 6 :> D6& 7 " 0 34' :" B $ A
L 1- 9 CK 7M4+ .. 9! 0 66"
,6 - +% -+ 70 *" B "
7,6 :" 66 9+ *" B 9 # ,6 - GB .

E 9- +% 66" + 79/ 66 !
# 6. 56
9B0 CK 7M4 .,+ 1- + >
147
6 P 6. - A $ 7+ *" B 9 # P
,$ 6 $E # / :" C F
6. :! /
CK 7M4+ .C+ / * $E 766 .+
,6# :" C 9/ 66 6. P + 9B0
. 66 D 6. P
7% 2 B *$+ 7 " 7 ,6 F

,6 Q0 7B ,6 5 # M4 % 20
.(B ,6 ) , 5 ,6 -
" , " . (time resolution) - ,6

" !0 E
#
- 9! 0
- ,6 66 9 # 5' . - Q# .B#
I - B ,6 M+0 - ' B *$+
F .0 *" B +% 9 " L
/ 5 1 # = 7<10 7 8<10 / - 4'
# 4
+" - 4'
56
6.
. 56
6.
79 A - *E 6 C :> , $% 6 7M4+

. 6" 0
+%
M4
. = 10<10 x 7 ,6 " - A *EA 4' A> 766
9 &." 5104

" #$% 1 " *$+ B *$+ 56

Q@ 4. . . 66 B
/ .
&
# 1
B ,6 + B *$ + 56

' / H 9! . *" B " #$%
,6 ,$ P
/ 66 7(6/)
.(preamplifier) / + =" 5
*# +>
148

6 ,$ / ,6" :" ,6 34'
6. 5
,6 5 7M4+ .,6# 0
C
6"
:" 0 66 :" 6. - 5-E 7 (potential - divider)
=" 6. B 4& . .
0 ,6" 34'
4@ 5 . ,-. . 9 '66" 6# / +
. "
D4 9 " 6. *" B
4& C :> , $% 6

C/ J
3 + 7(6/) 9/ 7*" B
Z H 4& .
+% 9! " L
H " L C/ J 3 + ,/ 66 6
C! D4 66# + 66 4' +% 66"
@! 66 B 6. ,6 " + .C P
66
.
B 6.
="/ )
1 9 &." 2
13 "/ 2
/ = $
0
" *$+
6+ B , 56
9B0 B *$+

" , 0+ , 34' - . ZnS(Ag) B0 $ !
:> / = $
0
9
*#B ' , 34' " 5' K Z .GB
CK = $
6 @! J C A> . . 0$
*#B 9# (5 1 ) ,6 34' @! M
56

,$ ! 6+ ,6
+ . ' D4 ( 0$
9! / 6 70 *" B H - :"
.B

=( )
1 9 &." 5
"
/
149
*$+ 56

#$/ " #$> " *$+
5 = $ 56! 66 , 7 " 756
B
1 4' 56
9B0 .B ,6 + NaI(Tl)
. =+ + J # . 0+
" #$>
#$/
9+ :" *$ + 0+ 6 # .6 5 = D4 66# +
+ , 0+ 66- # 6# . " #$% , M
9+
, 0+ 9 # M

., M
6-
, 0+ 66- ,6 - + = GB.+ =/
.( = 9!0 ) 6- + H-/ H %

# " #$%
B *$+ , 0+ K 7 "
,6" " #$% 1 4. - @ 66# , 0+ :"
. G ,6" : $"
"/ )
1 9 &." 6

# B 6 1 5( :"
56
G6 9B0 C A> 7 0 6

.
34' " *$+ B# B 6
:Z :> M4
$ 56! 66 , 56

#! <1
,B J +% " *$+ NaI(Tl) 5 =
+ J
D . " , 34' 9-"
.,4 9 " #! 7 A : 90
56! 66 , + D4 - # <2
L
" *$+
." 5'
*
34' $ "
C"
., ,6 (backscattering)
)
1 9 &."
150
" *$+ B 6 ,6" 6
" $
9E ." *$+ 5 .

.B ,6 9" 0
9" 0 7 B Li 5= 6 D 56

0
# 6 ' D
D6& 7+ # E" 0 34. B# + .,+
.*$ + , 0+ ,6 - :>
LiI(Tl)5 = $ 5= 66 , ,6 " 56

7M4
. $ R , 34' - . " *$+
*$+ Q# .56! 66 , R
5= + + , 56
/
.! 6+
." *$+ 9B0 CK #

:" 34' $ 6" ,6 56

9+$ , -. Q@ 4. .6.
"
:" CGA $ ZnS ! 6+
" *$+
, 34' # .6.
.#

6 # #

*$+ 1 ,6" 6
6 ,6" Q@ 4. 56
. (n , γ) 9" 0 :" . "

'4 56% 9= 9" 0 1 4. " B" 4
: E" 0 #
. 6
115 116
49In +n 49In +γ
197 198
79Au +n 79Au +γ
'4 116In 56% ' 9" 0 " 6 #
34. " #$% $ 8 .
#$ 6 ! 198Au
. '66" 66 #
" *$+ + 6 !
151
1 > 114
The semiconductor ( solid state ) detectors
- @ *$+ + 9 ,/
6
9 ! E! C$ ,-. *$+ :> B
:> M4
.B0 6"
. '+4 6
! C$ *$+ . ,66# -
E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ 9 " + C $ M '
- @ G- " #$% & I ( 0 .I ( 9 "
:" 9! .# 5 7 +> - M4 +
E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ .G .+ 6. B
+
9= ! C$ ! ,6 4 " #$% &
.# + 7= – +> - M4 + 75
T .G .+ B :" . 7 7 ." 9!
,6 = – +> H- + -E

34' ) 7 +> 3 5 +

" + $ K 7M4 .(. *.> 35
,$" T 5 +
C
0 D 5

,6 :> 36 D6& . + $ * #B
66 6 :> 7E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ G
6
6 / J .

6 *$+ 56
+ CK - @ C =+ 9 !
5-E - @! :> 36 4' D6& .,@! P "I !
" - ,6 :> 7G .+ $
.*$+ 1 4.

3 01 - 3 1114

The P-N junction diode
5 +
9= & + " 6 4 -
,6 + 6" . 6 +> # 6
152
5 J ,6 4 5J , 5 +

, 4 ,4 9+
6'
P 0! , 6 6" CK 7M4 .#/ & + +>
C
0 #/ & + +> +> 9+ +
+> 7M4 76 A ., ,4 5/ ,4 ' 74
6 . - " ,6 + M4 .,6 ,
C , 4 #/ +%
*.> 1.12 5 *.> 0.72 :> 9!
25 D @ , 6 , 6 6" .+

34' ,6 & + +> Q#
+ (0+ _ 298) 5_
+ , V! +% 34' 7
:> D6& =_ +> H- + 74+' . = . +
= +% H-/ 66" + .,6 G .+ 9!
,4 1110 9+ 6 - - A @ E + ,6
+ 7M4 .+
,4 1310 9+ 6 - 5
. D 7@! ! C$ ,6 G .+ !
,6 " :" + +
:> , $% 6 . " +
J @ , 6 6" 75 , G
+ +
+ = +% H-/ 66" /
,6 " H-/ :
.5 . 9
.4 $ E
, ! ,6 - , E 66" ,6 -

,6 :> & +
G$ @ ,@!
B> +

4
B> 6# . 5 +

(5 ) +
:> ( As c- ) P 0
0 9= & +
+> #I , (c- ) 0
0 ,4
#/ '
M4 + +
4
V! ,4 ( 8 +% : 7

4 *# .G .+ 9! M$ +>
' . 7 (doner) ' 4 34' & +
153
,6 34' ! C$ ,6 :
., +>
E ' + +% / (n-type-material) +%
4G6" *# 4 A> . 6 E = 7$ @
. / E
G$ 8@ M4 ,6 G .+ 9! ,6 - + 7M4+

4 , `+ 6# .Ga 5 B + & + =E= 6
4 E= =E= & + . +K ,4 G$
+ . '
E= M4 + , +
+
4 6> +% 6I ,4 =I
#
= , +
,4 + 7M4 .,
4 34' & + =E= ,6 4 :
.$
+ , ,4 9+ +> 9
. (acceptor)
= ,6 34' ! C$ ,6 *# .= M4
@ E 9= = (p-type material) 9!
9= M4 ' 4 A> . 6 E +% 7,6 34'
. / E
,6 ,4 ) 6 ,@!

" G$ * B
G$ B> 6" .( 5 +
,4 9+
Z - :> =E= G$ ,6 - :>

! G = 5
*# + ,6 # 80
.(19<4) 9+$ + (The P-N junction diode) : G =
:> +% ,6 , 9! +> 9 : 6"
+ . / .0 + ( $A ,' J) = ,6
:> = ( .
0 ,' J ) = 9
n P
154
+ -
(19<4) 9+$
( ! C$ *$+ ) ! G =
:" + 7M4 .

/ .0 + 7+%
+ (The depletion layer) 6 0
A 5
*# :
+%
) , G .+ $
G .+ 9 . + - " 34' # .(=
A + (
/ " L E C6$
56" ., 4 # '
#I . 9+
: Q" F G = G .+ 6. 9!
-+ 6- + .G$ -+
# M4 75
5<10 73<10
D) $ 6. 9! 6" .V! 8+# Q# 9 G$
,6
= ,6 6.

V! 34' Q" 9 G = (+%
*# + 74G6" 7 0.5 6" 0!
3 8+" D ) G =
+" 6. 9! 6" .$
*# 6 @! . 34' Q" 66- (
>
+# 6. :"
+# 6 # A .G =
+#
0.5 :"
+# 6. + ) = C +
L C 7, 6 :"
+# 6 # > 7(
. ! C$ ,6 " 4 = +% "
C =+ :" 5
+# + 7M4
9! 7+4 + 7$ 6. 9! 5 .+

155
7+% ,6
= ,6 6.
9! (19<4) 9+$ + . 7
+# 6.
.= ,6
+% ,6
The silicon detectors )1" 2114

+ .+> = : G = " , " +
*$ +
" #$% 60 A : + 1 9 +% ,6 Q"
,6 Q" @! J .C . + -

. " .
G$ -+ + +%
+ . ,6" :> 9! P # 6 + = ,6
D )
+" 6. *$ + - 6" d : Q" 6 >
: E# (
+" 6. C!
d=dn+dp (4-28)
:
dp = ε ( V )1/2 / 2 π e N P , dn = ε ( V )1/2 / 2 π e N n
e7,6 9-# = ε 7
+# - 6. ' V :
+% =+ ' Nn 7= +% $
=+ ' Np 7(5 ,6 , +% 66" D) +%
.= =

.*$ +

' 6 0
A #
5
" 34' L = +% H-/ 66"
34' 5
4' '60 6

D
G .+ 9 =I .# H-/ 34'
5 .
+% :> +% C 76 0
A
G .+ :> D6& 7= :> = C
.*$ + H :" G .+ B .J
156
:> C6 6 0
A D 5
-
. 34' = +> - 7M4+ 76 CK =
+% 6 9 66" :" A> D A 34' A>
34' .6 #+ = M 7M4 .= 6 + 66" ,
+ 66# '6 6# + ,6 +% +
$
A . + - B =
/ M4+ . 34' 5
'60 #
6 . D 5
6# .+%

, " 34' = + .= +% H-/
+ = 6# + CK @ ' +% "
B = 34' + 66" 60d 7 +% '6
+% Q" + 7M4 . -
* + 6 0
A Q" + 7 @ @!

:" J M4 7 . . :> 9! 9 D 5

D 7# = +% H-/ 66" D 5

.*$ + H :" G .+ B 5

,6" :" = +% H-/ 5-E - 6 #
:" 7
+# 6. :" 6 0
A Q" 9= 79 "
9 =I +% = 9+ M .G$ =+
.G$# + 9#0 M4+ 76 0
A G .+
:" , " E 9 =I
A "

v = µµE
µ + *EA +% = 9+ * '
6# A v +% = D/
A"
. . 9+
6 0
A Q" + 4K .6. 6- . =/5
7 10
' 4' 7 = 8<10 ' $ 5-E - K 5
0.1
- * 7 " .$ - :6/ 6
G = 6 #
9= 9 " ,6" :" C :! :> 0!
7
9<
10x 3 / - 4' F .6 C (*$ +)
.0 ! C$ *$+ = 7<10 :>
,6

-. *$+ 1 4' 56

+ = $
" *$+ +

*$+ 1 4' 5 ,6 56
A 7 " . 0
/ E " L
+# 6 / J
6" .D 5
" L + 5
Q0 CK *$+ 34' 9= -. 5 9 #

(DG 0! 196 D) 0+ _ 77 :> C
9 '> + : 74 E + 66" + A :
.D 5
" L

+#
&3 – & / 3114

Germanium -lithium detectors
56
9B0 CK " #$>
" *$+
7M4+ .D4 '66" + # . =+ J 5 ,6
)
+ (6 0
A )

Q" +
" +%
.E * : (5 3<1
4 8( 5 Q@ 4. . " #$% GB.+ =/
.! C$ ,6 ,6 - M4 75 ,6 5=
66" 9 = 1 5 ,6 5= 4 8( 6#
,6 ! .! V! M4 7 . @ =
6" : 6 0
A Q" ,6 - :> 36 D6& 7
+ P 5= 4 8( 5 .,@!
+# 6.
- 0 ,66 , 6 # 6. 56
0
8@ 5 5
2 66"% ! 5 ,$" )
.(5=
)

5 ,6 - :> , $% 6
4' .
+# ,6 - :> D6& (6 0
A
158
Q0 CK ! C$ ,6 , 6 :"

6 #
B0 , 6 : 5 *$ + 6 M4 7 .
5 M 6" CK 7M4 :> B% .(5_ 196<)
56" : CK 7@ , 6 6" 5= 8@
5= 4 P
6 + C>
+# 6. 9!
9#0 5 4 34' 60 7 .V
M
+$ 34' # .9 *$ + * .+

." 5 ,-. *$+
, (
*$ + :" J 4. .+
,-. M
D (0! 5196ْ) B0 , 6

:" % 9B0 CK 7M4+ .9G
, =I
6. 4' @ A $ 6
+" 6. =I *$ +
.R ,6 - G 0 @
+#
7
& / 4114
The hyper pure germanium detector
4 0 6 5= 5 *$+ * "

@ , 6 C 6 1 0 9G

5 0 5 B # + 6#
Q0
+" - 5 ,6 - "
*$+ 9 " 5 *$+ 7
+#
, 6 D ) B0 , 6 6# 5 .5= 5

+# - 6. 9! 9 A> (9G

. "
66 66# *$ + 9@$ 9 D .*$ +
1 > &?2 5114

E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ -
: . ' - ,6# B - @ *$+
159
,6 9! G ,6 <
*.>.M 1.7 :> 5= 5 *$+
*.>.M 1332 4 " #$%

# = # D4 60 + J ,6 !
= $
*$+ .! 34.
:> .6 9! +
,-.
,6 =+ 9B 4' . % 0.3
- @ ,-./ 9B ' ) I @
,6 (* 9! :" .6
,6 - :> M4
.B *$+
" $" = +% H-/ 66"
I ( / +% H-/
66"
G !% F R :> D6&

5 @! CK 7M4+ .H-/
6 9 " L F K 9! C$ *$ +
.
B0 Q0 H-/ Q#
1
D 5
E" 6 <
7C" ( . 1 0 :! D ) G .+ B
Q" + Q" 6 B M4
. +

5
" .+ B - ! <H
6" + > :> M4 D6& .

5 @!
6
10 :> 9!
9 " 96# 9
. =/5

6. @ M4

Q" @ + > <6
.
+#
$
0 1/ 9! + > '

D 6# . .B# " =
6. + 7E= 0
:"
6- A 7( 66" 66 ) @!
+"
+ . 0
6 "

Q"
160
- 60 6 Q# 4'
6 0
9
M4 5 7 .

.
.C 9 # .
*$ + 5 @! <
.
@ 9 @

56" <-
0
6' 9 +$ :" *$ + 66"> + > <F
7(annular detectors) D = 4 *$+ +
.180ْ - 6"
% M4
3 $ ,-. *$+ ,6 +

.J (20<4) 9+$ :> J B *$+ E!
$ D4 ) 60 + J ,6 ! " #$> *
56
( *.>.M 1332 7 *.>.M 1173 ' " #$>
,6 9+$ 4' VB .B [ *$ +
1.73 MeV 1.332 MeV
104
3″x 3″ Na(Tl)
3
10
102
Hyperpure germanium
2000 3000 4000
(20<4) 9+$
*$+ ,6
161
5 *$+ Na(Tl) 56! 66
E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ #

.B *$+
E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ 6 .

:Z # 34' R .

/ # Q#
4
" *$+ . 6
:" ,6 56" <
. # 6" D 9 6
@ 6

*$ + " ! <
* 6 M4+ 7V
6" ! ,6 +
.B# (radiation damage) . " # $>
. ! 70=+ " #$%
6 6" 9@$ + > 56" 6 ,B <H
.#0 ,
.,+ 5 / 4 *$+
B - ,6 - <6
The spark counter @ 124

- @ , ( (21<4 9+$) D$ 66# +
B .D @B @B 9= 9
9+
F .# - F ,6" @
R! Q@
9 F/ 66" 66- .5 20<2
66" 9! # 6" 6
66# Q# .66# C
F/ 9! . 130 =+ :> F/ 34'
6" . + 15<10 :> 36. 9! 66 9 " 6.
9 :" 4 & CK F/ $ 5
D
.FO (*.M 15<10) # 6. B 9! 74G6" .3

6 9+ 9 " 6. P 6 J
9+ .+ ,$ 6 F/ I " +%
.
162
96 6# F/ :> # 6. B 9 6> 7 "
34'
=+ 0.2 :> 9! - ,0 5

(22<4) 9+$ .G .+ ,$ 6 :> B
.t = 0 # D4 5
96 -
# 6. B 96
HV
(21<4) 9+$
D$ 66#
5

9 :" G G .+ ,$ 6 74+'

H E" 0 6 .$
96 ,6
D 5
56 ! $
.+ $ 9+$ ,66
34' =[ M4+ .J @
(π) - – D
(23<4) 9+$ . '
M4 B

,6" C" 0 66# 96 3 6" E" 0
.
163
V
15
KV
0.2
O
t
(22<4) 9+$
(t = 0) 5
96 -
# 6. B 96
π+
π- π-
π- A K Λ
P
π -
π +
P
π
(23<4) 9+$
66# 96 3 6" E" 0 - <D

D 5
5- 66 D$ 66# 56
+
8 =
@ 9 96 66# B M4 7

,6 D$ 66# . 6
A 66
6" 66# 4' 9B0 .- @ 66# ,6
-
B 96 - + C/ M4 7" 0 @ :" #
CK 7M4+ .# - ,6 9E 5
96 6# =/ !
164
A ,6 9E G .+ 9 56
@ /
+
.! = + 2 :" 6-
Cerencov detectors 134

,6 $
6" C *+$ JA
CK 7,6 34' B "
:" "
- "
'66 + 70#B
@ .+ " #$> # M4 " L
5
# ) " #$% 34' * .G B 66
A . 7F +A " #$> " .# (*+$ " #$>
.
5
"
:" A ,6 D4 66# :" 6 #
: + *+$ " #$> # 5. +
B . ! CK " "

$
6"
34' D6& .( - @
@ .+ 9 )
@ .+
+% -> P " ,6 4
:> B
4' .
5

9 :" 4
L CK
@ .+ 9 @
- @
A
4K .
@ .+ 9+$ " #$% ,4 6!> M4 "
" ,6 ! " #$% K ,@! "
+ 5
+
,6# 6" (destructive interference) 6' E6 96 4
5
+ 4> .0!
34' 6" B ,6$ +
B (phase velocity) "
:" v "
+
E6 ,6# 34' 6" 96 + + CK 7,6 34'
34' 6" B ,6$ * M4 7 (constructive interference) e
' 9+$ 96 $ 6 > + .0! "
∆ t '6 - , 9E .(24<4 9+$) (Huygen`s construction)
: '6
5
9
AB = v ∆t = ( v / C) C ∆ t = β C ∆t
:' β 7Y0 B "
' C :
165
β=v/C
,6 H 1 #$ 9 .
0 ,0 34' 9E
: '6
D :> A
A D = (C / n) ∆t
(24<4) 9+$ .,6 B
+ 9 # n :
:
cos θθ = AD / AB = 1/ β n (4-29)
6! ." L β :6/ 6 E# 34' 66
9 A # ,6
C 6 7*+$ " #$>
:" β6
β min = 1 / n (4-30)
*+$ " #$> 6! A 6 4' 9 β + 4K
β =1 6 7 n = 1.5 ,6
+A 9 # + 4> .,6 "
H 5
'60 D .θmax = 48o : JE
3 7 96ْ = 2× 48 :' C
- 1 #$> ,!
D
(C/n)∆t
A v ∆t υ∆ B
' 9+$ :(24<4) 9+$
56
6 ! B " *$+ + .5
3 '
.0 *" B
166
66 Q@ 7*$+ 9 # *+$ = 56
6
.,6 ! " #$S ! - 8 M4 7 " #$%
6" 7 +> @ 340 * (25<5) 9+$
.*+$ 66" 56
." *$+
37O 38O 39O θ
330 340 350 MeV
(25<4) 9+$
+> @ 340 *
*+$ 66" 56
." *$+ 6"
1 " &A2 B2 144

Photo- emulsion plates and films
= $
+ & " #$% 6"
! 5E F 9E " #$>
#$/ 00
" 6> :> D6& 7
,6 & .K

+ . G B =& = 78
F 50
B0 6 ,6 E 7 " 78
50
F/ .* 0$ M
E 5 :" ! (Silver bromide)
6" .M
E A6 * 0$ H - F 56

R

34' & " #$% B
167
7B0 6 ,6 ( . - ) " #$% 34'
,6" :" ,6 " D ) ,@! + M4 " L
.J% ! Q / 50 # 6" .B0 - ( 4
. + 7 9+ -0 B0 4 66" 66- =
. - F M
E 50 :" 6
9+$ .J
7 5 + .J> " = # " #
3 .J> 50 # B ., 810 . 66- +
6 ,6 -% 7(hypo) . ,6 :" D 5 C= 5=
.B " #$% =I 5 B0
B ,! :" LG :" 9!

34. , 6
66 7
-+ # 6
.= .J% #
- 66 7 #
9+$ " #$% $

= .J 4+'
& + A 6 .8
F 50 :" 6

.+
+ .
.& + + ,6 #
5E/ 56
9 / *$+ 1
A> 7B0 4 " #$% " *$+

F/
9 #
6
6
J *$+ 34'
F

F 56
Q(/ 34. .+ #$/ #
34' 56
+ .+ 800 7 20 .

M
6# . . ." ( " #$% =+)

66" 66 F/
6 E# # F :" =/ 9 =+ 66
. . " #$% 1 # + ( = 9!0 )

" *$+

F/ 5E/ 56
6"
" #$>
#$/ 9= 7$ I D6& A

." L 6

,6 B CK 7
+ 79 = 9
:# . .#
#$/ 9" 0 6" $
% 1 :> 9!
B G " *$+
168
#$/ " *$+ 6" .

,6 5= ,6
R ! 6 $ B 5 " #$>

. ." =E= # D 6%

,6 P
/ *$+ Q# "

5E/ F/ -
:Z
. ." G6 0! =/ .

..
<
. .0+ Q 0 5 @! - 0 <
. 9#

,6 # =+ <H
6" . 6
+ " * > ,6
. #
:'

5E/ F/ " 5'
P@
$ - =+ =/ 9 6 > <
.+
+ :" 9 # E
5- CK
,6
6 ! J <
8 * 6% 6 +
@ 9
.
5- 66 Q@

6

5E/ 56
7 "
Q# " #$% " 66 " #$% " *$+ #

5E 56
7Q@ 4. .#$ 6 " #$% # .
Q# A J 96 "B (5 40x 30 8 )

M4 C # ,6$ 8 5 50 # 6# .B
" #$> " :> # ,6$ 9 5 .CE B
9 " 5 ., # : 5
*# : 56
M4 7!
0 " #$> " 5E/ 66" Q# : 4'
E# 5
5= 7# " 9+ 6" # 6 8 #
169
34' 6 (26<4) 9+$ . # 6 " #$% "
.#

5E 56
6"
#
0.1 1.0 10 "
(26<4) 9+$
! F 56
" # 6 E#

.B0 6 5 :" 7 " 750

6 #
.B0

4 5E 56
" " #$> " 8 6"
4 5E 56
5- B0 " #$% " 8 6"
6 :> .

9! 5E 6 7 " . "

.5 10 5 10 F "
/1 - " 1-"2 154
170
66"
66# I ( 9+ <1
6
6. ,6 @ (
.B 9+$
/ 7B I ( P0 F$ <2

56
+ > ' 7
5 J 9 #
.g . 9+
( +$
9+ 6 F$ <3
.g+$ 56
*@ 1 D 7I
4 ,6 56

0% 6 0+ F$ <4
.@ ( 66"
66" 1
A - - *# ' <5
.g@ (
1 I *@ 0 1/ <6

. .
+ " #$%
" *$+ - @ *$+ 56

+ *+ <7
34. . 0+ ' 7g " #$>
.g " #$%
.*$ + - ,6 ,6 *" <8
6 " #$% 6 F$ <9

B .J : B *$ + :" .
.C :" G .+
171
. 7B 6 1 +4 <10
.0 " #$% " *$+ 56
A
.g- @ B *$+ - 5' ' <11
*$ + , 0+ @ *+ F$ 7*$ + , 0+ *" <12

.0 " #$% 1/
@
*$+) , 5 @ *$ + , 0+ @ *+ <13

.g- @ *$+ - @ @B @ 7(B
, 5 ,6 - ,6 @ *+ <14

.g4 7gB *$ +
*" B 9 # :" 6. =& *+ <15

,6 @ *+ 7g0 *" B
.g6. @ B *$ +
+% - -+ 9+ 6 ' <16

.g0 *" B 66
3 $ ,-. *$+ " - 5' ' <17

.gE!
,6 E! 3 $ ,-. *$+ - 4 <18

.g "
,6 9! = 5 8@ 4 F$ <19

.g " #$% 0$ + C 6
A 5=
172
.+
*$ + 9 " 0+ F$ <20
.5= 5 *$ + 9 " 0+ F$ <21
*$ + " 5 *$ + - ' <22

.g5= 5
' - 5' ' 7g 0$ +

@ 9 # *+ <23
.g . 6
9 7g ."
.g $A (

@ P0 <24
5' ' 7 0$ + " 0 @ 9 " 0+ F$ <25

.g ." ' -
.D$ 66# 9 " 0+ F$ <26
+ *+ 7g*+$ *$+ 9 " 6 ' <27

.g
66 . 6

.g # 6"

F/ 56
*+ F$ <28
+ *+ 7g

5E/ 56
9 ' <29
.g!$ Q# " 66 . 6

12000 I ( C 9+ 60 0 5

<30
" + $ 6 . +> H-
#
+ 4> . / +% D
250 P # 6. 6 + 25 @ 6
.g6. 4' L @ ' 7
173
96 +> @ 4.25 . 0
<31
' 7 = 5
300 96# I (
9+ 60
+ 4>
34' " L
H- + -E @ 96 .
.g*.> 35 ' +>
:" .! 6
1 7 0.1 ." L 6. P V! @
.

66" +S
+ 4> <32
66# 4' *" B 9 # + 7 + 1 '
6 6/ M

' 7 4096 '
.g*" B " .
10 P
9 = 6/ M
*! + 4> <33
' 75 10 6 / *! +
' 56
6. + 4> 6/ 6" 9 ,6$
.g 1200
+> @ 1.7 '6 5

96 6" <34
66" +> H- 7 10 x 5.5 C" L
I " 7g66# 4. *" B 9 # ' 7@ (
.*.> 35 ' 6 H- + -E
*" B / 66 66" ' <35

+ 4> 7g 6 10 36 *" B 9 # / P
.4 D

66 D = #A 9 #
#A 9 # V! # 6. Q 0 6"
.g66 *" B 9 # ' 7 3 D =
174
0
66 *+$ 66" 56
6" <36
34' "
6 7 80ْ 8 - +
.

175

Biological effects of the ionizing radiation
* 5<* F )
/ – * D

6
F – < –
!1 –

G ( !1 – <
! ?$ –

G !
15

$ '!( ) '!*
+ (

$ %)
!"

/ .
,!-
! '
!! * '!
'*
)1 (
!0
! )

2 3$
"4
5/ %

$ .
"/

"7 $ /! 6
! ) '*

!2
2

8(, 9 9

)1

! 8(,

!
.'!
!- ! )1 )
)2
)! !- $ )! ! )
2 '*
2
"4
5/
+
<)
! ;
+ ! ) $ '*
!( :
>
?

$ )$ = .(!!
: 2 5
! 4
)@/ )!*" ) *

. 9/ )1 '!<% 8(, (
!) )!*"
2
,!* >*/ !( : 9/ ; 9
!
$
)1
,!* >* 9

A2 6 '** : )
)2
B
! 9 C( .
?0 $ !(
.'!
!- ! )1 )

173
$ 9!
< !*+ ) '!*
+

H
*
(internal contamination) 9<* = )
!"I )$ ) 9 )?
9/ !1 2 >*
"@/
* .(clinical symptoms) 2 J!$ 5 *
/

,!"I 06 0 '!F J!% 8(, '!<
.
"+
+ 5* +

2
?
9/

G !1
!1 9, (somatic) ( !1
K! 5% .)
9
.

G J! >( 9 )?
LF 9/

)?
!( 9/
!1 9, ! !1
K!
;<
H
7B 9
K (8*
F$ $ M?
$)
.J!

! " 25
)
H
7$ K?
I >$) )
/ /! )2
H
7% * 5+ ! "F !!7 (F< M0"$
H
7$ '* ) )
)
.M<*
"0
F "F 06 '0"% ,$ . FI
" 5 '0"$
O7 ) 5 >!* 0
" 9, 9/ * N0
;< )%
*0 ) 5 9F 0
" * 0
97" 0
" H
!
< )! *$ 9
5 0
)
.H( ;
+ 7, ) 5
The circulatory system # $

% 125
) *
"6< 5 P
% ) '!* ) '!
,
>( P 2 H0% 8(, ) * H0$ 2 P
*$ 9
) ;< = )?! 2 * !- * /*
P 2 )%
*0 * * )%
*0 )!
174
) '!
P . H
7$ H0$ /
M0
'!
H( )%
5 * /* :! <7 .)<7
9/ * !! * . $ 2 (arteries) )! 56<
2 H( )%
"6< 5 5*
=* * !
2
6< ) )! *$ 9
67F 5 ) 9/
6?! )
! 56< * O7/
2 ?! '*!% 56< ** ) * * *1 )!
.P
* ) ! 5 9 5

)
>
) * ) .4* 9 5 '! 9/ 8(, !*
6< (erythrocytes) H!

6< 9,
6< ) N$ 6
* Q?
F+ (lymphocytes + granulocytes) H
7
. FI
6< 8(, ) 5 (thrombocytes)
6<
"
)( H( )% 5 H!
6< /

" H
7
6< .% H
7% /
2
Q?
F+
$ .
,*7 N
/*
! 9"/ C(
!
R! >$ =* * * )
""/ *
.K0 =*
The respiratory system & $

% 225
)! *$ 9
) ;< 9/ LF ;<
( H( ! 06 )% 5+ H
!
<
"! 9/ * !! * )?! 9/ 8(, =* .

6<
.?" 6+ ) ! ! 9/ 5*
/
9/ H" )
! 20 9 2 S
)
T

.
5

56<
!
"F+ C"
9/ ) '! !- * )

LF H
$
9/ * 8(,
(@/ .H" 9/
!
- 5 9/ $ 0
-

175
P '! + $ '! P * 2 H" !
"@/ 0
-

) M@/ !
- 5 9/ * 8(,
(2 .* 9/
"
( !
!/0 H, ! H0 9/ )$ $
"
( ! )?! 9/ ! * C * .

56< >$) ! ;
"@/ )
( !
(@/
9/
"@/ )
( ?
(2
$ .* >! ('**
0
" )$ Q7 C( .!" '* 2 5+ *4 '* )?!
* 5<* ?! 5<* *$ ! 9F
.F< H
7$ 2 M *
"

The digestive system &'% $

% 325
)
,!* 7" '
) 97" 0
" )
I H
% 4* H
% ! '* H>!
2 7
"
0 5F 0
" (, 9/ H( 5 .
"

6< 2 M * 2 M+
+3
!+
'*
2 06 H( !6 06 4
C( 5+/

6<
! C( ; >( H(
$ .
6< H

$ .(0!) + 67/ 5 9/

T!</ H
%
"IF 9
) 9 H
9/ ?( R6% 67F 9, ?
67F
C
(kidneys) ) ! )
"!<2 / < 5<*
.
(@/ .7" '

!
! * *

0 5F $ H
9/ P( >( N ) * 8(,

"0 >( * 2 5+ H( ;
"@/ F<
H
7$ 9/ * 0! )$ ) . H0$
% 9/ 137 0 0! 5
5 / . )
!- *
$ .
I 9/ 90 ! 0! ) 9/ '<!
M 97" 0
" ! !
"@/
0% $ H
9/ )
(

176
M/
,!! H
$ 0
" (, (N
G M7! >$)
.H
% +
<
The cell ( ) 35

5 K! 4* * )
?
H
7$ )
" 5?
' 9, <
,$ .<

" '*
.(1D5 5 ) < !* (cytoplasm) 06
K!
' > ) 9/ < " + "
06 !
I/

,!

"FI <
06

4
2 M+ >( H( 5 06
/ .
"+?
+<

?0 2 *
/ '! +
?0 8(, 5 .'! +
?0
$ .
3 **
<
"
9 9, * !$
! 9 (chromosomes)
! >/ '
)
< > . (genes)
) P!
9* J
)
) .
! 46 9
!
?0 ) ( DRA ) d-oxyribonucleic acid C!
.!
F+ 5 9

8(, 5
3
2
< :(1D5) 5
06 D2 < !* D1
* D4 ' !* D3
177

J N I/
!

6<
9/
,!
$
"
5* 9

) < ! R! .
"
.< N P C( '*

'* ) ( )

(mitosois) 96 !
9, % )! '*
!
=*
9/ 96 !
=* .(meiosis) 9 !
9, :!<%

! ** K
7 = *

6<
.+% < )"

)"
)< 2 +% <
K!
6< ) N ) =* ;
< N "/ 9 !

$
9/ 7 !( 9/ > ) 9, 9 !

6<

'
'!* 56< '* '! !
) N (, =* .%
)* 7 > ) 946 */ .<
* )
> '** < C( )
"
!
.+< 7 C( ) )* 6 ) ( !
) +

!
45
Interaction of the ionizing radiation with the cell
)1 2 >*
"@/ <

*
9/ !% H0 5 >( H

?0
++<
"
J
>* *4 ?
! =* 2 H
)1 >* . < $
8(, X?
!"I )$ ) .< FI 9/ ! =*2 2
,!*
9
J!
2 J!$ 5 9/ )
9/ !

+ 9/ $ (cataract) ) *
2 $ (radiation sickness)
.5 :* )
!

< (damage) K62 2

>* (,
:9
/
,0 '* F< 5! '* 56< )
The physical stage ,

$ )( 145
178
(
16D10 9 ) * !+4 )0 56< ! 8(,
5 ! 8(, 9/ .< $ N
5<* I )
<
H

?0 2

) ) N ) 4

:9
5
F
)1 =*
Photon or particle + H2O H2 O+ + e –
.P
)! , e- P H
)$ , H2O+ =
The physico-chemical stage ,

$ )( 245
=* * ( 6D10 9 ) !+4 )0 56< ! 8(,

?0

% 5
F
"6< =* )1
5 / .'**
! '* 5
F (, ) X/ :!<% H

)!*, )$
P H
)$ 5 )$ ) 5

:
*

OH *!*, )$ H+ P
H2O+ OH + H+
5*
H
H>0 * )$ )/ e- P
)!
$
:)$ >$ P
H
)$ C(

e - + H2 O H2O -
)$ )!*"
!<% )% (, 5
>$ P
*!*"
H2O - H + OH -
)!*" )$ ) 5 ) 2 6
F 8(, >* (,
)!*" '!( OH- P
*!*" )$ H+ P
)!*"
$ .OH 5*
*!*" H>0 H *

9/
C! 3 H
9/
?* '* OH- *!*" H+
H )!*" 9, :!<% X

$ .
6
F =*2
.** 9?

"
/! 9"/ *
OH *!*"
! >( )!*" *$ / , !<Y X
) )$ ) C(
:9
5
F
C(
4 * 6

179
OH + OH H2O2
The chemical stage ,

)( 345

! * ) '* ! 8(, !
H>0 H )!*" '!( 9,
! X 5
F
"6<

?0 H2O2 )!*" *$ / OH *!*"
X 8(, 5
F )$ ) 6/ .< 9/ F< 7
>* $
" */
!
" ) 9 '*
?0
J 9

=* )$ )
"! ! 2
.
9/ !
The biological stage )( 445

! '* ?
4* '* ) ! 8(, )0 R!
9 ?
! !1 !"I ! 8(, 9/ $* .
:9, !1 8(, J .< 9/ *
.< D$
.
"
5* '*
0 $ <
!<1 $ DP
5 < 9/ * ! =* DT
.'*
6< 2
!

?
)
N
!1 )@/ (,
;< LF 9/ !1 8(, )$ ) .
6< K62 )
8(, K! .M *

6< K62 N
G J!
5 )$ ) C( . (somatic effects) (
(?* !1
K! J! ;<
5
% $ H
% 2 !1 8(,
!1 8(, X . (hereditary effects) !
(?* !1
J! ;<
H
7%
6< K62 ) !
.

G
180

, ( 55
The deterministic and stochastic effects
The deterministic effects

( 155
6< ** >! $ H0$ I 9/

'**
6< )
"7
6< J =
J! * . MF?
I )$ 7 $ X
) ! ** N
)

! H
7% %
** J '**
6< H
'*
2 3 8
6<
7
6< 9/ ! ; =* 9

8
6< ) *F !
)
(@/ .MF?
I X $ 7 */ 2 >* >( !% X $
) )?
'
!!3 H0% ) 7 $ X
.)?
(" ,
** K0 N
G !1 X

8(, =* 5
) .% $ H
7%
6< ) !
*
=*
"$ 32 7F<
! *
* !1
)$ 5 ) .) ( $) * 2 J! ! 5+
3 !1 5 ** * 0
* 32 =* 3 !1
9/

! >* .*

! * 32 C( =*
= H
B ) !*
6< 9 K0 2 8(,
8(, K! C( .
! M
"/ 5
K M/ =*

"3 )
'
/
! )
.(gastrointestinal death)
J!
K! J! !1 $ )
8

K! J! , ) *
2 9

!! $ (erythema)
! (cataract) ! $ H
7
.
,!- *
(CNS) & #$ $

% -)
181
$) ! * 5 )
) /

* 3

X?
)$ 32 .>0! 9+ 0
" K
,* $* 9 (
J =* 5* J!$ !"I $
!
'*) *

! * C( >0! 9+ 0
" 9/ K
*0 9)
! ) 8(, C( .(>! ) !
.(CNS) >0! 9+ 0
" (>!- 30 9

5
9/
! 8(, ) 3 '
/ )$ */ C(
.>!- 500 *0
7! 9

Erythema
!
.

! J! *! !"I !<Y !1 C
,
!! ) '!
, (erythema)
!
!1 (, K!
9/ !<Y X >$ ) !$

G J! J! * .*
7F< 4
(

G

++<
)@/ C( .( '! + !<3
"!*4 )% )
!G
4
( % ) >!- 3 9
,!* ! J!
) ! '*
0 * .
! J! =*2 2 >* 7F<
.
,!-
!
:!<$ J!$ !"I )$

)

P
)$ 2 '!
!*

G $
+
5?
) $ 4

K!I 9/ L) *
K!I 9/ )

" J! 9
'! $ 9
2 =*
N4 '!< !
6 5
F
+ 5<* $ M!* T!
< 6 !*+

! )@/ C( .(! C( !- F M4 :*2 )
) >*
5
H
$ )

" 5+ 9 '! +
K!
(, * :* ) '!
7 !1 2 >* )$
.'!<1 !1

182
The late effects * 265
)( 7! $ % 9/ )$
)U Q+$
)7!

2
! "7!$ ;< $ "6
J! ) ,!- ) !$ )
! N$ J
+G
9 !
*
!* *$ * .

G
=* ) $ !( 5
)

G 7!

"6 )( 7! $ 5! =*
5
'0"1

)
$ !
5
$
'!*4 *1 2 6
F 6 %
.

! )

7 9/
6< ( !
) K
7 ) '!
, )
!
K ) X
M$ J * .9 5* / 5* )
5* ) N!$ 5*
"
2 >*
< 9/ 0
"
5*

,!* /
"F F+ '*
6< 5 .9
%
!7 9
! X ) 2 >*
MF !
.) 7 9/ *

P )
!

+ !"I 06 '!F !*
5+/
2 * !I
'*

G J!
) $
( X
M )

) X
)
!
) .5
5 ! * J!
:!<$ P
$
'* 56< !"I *4 F<

! )$
?
+ J !"I$
!I .

G J! 4 ) 30 5 ) R!
F */
,!"I )0
+ :* F<
+
) ! >$ )$

4 !I " )

.J! ("
+
3

" 5 – 4
" –

P

J!

+ !* )$ *
!
4* ?
+2
!* 5 */ .

% 9/ H
%

)

! J! 9
!* C 9, 4* !% !* )$ 32 .!
5

183

!, ) 5 ) )!F

7 !$ 9
! ) 46 !* */ . 1945
)

9/ 90

* C( F<

!

+ )

* 6/ 7F<
!

$ .

!
) ** *< */ C( .)
) /
?
+2
$
)
C( 7F<
! 2

!
+$ (ICRP)

4 * )$ 32 .(2D5) 5
) 3* (2D5 5 P ) 9< **3 *<

8(, *< .7F<
! *
+ 5
!*
(

G J! *
+ 5
!*

+ 5
)
(2 M@/ C( H
.7F

;< 10000 ) J!
* )
!

) ;
< $ < , ;< 5 !F 9 10
,!* !
!F 9 100
,!* ! * M@/ K3Y '! H3, )
50 , ) )
!

+ 5
Q+ " 5
.
+<
5
3
!
(2D5) 5
184

+ 5

! ) 46
185
F< H
7$
+2 5
!* 0

.'! !

) X
)
!

'* B 5 * )

) **
)
J UNSCEAR >!( N
!1 !*
'* )

!% '*
3 9/ :!<%
P F<

!

+ !
< !*
,!-
H
7$

+ N0 F

!*
+ F< T(
*< J! (" .>!
!* =*$ (1D5) 5* ) .J! F<
$

5 9/ )
!
F< H
7%
+ 3
6
* 9/ )+ '* '*
3 )

)
! 3
3 8(" 5* (, )
.!!
F< H
7% 9/

! 3
3 :(2D5) 5*
. 3
3 5* L< 9/
*
9 5
3
7
5
3 )+ !!
3 )

'* '*
0.090 0.269 0.30 0.098 0.014 0.038 ! 9
0.144 0.224 0.050 0.136 0.033 0.291 '*
0.27 0.103 0.225 0.206 0.320 0.180 )
0.179 0.097 0.274 0.141 0.205 0.174 )?!
0.052 0.022 0.085 0.048 0.075 0.023 !*+
0.022 0.020 0.031 0.016 0.031 0.015 )+<
0.067 0.026 0.091 0.078 0.076 0.052

0.089 0.079 0.064 0.127 0.096 0.077 9I N
<
0.150 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.150 0.150 H
7% 94

1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 N
186

90 !F+ ) R! !
% C( L< 5*
.=
!( ) 5
The risk factor .

365
H
*< ? !1

+ 5

J!

+ 5
5
(" *+ .!
< 5
Q+
J!B
.'**
2 ! J! * 9?
)
!
*!F
+2 5
, !
< 5
)@/ 6
!
5
L
C( .(!100) !F 1
,!* ! M7! *
. !F/1 '* !
$) 0.06 , !F 1
,!* ! * )
!

+ 5

>$) 0.12 !F 2
,!* ! * 5
3 (, Q+ (% 6

/ ! n
,*!/$ ** ! J!
* .(% 12
Ec

F ! 4 Q+ *!/ 5 E
,!*

:9,
EC = E n
** >$ ) 8(, ) )
!

+ 5
*

:
46 *< ( )
!

+
1)
. =
! /
(
3333333×
3
33
×3
33'
..

187
* F<
! !
< 5
(2D5) 5* )
) )(
!F 1
,!*
/
2 ! J!
+ 9 *" T( 9!7 T(
, T(

!
< 5
X P!
= (NIH) !% '*
3

.)(
:

/ ! 9
2 !< 9/ 5
1000 J!
)
!
P
+ 9 3
** P$ . !F 9 20
,!*
* 5 )$ (2 F< T(

8(, )
.
K!I LF 9/

40 '* 5 5
H3, )
: (
40 5 * ;<
" J! 9 ! 9
2
:9,

E = 20 (mSv/ year) x 40 years
= 800 mSv
= 0.8 Sv
9!7 T(
)
!
P1 * 5

+2 5

:9,
P1 = 0.8 (Sv) x 0.1
= 0.08 = 8 %
) )
!
)
+ )( N1 )
**
:,
N1 = 0.08 x 1000
= 80 workers
NIH 9 + *" T(
5

+2 5

:9,
188
P2 = 0.8 x 0.088
= 0.0704 = 7.04 %
) )
!
)
+ )( )
**
:, T( ("

N2 = 0.0704 x 1000
= 70.4 = 71 workers

!
+ !
< :(3D5) 5*
.+ 9!% 9 *" T( 9!7 T(

!F 1 5
+ 5

*" T( 9!7 T( *
+ 9
0.093 0.102 )

0.087 0.112 '*
3
0.102 0.095 !!
0.097 0.129 '*
0.060 0.063 )+
0.088 0.100 5
3

75
The hereditary effects of radiation
K ) X

G ! !1 )$ 2 '!

K! – ! 2 K (, >* .

6<
*4 .< ! '*
9/ (genetic mutations) ! !
(ovum) 7 P
+<2 =* !
2 '!

+< 7 5+ 9

(sperm) > )

5+ C( .)* 6 ) ! * )

4 (genes)
) )
) 5F
9/ (*?
$) P
, )
*$ )$ * *4 .* 5 )
189

F+ ** 9 9,

.! !$ ) ( ! ! )$ 2 '!

" 9
9 J! ?
< ) I% H0 ) ?
.

), 6 75

.F< H
7% * 5<* 5?
R! D1
.< 9
K =* !% 5! R! D2
.

G ! ( !1 ) )!
4 D3
._)

G '! !1 9,
D4
10 2 1 ) F<

! '!< :* `4
D5
.)
>!
) K _

G '!<1 !1 9,
D6
._ !1 8("
+ 5
!*
8!*
_
!
+G '!< 5
,
D7
._F< T(

190
) K _

G '!<1 !1 9,
D8
._
"
+ 5
!*
=*
)
!

+
)**" ** P D9
9 10 4 *!/ 600000 J! 2 :*$ >
2D
10 x 6 , !
< 5
)
(2 " 5 !F
(
!
+2 360 :5) . !F 5
191

Radiation survey meters and dosimeters
–
)* FI% 01$ – 8 G
()*$ –
()*$
I
I
$ – %
16

!"# $ % &
,-+ " ' ( ()*$ $
/ - $ /
# ()*$ $ . $
34 5* 0%
. $ 01$ $ -. $
(radiation survey
()*$ 0
6 % ()*$
751 $ 8 meters)
:
# % ;%$ ()*$ 0%
" .!"# 9 &
751 < . ()*$ * ,: < & =* $
$ )4 6" >/$ $ 0%
* & ()*#
34 95 < . & *. 1+ $ ?
(@8& $ ) @
! ! >/ ! 6"
!$ !" /) (. @/ /
.*-% ! !" & !
/ "
! 6" )* 0%

!" C @/D&

=E .%
6-% 6" : 6-%C 95 */ /
F% 34 6-% 95" *: *" >/

()*$ ! .% >/$ ( 0%
95 .)* 51 @
191
>/ $ *C $ !
( 95" . ! !" & *: *"
J (personal dosimeters ) % I
! >/$
(TLD) 3 8 (film badge)
0. (
/" 8 % 0-$
$ < 5 F% . %
34 I
751
>/$ 3 6 . 51 / .% * 3
%
()*$
.
! "# 26

Characteristics of Survey Meter
: 3
)* & & !$ K
: *1$ ! :
:$
%& '(
/"E 0%
C *
E )* K" :
M
/ % .% / =)# / =E
.*. / /"
:*& $
@/$ 6N 6% & )* !$ K
!5 F%# ! " :
)* 0%
O (
.()*P 0* K
$ 6%
:( ,-* ,-.

*%/ 0 ! +
&
= 0%
)* !# N/ 95
6.% 54 </ )* ) !$ K 95" . .% !"$
. & :"
192
:
1 *
(
! ( 3 !$ !" 8 + / !E
N/ . )* ( K 34 5* .:%
F% :
95 !"$ !E 0%
"
& ( 6" 0$ 51 <? )*
5* )* (= 5%M 95 F% !"
. ./ 51 0%
8
=8 8: !"

. 2#
! >/

! )* ) !$ K
.*/ (4 " ! 6" /" 95 !
The survey meters 36

( 6" !
)* !"
I*" ( 8 )* * $ " /"E
) .!) ( & * ?/ $ ! Q/
)* (?/ 0N/ ) ()*# 751 3
;
() E @/ !" @& ?/
0 "
! )* (= E N/ E !
1
3+# .% 6" 0%
.%R
$ G4+ $
/ $ !S 6+
@. 0%
6" 0 . ? 6"
&J" *
=E */ 6" K: >/
.8 <?% 5
)* 0%
?. E /
'
/&
;%# 6" 3 !S !S &+ ! ( 6"
! 6"
/ $ . 751 <
-
193
$
/ 0%
?. ! @/D& .$

8 8: () !S &+ ! $ 0%
!" ! & .4+
(BF3) & J )4 )
/ $ !

/ 0%
95" . // ! 6"
! 6" 95 !JE J !* /+ ( ()
0: / ( 751 ! ! ,:/
//
.)4 % !S =D ! 08& @ :
!/
" 6" 0N & Q/ !S !$

% ()*# ) !$ K @/D& /
:
. :
.% ! 8
(
/ ! ( @/$ :
/
C ; 6
: / ( E .% : / )* & Q/
.% : / !) ( & ?/
/ $ ) (
$ :

=8 < ( / : / 1 E

3
2
1 1
0.1 1.0 10 :
(1G6) "
(2) 4+ (1) !S &+ ! "
C / /
194
E /
'
/ (3) ? 6"
/ / (1G6) " ! .: < /J

4+ (1 / / ) !S &+ ! " :
C
(3 / / ) ? 6" ? 6" (2 / / )
" 51 ! ? . E /
P
/ 95
: ! <
; & : J
) !S &+ !$
"
/ $ .(& !"E 4 10 0.3 !)
/
) *& ? 6" 4+ !
& (6.E.9 1000 300 !) :
:
?.%/ $ : /

C ; 8 !
: 751 / I:% = 751 : !$ !" 95
.* 0)

:
(2G6) "
F ! 0%
/ 4+
C / /
195
@
/
!" @/$ E (
! 0%
/ 95 4+
/ J
! /& . 6: 0$ 7+ F" .%
/ / 5% ( 0
1.5 @"
) . (0
0.3 @"
) F
.(2G6) / / ! " : ! "
C
! 6" %

()*$ (
T 5 137 0)
N/ ! < 0%
E
@: 5 226 0 N/ ! $ 6.E.9 662@:
8 )* 0%
/& .& !"E 4 0.8 & .
!$ !" @/D& .% : 5
! J"$ $ $ 751 ! )* (= !"
" - 3 %E J 0 8& 95 .* 88
& ?&$
: ? 6" 4+ !
.( & !"E 4 2 0.1 ! ) : ! <
$ ;
0
3& 45 6 136
Ionization chamber survey meters
6" *%
C !S 6+ ! .% >/$ 0 !"
& !S 6+ 0%
?. @/" >/$ < !

/" . E ! 6"
()*$
$
/ /8 4 (4 !S 6+
E

=E / ?. */D& 4+

/.
" ( ! 8 C
< .C 751 / QI/ !S 6+ :
& : *
J E !S &+ ?. & K

$
3+# 6" K
/$ ! *

:
0N/ 3+# 75* &4 .
196
3
. ! .?/ 0N/ Q/ (
.6"" !S 6+ 0%

()*$ >/$ 3
:1% % ;- (0&*

() 7&

The condenser R- meter
3 8 %
()*# ,$ ! )* 51
. /
# (!/) " (exposure)
()*# ! ! @ : J
)
!$) ! (3G6 ") )* 51 !" .( %

:1 !
I
(=8 ! )*
(charger- reader device) G1
0
()* !S 6+ ! G2
. (=8 ! )*
197
@& % F% 6 (=8 ! )*
Q )* M !$ E !S &+ ! 0 .!S &+
/
-% Q M ! " *N ..
E M / .)* Q K" K"
"
&4 3 0 95 . / $ &4 !$ .
E ! *%E E $ /
'
8 .% M * 68 (=8 5%$ 0 .6
% )4 */S % ! Q/ * (=8 751
.( ( @I)$ $ ) !/ 3 8 */$ $ &4
I*" 8 ! ( 1 )* 51 & !S &+

! )" K:8 ! " *& :
(electrometer)
</ .( /$ $ /"E $ ) .% *" /
198
5 ) =* I&" ( ! ( &4 !
.!/ $ -" 1 ( 7.64 = Z 1 =* :

!
" &+ 0
6 95 !
" " &4 "
=* & !S !$ K @/E .(thimble chamber)
9
.% 0 S 6+ 0%
K @/D& &4 %
& . .% : 5 /. 95 ! 6%
! ; */ >/ " F% 64 ! >/$ J-J
:1 :
35 6 ! ?.%/ : 5 &+ G1

.6.E.9
35 ! :
: 5 ' &+ G2
.6.E.9 400
400 ! : 5 ' &+ G3
.6.E.9 1400

5 6+ J-J >/# 751 ! >/ " !
!" & ;
$ ( K
.%
.!
% 10 E 2 ! )* 5* 3 W

.
/ 751 0
0%
C /
(/0&*
)7&
$
Cutie pie survey meter (R/h)
E ! Q/ 3 8 )* 51 0%

3 8 @/ >/$ : 0 . /
# $
& ! 3 / )* 6 .
! Q/
0
C 51 !$ ! 0+ . "Cutie pie” 0

% " ; E */ ()*P " !
199
()*#
/ @%
> @/$ CE .()*# ! >/ 51 Z/E &
.' 6"" !S &+ 0%
3
)* 51 ) . =* )* 51 & !S &+ P
@/$ @ 01$ ! . : " ; J

3
0%
@/D& 95 .

( (4G6) " ! . E
&
.)* &+&
=
5 (*& ( / 236
Proportional or G-M type survey meters

/
()*$ 01$ ! ()*# ! >/ 51
. ?.%/
5 E $

0 S >/ 51 ! 6" /"E E 95 & K
<
64 /8 4+ 8I.

E .% "$
$ ! 6" ()*# 751 0%
95 .!S
-?& * * (8. !

3 8
I *%
!
$
/ 0%
()*# >/$ < . .?
)* ()*# 0N ) 95" .?/ 0N/ 6"" 4+
.!& $ 0
" @
/ ,:
@/
E &? ;
(
0" !" 95
$) ! 5 )* 3 8
.( 8 & ?/
200
(4G6) "
3 )*
201
& 3 & ()*# 751 J 0%
C
.4+ !) : K

336
/ Q/ !
()*$ < ( 0
.% @I)$ )* /" FI% 4 N/ !" .*/E
! "S 95 . ()*# 751 ( (E K @/D&
1# + &

$ $ ( (E .*=
K 4+ 0%
()*P
/ %
)* / $ =E * J-J " ( < *
.: 4 " / 95"
& 6" <? 95

()*$ ( 0
!" !$ ?. .<
/ !
/1 <?
K: ./ 5 >/ ! ( 0%

34 5* 0%
+ .* E
=E
.226 0 60 " 137 0)
! :/
0%
C . 6N < ( 6N ,: !$ K
95 )* ( Q < ( 0 !$ )*
( 0 !$ K " . :/ / 0%

8 ! "S 6" ! &
(
!S ( &

" < !/ < QI/ 8: 95)
. 3G 1 ! W ?. &

E & ( =E ?. ! # 3 &

:/ " ./ * $ 0%
95 /
" & !" <? & # 751 <? <
( $ ) / @ <# ! !" (5G6)
@/D&
8 $ ( =E / .( J !" "
& @/D& 95" .!
& .% 5%M !$ K
202
!) C & <? !$ K ?/ 6" 0%

. 88 (=8 ! $ (= E M !) 51 !E 6"
.% /)P
/ =8 K 95
.(=8 & S:% K
/
1 d 2 d 1
(5G6) "
/ E & (
6" G2 4 G1
>-& 46

The contamination monitors

()*# . ! Z C
8 !# N/ *E !? % 8 E
751 ! // $ E ! % 751
& J
I :% !$ CE .4 !"
! ( K
$ :
# J I
8:/ & =* $ ,-+ 0"
203
$ # $ :
# J .131 J */ (: %
:% J" ) !$ !"
:% =* $ -
0%
51 ! 6" !" C ! & % 3
."5 8

()*$

)* !S @/S )* !"
*
?/ * " /"E )* 6" !
()*$ !$ CE .?/ 0N/ ()*$ <

()*S /8 8I&

)
()*$ & %
6" !$ E 95 & K
.

$ .$
! 6" F% >/ ! 1
()*$ C .1+ ! (:8& /
$)
!" // $ E
751
6" (=."& .
$ 751 < !
100000 " 1 ! 8 ) 4 (4 // $
!" 751 !D& 95 ! -?& .(!/ $ !&
8I. *8 N/ 6" 4 ( ! (
6" (=." T& .$

/ $ .( )
.6" % E 0
% : % 100
751

W
4 8 (" (5&/ 6" )* 95
6" % ! 0
% .
751
. ! 6" !"
@/D&
%

6" 0N !$ E (
( 8 . 8 (5&/ 5 G4+ 0%

. 95" . 8 !" !) ( &
?
()*#& ." . F% 6"
1000 78 J

131 8
0.4 T 5 8 *%
K 20
/"
(6" $) )*

6 .20
/"
204
(=." ) :
51
) "& (5&/ :

.6" 51 (

)

!
56
Personal dosimeters
;

0%

</ 95 ! % $ !" & 3
*& 0*J" ;8 (. $ !"# 751 & !

0%
C !" .(:% 3 &-
% 8 8:"
95 / /) ( -% !"# 751 & ! * 3
: K
P
% % 6N 6-% 6-% G$

. : $
4"
6-% % % %R E !" ! ! 8/ GK
.!"# 751 6-% 3
/) (& & * 3 .

( ) !$ K @/D& !"# 751 J /
J" .(personal dosimeter) % 8 0
6
8
0. 1 I
751 ! >/$ J-J 0%

(TLD) 3 8
The film badge . "-

156
I
J"$ !
0. ( /" ( (&

0& ! 8 51 !" . % 8" /

0. ( 6 9
- ! % N& % <?
34 6-% 0%
0. >/ 6% .(film badge)
(radiation 0-&$ 0 ! & ![ 0%
.@ F%
205
! ( 0-&# 751 . ! 6" % monitor)
K
!* -" ! (:4 9
- ! 8
& <
>/ ! @# $ K
!"

1 95 ! 34 .%[ @ =: >/ ! !" !
K
& . ! <
; & . /"E
5E . ! !" (fast emulsion) <

) 5E $ ..
50 .
" 50 ! 751
>)/ E M 51 !D& .
50 ! .
" & (@J 7*N) @ / 0. ! <
K
8:
.

# (slow emulsion) =: K
8: 8 (
50 ! * W . !" 95

0-&# ! Z) / $ 0%
..
10 .
*N / .

.% !* 5 0& 0%
! C
. *-% 0. ,:/ @J 0.
8 .>/ " ! " < K
/
. (densitometer) 8 6 F% )* 0%

! >/ " !" 95
! - / / E > 95
.(< . <)
! 8 ! ( *& ( 6G6 " ) N& $

)& <: ( J 95 5&/ & ( 9
-

)
>/ ! 6" J
! 34 !" .(// /
# E
./" E : ) / $ 751 3
0. =) & *: *"
! 6" 0
F C 95 N& & ( . <
E $ .1J$ @& 9&
0. E
75*
! * J (5&/ =) & 8&
JS ! $ E 1 :8 751 !$ .F
F & Z)# Z/E $ !" JS $ I?*"
206
$ .@ 1J$ 9
0. E /" 751
! !$) ! ,& & *
0& //
F ! " ! !" %R ,
F
.0"
K $
(6G6) "

0. G$
=:4 5&/ 5 N& GK
. 51 ! Q/ 0" ( < . //&
E M ( n , γ) . $ γ E ,-:/
! !" () E . 51 ! (
" . / ! 0" F
*
./ 9
- ( ! !/ !%R ! N& &
50 /J 9
20
/0 300 # 9
T
! & ,. ! !51 ! 34 . 20
/0
50 =) . 0. =)
=E
: & 34 20
/0
@"
T 5 9
-
/ # 95" . )- :
E ! 0%
@/D& 20
/0 300
.*: ! "
207
.% ! . 95" N& 6:$ :
,:/ & !" 95 F ! & $ 9-
S
N& % <? !$ !" 95" .3 *? ! .%
3 8" 751 .0/ ( ! 8
// ! . /" 5D& . &
751 !D& (0 1 ! $ $) .
10 ! $
( E * 0/ ( :/ &"
() :/ !" .

6" $ 0%
0/ (
.3 51 ! /
. "?4@ $

256
% 8
"

0-&# )
: # . "?4@
"# .K ( ) (
. *J (

. F% *8& G$

I
95 1 @
-
.@
/ "
5 F% & E 0 */J F% GK
. /. *I% *
!$ *N. / $ & *= (E !"E GZ
8J 95 4 C
.3

# $
7( . "?4A 0B4 !C $* 0
: -
(J"$ $ * ) : ( ( 0. 0%

G$
$) J *N' 95 @
E 0
0 C !D& 95 .(
208
! (* ) : (& CE
3 F% !" !$ !" 0. 0%

.(. 751 -% * W
! $
. 8 /E 8 !" C GK
0 =? ( ! 0-&# N. (? GZ
4 -J (
" I& !"# & (
.
K
FI%
.(* ! J"$) : ( 0. 0%
0 G
D. 7
(
356
The thermo-luminescent dosimeter ( TLD)
3 8 0%

.3 95" 0
& 0"
)&C ( ! ( 1 F% 6" 34 5* 0%

/ .(CaF) 0
" & $ (LiF) 0J & ! (
? &) 751 J :8
751 8/& ( /"E E 751 : 8/ (

01$ ! . : $ (band) E /"
E 8/ /" !$ ? FI%
& ( ( !$ : 751 & 8 $
0200ْ ) ( E ( !%
/ . /
,& / < # * E /" ( 0300ْ G
I? ? " & /# # ! :
" < */%
/ ( ! =? " K
/ . I
" / @/D& 95 . :
! :
I? 6? K/$) & I
! S =?
( / . !" (-J
( 0%
! */"E (J */%

. 8" ;%$
209
!$ CE .' (

0
" & ( )
0J & ( $ . .? : 4 *

. .? *

!$ 0+ :
)&
: -
D. 7
(

"# 0
. *%

(E G$
C #& . *
GK
@& ( ) !& & CE Z
.( =? " 8 )* (0250ْ
: 4 <
; & : *
GZ
.
0. /8 :

(= ! <
$ ( *%
/"E G
.!%
CE *& /)% : 8. C */$
! * % /. / & E 0 1
.*%
5 F%
: -

0 E* 6# $

# 0 0 F/
.

0-&# /8 ." () G$
>? 95 8 N. /"E 0 GK
" !%
*& /)%
.@
Q/ =?
3 8 0%

/ (%# /
&
0-&#
751 % ! &
* 3 % &?E
" $

* $
$ $ . ) ( /) & -%
/"& 0. ( $ .( " . :$ $
( ) : ( " ! ( 0%

.( 8 *
210

*&
* 1 G 456
Fast neutron track plates
>/ !
0& ! (
// J$ W$
" E @ 1 (9
$) N& % >? F%
8 51 0%
.
0. 5 8
( < // 751 .
// %
751 08 ./ Z% . 51 ! Q/ 0.

/ ! J$ *N

K
( !S /
K"
" 0%
J[ 751 0 .0. J *NE
8 J 20
1 & J[ .F%
.
// ! /
! E 8 8 51 0%

!"
..
1 .
1 ! 18 W
//
J[ 8 51 K 01$ !
95 ! -?& . 75* –
/ – (" ." K"
"
/& .
/

0-&# ! >/ 51 !D&
100 & E ! E *
.% N/
// J[ .
. E K
@" 0. & (
The pocket dosimeter (

556
3 8
! ( 1 8
0 ( 7G6 " ) 8 51 @ .( !/ ) %
(4 /:
&+ ! K" .0 " !
! 9 K:8 </ .9 %[ J 1 $ !:
! *" / !:8 ! / . )" ( ! <& :%
211
.&/ ( . 9 K:8 & !:8 &/ >/ ./
$ E % !S 6+ % :8
/
. &4 % )4 !S E 751 M /

8& !:8 ! " / 8 !S ! /" / /
E ! <& )" :% 9 E M */ &/ (
/ )* 8 51 @ 95 .: @?
:% 5 =*" 8 0
@ ,: 95 I*"
.)"
(7G6) "
8
; E </ $ & 3 (= !"

*/ =? % W
95 6. Z) ! /:
#
8 ) Q * &. ( ! ;%# (8 </
Q 51 "
* K" (@I)$ $ !/ 3
=? / @* 8 (= 0 . (=8 !"
.Q ,& )" :% N *N&
-% ! N/
. $ & ( 3 !" 95
(& 1.5 7* T) * </ 0%

8 ! 0
!" J :% ! !" $ )" :% !$ E
' &4 3 / . . (=8 1 (=8 751
.3 8 / : @? E :% 9
212
1 ! *

W 0-&# 751 ! .% >/$
51 =8 !$ E ( ..
100 .

/ K
E M (*$ () !) ! : ( 8
95 .3 $ ! 3 (= 95 : * !
95 3 0 &
# K
8 & K @/D&
.' . 3 34
- - 66

()*$ & 1& K : 01$ "5 G1
.

)* */ !"

# =)# 1 G2
.\ .% '
6+ 0%

()*$ ) 01$ 1 G3
.\!S
$ !S &+ 0%

()*$ ! ! G4
.' 6"" 4+
751 ! " 3 8 /" . W G5

.@ ." W /"
/" 751 ! " 3 8 /" "5 G6

.@ ." W
5./ !" 6" \

()*$ ( K 5 G7
.\ (
213
01$ 1 \ )* /" 1 G8
.\
)* ! @/ ,.
. ! 34 1
0. ( K" W G9
.\ .%
8
0. ( 0%
!" 6" G10
.\ .% '
.\
0. ( K ) 01$ 1 G11
// ! 6" // J# W$ 0%

6" G12
.\* 8

) "5 \ 3 8 $ 1 G13

.8 51 K
8 0%
6" 8 K" 6 G14
.\ %
3 8 ! " ! ! G15

.
0. (
214

Units of radiation dosimetery
– >" "8 – G
<" –
– @
2
*
8? –

*
G ( – 3 (5
(
1– 7

. !" # $%& ' (
0 -. /" (
" *)
**
4
5* 2" 1 ' $%& .* 2 3 3

* :
69% - . *8 7 *" 63
.&1 *;*
. -

9%* 6

6>/
* : /"
< = **
' &" 2 3 >5
0 9%
3 @ " .3 2" 4
!
? >

#

.
! 67
2" * :
; 7A"

–
" * –

' 7A" 69%

& C D

< = @
.
"
2 E -
2"

:
5 C* (1. %& F5

.
(

)
215
(
# )
! 27
Radiation flux density ( or fluence rate )
&

>" "8
) 23 1 &' (/5
*
>" "8 D
. $%&
8 2" (

H1 1 3 %A" . .5 (E % 1
7A" & >" "8
D " **
.(
H1
( 2 I)
1 %& *
1 K φ >" "8 D

.
(1G7) ( J

! R " * P S 2 7 2
' C1
8* * R " $%& L
* 6 S 1

! 2" 1 -
>" "8" .1
: * 2& P *
φ = S /A (7-1)
θ θ
dϕ
R P
S Y
dθ
φ
X
(1G7) (
2 1 P >" "8 D
.

216
2 J A 6(
8/3
* ) 1 S L

J # L
.R &' C1 &! 2" 1
:2& R &' C1 2

A = 4 π R2
:2& (
8.23/3
*)Φφ >" "8
φ = S / 4 π R2 (7-2)
-
* D
φ >" "8 I
.
R " -* -
S 1
O >
(SI)

" 7 #

(" &
J1
>" "8
.".

( 2 -
* *
5E '/ $%& C
.2 1 (>" "8 )

% 1

(
#

.

1 .5 (E
.5 1 1

E
8 2"
. .5 '* Q :. # 1
6

(>" "8)
(
D
6%
>" "8* C
5S J1 35

. .5 QR

' >" "8 C .(energy flux density) '

8 2" (/5 '
>" "8 " D
7A" 6 ' >" "8
.

E ' :. $% %A" .'
: * 2& Φ ' >" "8
Φ=Eφ (7-3)
>" "8

7A"
' C/5
:2O '
217
Emax
Φ = ∫ φ dE (7-4)
0
"8
2 I
J1 #
. (Energy fluence rate) '
( & J*1 ' >"
The exposure % 37

3 & 6
. (
@ J1 35
; @ J1 35

63 3.* .2
!
" 5O

5 @
' 3. %* .
< = @
63 T5 - 1 I 6(external exposure)
(5 (5 I 6(internal)
5
'
(occupational) 2* @ C1
' 6
3. %* .3
6
< * (

% F5E @ I
F
5 C* @ I 6 (medical exposure) 2**
& (normal) I* @ C1
' 69% . / 3
1
(
H C0 2" L
I% @
@ I (potential exposure) * C1

6
C1
' 69% /" .
# L C0 K
' I%

Q
I% @ 9% & (acute exposure) * @
>' )
1'
! " (/5 @ 2" &
(chronic exposure) !* C1
' 6(
' 3

" (/5 Q
'
Q
I% @ 9% &
.(

@ (8 )

!

7* 1
" @ 2
!
. 3.
62 4 K
&*
2
<
=

/5 @ " .( 7 @

6 $%& 2 ' 4!
/5 $%& F
<
I< 2 2&
/5 (5 1 ' $%& . ' *
6@ >
' 25
C
# .. #
218

R C 4 @ & 62
!
. 3.*
(" # H
3 ) ' .5 #
. I H

C0
3 @
2
:

D

?
* :
' 2& ( @ I ) 2
* & @ * >. " 69% .C0 $%& 2" 4
2" #

?

C0 C 4 ( 3 3 1 I ) 3
760 $ H U3 .1 I )

.( >*!

Roentgen (R) '( – % &

5 (Roentgen)
* C * @ :
:
$%& 35 .

E C I% 3 V%

E
( 2
'
. .5 ' % #

7 E ( 2" 6 ( R )
C
3 '

* T# # I< 2 ( @ I )

3
3 2" (1 esu)

& ( * * )
: I 6

C0 C 4
1 R = 1 esu / cm3air (7-5)
0.001293 2&

C0 4 " # L

3
C 3 * *

6 3/3
: '/*
1 esu = 1 / (3 x 109) Coulomb (7-6)
219

30 * R
C
J*1 "
:& (SI)

1 R = 1x (1 /3x109) ÷ 0.001293
= 2.58 x 10 -7 Coulomb/gram
: I
1 R = 2.58 X 10-4 Coulomb/kg (7-7)
T# # I<

I% @ &
I
3 ( 2" 3 4G10 x 2.58 & * *
*
L
.

C0 C 4
2
%& A" 3 19G10 x 1.6 I
E
:$ n

E
T!E K

n = 2.58 x 10 –4 / 1.6 x 10 –19
= 1.61 x 10 15 electron-ion pairs / kg air
.

C0 2" C 4 3
( 2"
2
– 2# T! T !/ ' L

2" Q 2 '
6C.# 34 2 2& C 4 2"
:2& T!
4
ε = 34 x 1.6 x 10 –19
= 5.44 x 10 –18 Joules
3 # ( * ' 69%*
:2&
1 * @
C 4
E = εxn
= 5.44 x 10 –18 x 1.61 x 1015
= 0.00876 ( joules/ kg)
@* 2" 5 !
3W
V >* ; E
"
;# 6
E
220
2" & ' .5 #

.$
W C 4

3
' & :
C
2" ' F1 C/5; 0 6
< V5E
( 2 '/
# D
7A" 64 2" 7 3
E @ 7"
# (C 4 @ I) @
@ I* 3 2" 1 ' ' .
*
7A" 69% .3 /( 0.0096 2&
1 $
* %5< D
= 7"
# @ (

.* 2" (0.00876 : 0.0096 )
47

The radiation absorbed dose
#

E 1' @ 3. E 0
'
# ( C 4 ' .5
# 4 ' (
( 3W 6
*

!
"
35 3 " 6I* 3 '
6' -
Q -
' (

C . $% Q -

. 1
3*
( 2 '

* 2& 1
Q -
J1 %& 35
.
3
<
( 2" 5 . 3 E -
'
(Radiation absorbed * C 1 :
E
.dose- rad)
The rad & 147
221
& '
( * 7 C
6
" 6 1 3 ( X# 100
: I
1 rad = 100 erg /1 gm matter (7-8)
7G
:A" 6( 10 = T# 1 : L

1 rad = 100 x 10 –7 / 10 –3
= 0.01 joule / kg
* ,-( + & *) 247

The Gray (Gy)
5 " (SI)

30 *
3 # * (Gray - Gy) IW 2& 1 :

:

'
> ( I% IW 2
!
.
& 1 ' & IH . 1
3H ( ( 1 = I 1 : I 6 3H ( (

1 Gy = 100 rad (7-9)
'( ' .! 57

:
' ! K
3

E 30 2" 7 #
69% .@ :
' @H* 9% 6
*
69% . * (
0 /
/
4

&
* <" '/ " D
* 1
' #
* ! 4' !/
.IH
1 Z"

$ % '
3H/( 0.0096 Z"
64 3H/( 0.00876 &
222
7A" 6 3H/( 0.01 & . 3
: 0 /
*3 0.00876 = 0.876 /! 01 + '( 1
*3 0.0096 = 0.96 /! '( + '( 1

** Z"

1 $
5E '/
*
* 2" %5<
D
.*
1 3
6 #

= ** '

. Q -
(
"
'( , 56 + 4 67

Biological effects on the human body
:. K 6 3 2
*
8?
*
. Q C/5*
"/5 C5
1
IW 1 & K 2
*
8? 0 /
/8"

* *

( 100)
D
7A" 69%.

E . K
8?
.2* 2
*
8?*
"
(RBE) +( + 4 167

# 1 * * &
5S Q I 1 # 6
'
(
* " . :. 2" 2
*
8?
L
*
( 20 ) IW 0.2 & K
8? %# 6(8
K
8? (
2"
*

' # ( 100) IW 1.0 &
Relative biological 2* 2
*
8?

:& ( RBE) effectiveness
RBE = 1/ 0.2 = 5
223
:5 V'
*
2
*
8? I
. :. #
8?
' C/5* = 2* 2

*
8? C5

C/5* 9% 6 K 2
* C Q C/5*
5

' @WE 7A" 69% . K
Q
(The quality factor
( 3* " V5
2 2"

$%& # ;# .RBE 2* 2
*
8? ;* Q)
J ( 3* C 6 3 1991 3 % L
* *

1

!
. 3
&. - 34 Q= (2! )
.
E
WR 89 7 267

The radiation weighting factor
2" (ICRP)

'
1
( J1 35* 63 1991 3

2" 1
5E
35
( ;* WR Q= (2! ) J

*
8? 7?*
( * L
6*
( 2" 8< 7 3
*
* 2" %5 " Q= J ( .K

(
*
.K
( 2" 1
' @* WR Q= J ( 3
' (1G7)
. .5
(1G7)(
.5 ' = WR Q= J ( 3
'
J (
' ' Q
WR Q=
1 (' -
)

E
1 (' -
)

:

224
5 C.#.9 10 (' '* G
10 C.#.9 100 10 '* G
20 C.#.9 2000 100 '* G
10 C.#.3 20 2 '* G
5 C.#.3 20 * '*
G
10
.C.#.32 '*( C/5*) *
20

8 V
0 .

HT :( # ;6 <! 267

The tissue equivalent dose

( ;* WR Q= J ( 35 -
J1 35*

'
1 6 Q
;* (The equivalent dose in tissue or organ) K
"
.* 35 (Dose equivalent man) = Z"
3 T K
HT "
:
'/ I*
HT = ∑ WR D TR (7-10)
R
R
Q 1 DTR :L

K
2" " - 3
. T
K
2"
2"
" (1 .5

. HT K
%&
<!
467
2" (rem) 3 2 * K
2" " :
.2 I
30 2" (Sievert Sv) .
* 3
30
1 : (SI) I
30 35 "
K
2" " : % 6(Gy) IH*
225
:

(rad) 35 .(Sv) .
*
.(rem) 3 * " : % 6 1
Roentgen equivalent man (The rem) , &

*
L
6K
2" " :

2&
3[ * " . * 1
2" Q= J ( D (1 Q 2& (rem)
:(10G7) '/ * * 1
The Sievert (Sv)

&
2 I
30 2" " :
' 2&

* 3
.
* " L
6
.(Gy) IW * (10G7) '/ 2" 1
:
*5 2"
V # 2"
I)

( 2) IW 0.02 :
I
14 '*
( 5) IW 0.05 6(C.#.9 10 (' '*
D . # ( 80 ) IW 0.8 6 C.#.3
. 9 ( %& 2 2" "
:
Q= J (
# (10G7) '/ >
**
* 1
* 6(1G7) ( 8/8 QR
:2O .
* " (1 IW
H = ∑ WR HTR
H = 5 x 0.02 + 10 x 0.05 + 1 x 0.8

= 0.1 + 0.5 + 0.8
= 1.4 (Sv)
226
.
1.4 = ( 2 2" " I
(1 * 1

*
:2O 3 *
2" "
H = 5 x 2 + 10 x 5 + 1 x 80
= 10 + 50 + 80
= 140 (rem)
.3 140 = ( 2 2" " I
'/ J
(9G7 '/) IH
* '/ 35*
:2& 3 .

*
, 100 =
1
.>* (8 2 '/ 2&
WT ; # :(6 7 367

The tissue weighting factor
) Q=

8?* *1 (
.Q= @ K
Q (
8
8?

*1= @
* E 4E @*"
. " I &
W 8 Q

D
7A"
8? $%* I* 3 *1# ( D
( ; %& 2" 3 4 ( 3# V
! D
7A" 9% ( .4E $%& 2" I
7
>
F5 (*
* 4E R "
The K
J ( K
J ( 3
K
2* 3 ( %& (8
. tissue weighting factor WT
63 2 2" (J K
( I)
* .
3 ( -

8?
*

Q* : (* I* 3 -
7A" 65S
( 2" %& 3# * & K
J (
227
( 3
' (2G7) (
*
.2
8?* *1
.I* 3 .5 R
E 367
The effective dose
J1 35*

'
1
Z" & 7*' ( J1 ;* E .
3 (

8?* . * . .
2" * 64R " ! * I*
Q 2& . I 63 ( 2
(
' 2" K
( " D (1
:
'/ * K
% J
E = ∑ W T HT (7-11)
T
2" " 2& HT 6 T K

J ( & WT :L

.I* 3 4 -
# - 3
6 T K

I* 3 4E WT ( 3

' :(2G7)(
WT J (
' K

0.20
H
0.12 20 Q5
0.12
0.12

0.12
0.05 8
0.05 *
0.05 8
0.05
' H
0.05 (I8) 1
0.01
0.01 30 J
228
0.05 4E 2'*
1.00 3 (

:
5 :.* E . :
30 2" 3 2 I
30 2" .
2& 6 "
.

229
:
3
2 6
* *5 2
" 4
D** (5 D** 3 (/5 6 (
"
2
1.5 ) 3 2
150 :
# 2 5 @
100 6 ( .
2
5 ) 3 2
500 6
(.

2
2.5) 3 2
250 6 8/ (.
2
1 ) 3 2

.
H ( .
2
0.5 ) 3 2
50 6 ( .

.
2
* 2. %&
(1 2 . D
.3 2

:
HT " @
(11G7) '/ 35*
( 3
'
A* 67! .
* E 4R
(2G7) ( 4E R WT
:2& 7! .
* .
E = ∑ W T HT
T
= 0.12 x150 +0.12 x 5 +0.05 x 1 + 0.12 x 2.5 +0.20 x 0.5

= 0.18 + 0.60 +0.05 +0.30 +0.10
= 1.23 m Sv
..
2
1.23 2& 7 3 . I

* 3 2
35 3 2
* D D
:2& . HT "
E= 0.12x150 + 0.12x500 +0.05x100 + 0.12x250 + 0.20x50
= 18 + 60 + 5 + 30 + 10
= 123 mrem
.3 2
123 2& 7 3 . I
230
D I
2 2& .
. ;
5

* 35 V5
9& #
I 6
5 1 @ 1
.
J*1 6 3 (5 # (5 K
@
? " 3 J1 %& >
.7 !/ $%&
8E . (The committed effective dose) " @A
2 9 . 3!/ # I< 2 C0
2
.5
E
* D
@E J

.
*
.7 !/ *1
:
' :.* !/ . :
30 2" 3* 2 I
30 2" .
* I 6 .
.3

EC 467

The collective effective dose
2" Q 2 . Q * 2&
-
2" Q 2 . I .
*
* 2& EC
. "
"E 2" E . . D (1
: I 6

EC = E x n
." *
: ."E n L

.(Man.Sievert) .

The dose rate D• 77
231
6D
* 6(3 ) .
IH *

(1 2 . " 1

'
. t

! (/5 F5

" D
7A"
! (/5 F5
# @
2
2
' & 2" D• ( . (*
%& 2" $ 6! 2"
(1
: I 6
D = D• x t (7-13)
:
0.4 2& Q*E 2" * \ . %#
* F5 7/5 J
I% ! D " ..
2

%& (5 . ( %# Q*E 2" *5 (5
. /.

100 & *5
:
D = D• x t
(/5 *5 (5 F5 7* \ ! :.
:& 7 Q*E
t = D / D•
= 0.4 x 10 –3 / 100 x 10 –6
= 4 hours
6 < 6<# 87
6 ' >" "8

>" "8 / C G1
]
' 2&
232
.]7
' 2& 6@ C G2
]

' @WE
" @ " * ; % G3
]* *
C
6]IH & G4
62* 2
*
8? & 6] " 2 % G5
] K
J ( Q= J (
( . " ( C G6

.
.
] . " :
' 2& G7
3 1
2
1 K
>" D G8
6 3 1 6 3 0.3 " 9% 6
8 /
10 10 x
.310
%A" 6 # -

6 * 1 G9
# >" "8 D 6I 6000 ^* 1
.1 ! 5 6 3 30 "
.. " ' >" "8 D
:

*
3
D G10
6 5 6 2
200 6
50
3 2 6 3 2
0.7 6 3
3

;
'
" -
*5 2" G11
:@
/ 2
2 . 6C.#.3 2G1 '*

/
50 -'*
*

233
/
2
4 -'* #
( @ 2 .
* " D
. -* *5 2" L
4' - 3

* 8 *5 2" G12
:2 :
' !
/ 2
0.5
*

.
'/

0.16 #
%& 2" L ( 2 .
* " D
3 25 L 7 L
3 7 @.* 6 L/8 *5
. 8 JE D
2
20 2& 2" * \ V1 %# G13
* *5 2"

.5 4' 6.

/
5 6 /
50
L* \ V1 2& " 6
*

.(( 3
250 * )

*5 (5 /5

. %# G14
2& @E 8* * " @

. D ..
2
0.46
%# 2
* @ Q %&
E
.
C;S 6 3
234

Dose limits

-

+ –
7 A& - –
. 3

1 8

1 1 8
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)
.1928 (ICRP)

#$ % " !
% . & ' ( ) % *+, -
/ ' +0 + - ' +0 + +1
5 .4 + %20 3, 3
" 9 & ' +0 % , 6 %7 8 1
. + % 7 :;' 3 6 )
, +7 ) + < 37 )=

% 5+ %
>7 8
4 ' ? *+, - .
+ 7 .( 1A8 3 % 3< ' 6 )
=
:) % & = %' <
) % < 7 '0 )= 3 2 D7 E A1

. )= 7 8 + 7 F-
235
.H'< )= 7 0 8 3 7 2 D7 E A2
. % 52 3, D7 E A3
'0 % ' 2 IJ 7 K$

E A4
." 1 %$ ) % < 7
I % L1 + J

5M' .1950 )= .
)= I/
% # + 8 .,' + )= 6
)= 6 5M' , .J % I
& *+, -
)= +
?+ 8+
< - &/0
. 8 1 -
(1A8) 3 %' .$ , 3I0 -$ 5+' '
.) & *+, - J /
(1A8) 3
% 5+ % % & *+, -
+ !

! 3 3
+
1934 .H'< )= % 1 7 )= % 0.2 1
1950 3 3 F7 . )= ( 15 F7 ) / ) 150 2
.H'< )= ( 0.3F7) / )
1956 ) 1 3 F7 . )= ( 5) / ) 50 3
.H'< )= /
1977 D N-' .3, - 3
7 & 3 % %7 E 4
. )= (5) / ) 50 = 2
236
1991 ) 20 % / 2 D7 E 5
/ 2 D7 E . )= (2) /
.( 0.1) / ) 1
(UNSCEAR) !" 2 1 8

' " J0 %7 '
" ' 1955 > 5- O
United Nation A ; 3- 5- O
% " Scientific Committee on Effects of Atomic Radiation
3 K % '0 .K$< 3 % %
' ; K2/ D )= %++0
J' +- )- # H9
; ' )= " '
3- +I0 8 3+- 8 1 Q . '
, , . 7 % ;
3I0 % R 1 + N-7 R$
5 ) - 3 ) ' + .+ N-'
E ' .5/ 3I0 +- R$ (
.H$ 3- ) * 8 # 7 % F
8 + ) + )=

.5- O 1 3+ ) S +I0

# 2 8
The tolerance dose 1 2 8

0 < 37 )=
% F ) & % ' ( 3- ) ?IJ+
' ' >- )J ?IJ+D % .% R- %7
.' $ N- 1 )1 $ '
N- D
' 3; D RM= 5= S 8 K'
237
,= . .; 7 KT $O
(J+ 0 % HD' 1958 )= +7
? 8+
< - ' Q R D' 0U (J+ 0 3-
.R'
$
% &' 2 2 8
The maximum permissible dose (MPD)
, % 5' (MPD) ? 8+
< -
7 J 2 = 3I0 K . /
'+ 3- % ) .5+
5/ - & %
.//J D- (; 7 K ) $'
% 5' & = .R- )= 5= K$ )=
R' ? 8+
< - - )= #, 1 V0<
%M= . .$ ' $< % F' '+ ' %
.W - % I; +, *0< ;
% *0< $< ; Q % D RM= .
D1 R' ? 8+
< - % 2 D )
.' % 5' 8 +- :J '
)=

+7 .
(J+ -I+ ' + 1977 5+ %
6' Q. 0U 6 ;- .' ? *+,
:) )= R' V0 % . (dose limits) -
K % ) & % 6

1 % A7
.5=
0" %7 8 21 3, - 3
7 & % %7 E AE
.%'- )= )= D +
D Q6
' )+ ) - / 2 D7 E AL
. + ) + 0U )=
238
:

3 8
!1977 ! 26 ! 1 3 8
% ; , % )=
: % % 8 1 "
) ; ) :(stochastic effects) ; A7

D
(/-7 7 K'7 ) R 8 7 & 8 #,
%7 D1 .5' 7 5W+ % N- %7 % ) .#,

. , # ( ) J E ;- 3-
. , 3 & 5- D
) ; ) :(deterministic effects) - ; AE

( - ) ' 8 & 2 1 D1 N- D
'+ 5- 2 .' 2 ' '+ #,
. 52'
1977 26
5 ' 5+ + ,'J
:) =
Q 7 7 8
'

-' - ; N- # A7
& - &/0 .& < % & 3
.; ' ' % %
& 3 &/0' ; N- 3- &/0 AE

)= & < ' '+ 3- 8,' 8- 3, - 3
7 8 1
)= D +
D 3 07 # ', -
" D7" 7' ' Q 7' ' .%'-
As Low As " ) 21 >0 8 < Q-< )
.21 3, 3
7 ' ' ) Reasonably Achievable”
239
ALARA Principle :)* * +
3
7 :'J 7' % 1977 26
5 3'

%7 D1 ."As low as possible" %
% R7 Q %= . 7' R- 3- 7' $=
' 3= .6' Q ' % .52
E )'
)= ,/ :/1 *< % % ,= .#= / Q
% 8 > .3 # 8 ' 7 /' *07 E
5$
K 1 ' /= 2' .- H'
.' 7' 2' ) ' .#= %'
$< %' 2
# .3 # $7 8 )
K 1 F7 #= EW %7
2' % .%'- )= D +
D 3 07
. (ALARA) 21 3, 3
7 (J+
1990 % 60 ! 2 3 8

% 3 1 + ) K$ )=
9 ' ; .(UNSCEAR) 5- O
3 %7 %' . J % % .(BEIR) "
; ' 87 ; J & <' '+' V0 J0
)= /.= 3 0.013 ) - ,' 0 3 %
' 3 /0 % # -
.% J
) - X' J ,' 0.090 ) - 0.045 ) - %' ?
Q$7 0 X' .J J0 - %7 ) . 0.060
60
)= + 7 . . 3'
, %
. & 7 ) & KT 3
7 -'
50 % F - &/0 ' % ' '=

.R'
% Q+ % #
' F7 .( 2) / ) 20 8 1
.F' K$7 &' = - -
240
%' I % 3 - K $/0 - #$
) 1 8 1 5 % F - &/0 ' ' ' .'J
.Q$7 0 #
' F7 /
,-

3 3 8
The occupational effective and equivalent dose limits
D )= % %' ; &/0
1977 26
)=
+7
50 8 H9 %$ / - 2 D %'
0 & # % )= (5) / )
.0
&' = -' +7 .

%
%,' %= :,- N-' .F' K 27
5 ,= H' % % 8 ,'J - .H
:) 1990 60
% % ( / ) F & - A7

% )= - #= 2 ./ ) 20
2 D %7 J' ./ ) 50 8- %
'
>0 F7 3I0 /
./ ) 100
% 1 / ) 1 3- 5= 3 J 3- & - AE
.0 & % 1 / ) 2 .0 &
7 ? % 'J %' F & - AL
% %7 J' / ) 6 18 .16 %'
. 7 % YK2 E
. 16 % 7 3, % & 6- A
241
% % % = F -
500 (%, % F7 ) Q JO / ) 150
/ )
50 %' % = F -
) 150 (%, % F7 ) Q JO / )
/
-* . 4 3 8

,'J 3 % 7
Q+
:% 8 1 Q6
Working condition A * -*

(10/3) & = 2 %7 % ) % < )
:'J ) & - %7 N- .,'J / -
3 2 %7 % ) % < %M= ./ ) 20 -
.7 / :J ) %7 E / ) 6 = F &

3 S' % < 3; )= % #$0 %7 E
. .)0 N 7 )0 & ' ' KT .
. 'J V-/ % < )= % #$0 %7 E
3'
.% < )= 3 ' Q 3'
'J V-= K 1 E
. F< - F7 K 1
Working condition B / -*

& = 2 %7 % D ) % < )
D RM= . .= 7 / - (10/3) )
E % . 3'
V-/ % < )= % #$0
242
%7 % '
I % '
$01
.' - 2 D I= &

!

5 3 8
dose limits for member of public

+7 ' '
: - ' 1991 5+ 60
)=
2 D7 E %' ; &/0
: -
& )= / ) 1 / - A7

*-1 )= - 52 2 .6 )1 3 R '
2 D %7 J' / ) 2 8 1
) 5 '
>0 F7 3I0 /
./
15 ' % = F - AE
./ 50
< FO / )
# (11A7)
I 0 % K$< )
' ' '
- (2A7) 3 )= ' 2 I 0
)- ; 2 D 1 $ =
.$
0 .
1 2, 3 4 8
0 .
1 2, ##0 3 1 4 8
The planned special exposure
3W Q6 EJ 5 +0 D- &' )=
1 Q6 )= % % 3
5$ 3
) - 8 2 1 I0 %$
.
' = D ) D- 3; )= . ' +7
243
% % % 3
< ( RM= % KD" &
5 )= 3 / ) 50 * D & '
) 100 F7 ) Q$7 0 8 2 D .5-
% 3- F' ( D D- 3; )= .R 3 J ( /
Q$7 0 & R :'
% 3 F< 3 -<
% )= # . .& )= %'
.& )= D % E
4
# .
1 2, 3 2 4 8
Exposure in emergencies and accidents
- D N - [ J D- )=
.87 & ' ? 2
+1 % D R7

7

)= ) * 7 -' +0 +
.'J QI0D 6 . N - [ J D-
' ' K ) % N- % $ &/0

[ J J0 ' 2 D E RM= ( 7 %
% 8 JJ0 / ) % E +/
. [ J
: ' ' 2 D E [J J0 #$
)=I -

3
7 8 1 & &/0 - A7
.= 7 / - % 8<
.% H' Q
8 5J 5 AE
J N- E'' +0 8 3+- AL
. ' Q+
8 1 %J &' & %7 % [ J D- )=

$7 N- # 7 ' ? < ,1 &W'
244
- #$ E+ .N- J Q
7
3- % R .0U 8 1 N- % Q6 Q0 N-
/ - :/ 8 %J &' 3+- %7
.' &' 5- ,M' : < % 1 ++0 .JJ0
+0 3<' , E+ % %
, K 1
/ E R . 3 7 -'
%" V07 7 V0 3'
% R 8 3<
= ) K$ 8 , 0 &W'
. "
1 8 1 ,' , V0 3+ %7 3- %
EJ < % 1 3; 8 3+- ' ( .F 4
' 7 8 3+- ' , EJ 1 7 .' 5- ,1
, %' 2 ' - E - )= RM= F 4 1 %
2 D E ) < [' 7 % . S 5J0 '
:) D- )= '
.? < ,1 & K % Q % %1 A7

1 # -7 8 &/ D J & % %7 AE
= ' R #,
) J0 ' I 1 HJ
.
8 ' R' , F 3 ' HJ % %7 AL
./
D- )= )J &

0 Q

:8 J
,J )= 3' +0

* A7
.N-
.5-
8 ,' 3- * %'+ Q6 AE
245
3
7 , F 3 % 1 3; 3' 8=
, V0 3+- %7 % ),,- 3 % %
& < -' 5J0 '+1 R'+ = 8 ,'
./
%
%* 5 8
J Q .\ ? 8+
< - 8 A1
\ - /
' +7 ) - 6 $ JJ0 ) A2

.1977

& < &' .\ - ; ) A3

. 3 ) )
.21 3, 3
7 (J+ 8 ' / ? A4
' ' ; - ) A5

\= - ) .\% %
; / - ) A6

. = - ) .\
.6 4 )1 3 %/ -7 & A7

:) 3+- ) = /
./ ) 10 3 /
./ ) 40 =
) R0 & %7 % ) / ) =
- V0 / * D N-'
.
246
.\E / % 7 7 / % 7 %' :/ A8
) \+0 Q6 )= & - ) A9

.\Q6
N - [ J D- )= & - ) A10

.
. [ J J0 $ JJ0 ) A11
247

‫ا
ت ا

ت ا‬
Medical Application of radiation
4 – 40 " ,) –

) 3
#
% – >
+#
+) –
# %
670 " ,) 3

19

! " #
* ) (
)
. $
#
%
&
%
+

" # ,- *# %. /
:0 1-

4 5

- ! " ,) 3
67 5
- ! " ,) 3
. Radiotherapy

%
, , " ,) 3
Sterilization of blood, medical and #
%
. pharmaceutical product
..0 0 6 " " ,) 3
&1 # 18 90 %8 5 ,) 3
. pace maker +0 # : 5 8 ) " ,) ; <
247

29
.0 ! " ,)

> # ,) :
5 8 4
) (8 / ..0 #

# #
,) ?:- 8
% 1) -# @) 1
+
C5 #< 4 #
AB) -
> #
C0 9
8/ . 8 #

$
- > # D)
-
: > 0 %.0 0
%
8
0 8F +#0
0 B0%. 8 E:
A> #
A D)
-
: G

- +
- * 4
! " (8 #)
H +) ,
0
@

% ,7- C0
% "
% ,0

% CF ,I C0 #
8)

0.
% CF
,- .

.H #) ,)# Tomography
80 J .
.4 ) ) 4%
G/ 4% ,- J - 6 (
)
.7 * $K 1)
!"

# 129
,
) - I %.

. #8 > / >/ &0 L
% (1 )
8F
+# - )
,) %
# # @
. ) +
# - ,) 10 M0 ?
1 $ . &

8P % C0 (139 8) +
# >

CF ) >/ )< #

%
. I#
8" B

.# 18 .#
# Q
) # 18 1 M )
# (
)
@ +)8 AR/#
.
. (H
(H
248
>
) 90
9 %0 #1 1
8"
#1 # 1 M

8" + : % J
.

8"
# R/
%
# R/8

) #8 ) M0
A(1 C0 0

8" 0 (?:# )
249
(
I & ) M0 8
% / IF (J#$ )<
) % )
.
0 + 9- CF #- /
8F *# ,I
I# )

. . @&
(239) 8 #
250
#1 # 1 M
40 ,) ) - +
# -
G/ #
.9

08 120 A100 A80 A60 %
,

. G/ 9 8

.0 #)
8 Q
:
# ( / C0 15
.
8" 1 .0
15 ) K &
#8 #8
M
9 Kα , Kβ 9
% )< 0 &
.#8 K %
(

# &' $% 229
)< R) ( , ) M7

8

8F
08 200 8
9 -
8F &#

) +)
.(239) 8 #8

. 9 L&

L&
/

. G/ 9 8 9 %

. 9
.(339) 8 C0 @ ,) # #
%
)
9 8 9 %

. - @&
/ #

. - ) 9 :.

. G/

8

. G/1 9
) #
J#) . 9 /
?
) 7 $ ) & G/ I
.#<0

.,
67
- % *
.0 G/ ,) #) #
4 (
) 9 :.

. - CF R/ +#)

# CF %
(0 >-) ,) ) #
#

. G/ 9 L
#
A)

. # A#
.+
0 M0
%

)
1 ? . $ ( #<
) 9 :.
.,) ) # + 9 19 8 1" J 5 :
#
251
9 :.

.
1)# 40 8 AJ

%0 #) # ?
) 1 +
$ $

#
7 ,)# R/
,
67
- %
C0 A? A6 A+ #
. ) & E
,) 9
) L&
< .8 (339) 8
9
) L&
.8 # + C .R)
L
.0
S0# # E ,) 19 8

.
& E D 6 C - .,

, 1 18)
,1 R)# ,

C
)
#

+8 E /1
., 0.25 R)# % I
252
) :. 9

. 9
) *.
F A .% + CF (

8F
08 40 CF 40

29.2 9- 9 :.

. 15 B -
@ )

. CF & G/

.(.F.R

:
18 5

% / 0
8"

% %0 & )
15 #
AB0
.( .F.R 29 A25
# T ?

#8
6 C C0 ?
G/ 40 8
S0# Cu ; # ,)# 9 :. )

# / A %
,

# @:
, 0.25 18)
&#
. 8 ;. C # #I
%
) C

@ , 1 C , 0.25 % # 8)
:.

. .
8/ 8)# ;
,

C # #
%
) C /
& J 9
.8 ;. C0
# I7I # G/ +8 E C0 M0

:# B
+
. Thoraeus filters ;

I ,)
#8 > /
/ &0.
8 # # + C0 5
>-) +
# #- <% > /
/ &0.
+
# CF + 9-
. (* G
8)# &0

8 ,) A/8
* <0 +
0 9 L&
/ & C0
%0
.7
- % ?
)
253

)

# 3 – 2 – 9
The quality of x-rays
) B9 >/ M CF 0 J 5

G/
*# # , B U > # D)
.% R)
.( Half Value Layer HVL) .% R) 9 #
& *. ,&7 G/ R) R/

)
# # * ;9 C0 ?V # 0% 19 (% CF
.% R) ; AJ

.) G/ I 4 &1
#

08 400 A120 # 9

10 #) # ,
1. /1#
9
1 - .; R) 00
.,

00 # .% R) ;

08 120

*

)
+, 429
) &0 .% R) ;9 ,
8) @:
# * < .8 ;# R/
@:
, * < /1
.& ) .0

@:
- + A#
9# (439) 8 # ) 1
C0 @ 6 * ; ;) ,
,) 50 #
&

8 #) #8- >. 8 C & 8

#) # ) & B
- + AR/ J7: .
>- J# * ; ;) ,
8 # <0
< R/ # B0 &0
CF >! 9 ,)
.1.)
1: -
254
&1 0 & @ ) *. + AR/8
; @9
,) 5 × ,) 5
@ / #-
8 #
;

8X0 % B
+
.6

& &1 #) # R/ M 1)
.@ / &8
& )
8
& @:

: ##
255
)#- U G/ . ) .%# #:0 # L

* ; (0
0 +8
& ) #
A; 5 #9
%9 50 &1 <
#
.&0 " &8
8 #
" ,

8 -
: CF " +
?& R
8 C ;0 ;) ?& #8- &0
.(" &) " 6 ; /
@:

# M .
: CF " +
(439) 8 C0 -

8 - + >/ &0 0%

8 - + >/ .% 18) ;9 +
0 @:

E #-
8 - +
.8 ;. C0 +
-
,) 5 × ,) 5
,

- ;
%
.+
>- J
8 -
#I 18)
8

(9/
#) * +
1 8 ?#
: @ +
:

E
9 B - CF 57
.L) # #I
+
#
R)
I " I8 # 97 - I %.
I , $
# 97 ,) B - C # .)- 97

.,)
% / C C0
% + 8) #
C (0 % G/ 9 , # # @9

- F

% /
,) J
J7 J0 %
1-
CF R/ +#)

.(5 – 9) 8 #
9 # ;
90 ) (# & ) & -
% :
# & E
.
) 9 :. #8 4 0I

)

256
. 9 ,9 1
)

9 E#%
8 C +
&0 .% R) & /
.R)
# 97 R)
257
!"
-&.!*
'%

)
529
19 Q

1# ) - &1- ) :
.7 * $K

08 400 A200
# T
%
.% R) U &1 G/1 #) #
9
- .M 8 L&
(1#
.- 9- #
1 T /1 .% R) U
.% R) &

08 150 A100 # T -
1 ,&0 ) ,& G/ I .J
: J -
18) Q
# 10< ,
A,

#
,
67 E # ,& G/ I ,)
., 3 A 2 #
. ( 5) )
) 60 0#

8
- 137 ,
&) % #) # -
J 5 L
> 6 1& U 67
,9
-
# & % / 0 F
,
&) U #) +
#
8 . $
90
A

8F< 0.662
9# - % 137
< 1.332 A1.173 9# - 60 0#
8 %

)
98 # 8
A

8F
.

8F < 1.250
9 Q
(Lin ac) 7 -

# 7 R/8
A(.F., 20 A4 # 1
8"
% (.F., 30 A20 # 1
8" 9 Q

1 19 Q
) 9 0% J &
#
T /1 #) #
.
8P T
% 9 C
(.F.,
70 (.F., 20 C 1 ) ) 9 *

B U (
# 7 (.F., 30 C 1
-
258
#) #
- (
.&0 +) E
3
B 9 C - CF % 9 8 7J I 4% 0
@ ) 1:. #
- 9 &# / &
A(.F.,
.(I %.
> / E >- ,) U A#
9 / " J I8

(
) 4% 8
- .(.F., 3
19 @ "
:.

U 7
J I ; 8 > / )

0 #) #

E ,) U #
A9 @ J #I
8 8
E / I A#) ;. # 9 @ "
G/ @ A I8 A,) AR/8 .J : # . ,
709
1 5 ,

8 ..
7
/ C0 8/ IX
:. 9 /
G/ J #8 R) ,) ,&0 B - 7 J : A 9
.+
0
M

-&.!*
'%

)
6 –29
) &1- 7 ,) , F
. #8 & * C0 & CF >! 9 %
, J I8 *. ) & 7 ,)
CF R/ >! >/ 9
;. * 1 *
K #) # .% 4.
-
%
)
4% &7 7 ,) + B UJ %
4.0 @:
:0 J
% 9 :.

.
& A ) " ,) ) # 4 F
.T

# G/ %
259
) ) &1- @ &1 - + AR/
) < 1:#
#I 1:# A.0 # 4
.% R) . (239) 8 ,

- ,3
18)

&1K #) # . 1 C0 ,

K
.,

- ,1.5
E R)
8 - +

08 50345
(>I 4) $
) &1 #) # -
(88 )) ,7 1 ,)

08 30 1
.,

- , 0.5
E R)
8

# -&.!/ -%
"0 729
8 C0 , +% ) # 40 #) #
# ) .> # ,) ) -
?:- M
G/
1 - >- ) .0 J#) 4 .0
8 D) 0 9 8 ;#
A.0 +) #

% ,)# ( 7 D) /1 0 +8
" I8 I D) /1 Shadow Picture 5
. B 9
: 9
% ) ?&
9- LF @
:
- D) 0 :

% C0
% .8#
J 5 D)
-
: R/ G/ 9 8 8
.9 G/ LF + 9 0
?&K
% Z
8 .8 J (639) 8 #
) 8 (7 7 * ,) .0
:0 .0

8 & 1)
.0 ) M

.
A
)

A0 D) 8 K *
A ) K
8 G/
(7 +#)# ,5

1
260
.) 0)
CF %

: M 8 (7 #
: )
C0 9 #) ,
##
)8 .
9 8)7# # ;) ,0 3
&# 1 & )
- ?
:0 ))
D) % 8 4 # >- 10% 8
&# >-) 10% 8 *. # 1
A#
4 8U# ,7 G/ &
.(D) % 8
.
% * *
I8-
%
& *
:
% 10 15 :
0 3
@:

: * 0 7 +#

. & (9
#
%
261

% .I8
% (739) 8 # :
% (I8 3
I
. #) 7
,
) M B -
% (I8
C0 )

%0 @:
:0 .0
8
5 .#
8F % #1#
& ))
) M0 >/ ?
: - >-)
:
18
+)
8F B M0 >/
:
18 #1 C0
G/ L )
.( C0 9
?:" @
25
S0#) # 18 1 M )
#
8"
+# 8
A - C0 .I8
%
(

08
10)
- E:
- 8# C0
% !
. $
- +)
-
0. I )
0)
X#
1
23
0
39
.% / 5 6 F

5 G/ ,) 8-
&1
M

.0
/
.1 67
* 4 M
0 8 08" ,) -# I (%

4 non sealed radionuclides
.

.) 0) ,)9- :
5
*
,)9 # ,)9- :
- >
+ ,)9X#
. %
262

,) >
+ E0% U AJ

?:
% J#) % .% /
* 4 (1# * ,) 0 # )
G/1

). (5
0
- :
5 -
"#
% 7 R/
A)
- ?:
/- #
- ,)0 1F
- 1 #
M0

.* ,) 6 @ 5 0 1:F
* ,)
263

*# ,) >
+ E0% : 9 -
6 67 / 8 F
A ) *# 67
,)9- 10 M0 T - ,)9 @: F
>
+ C)
." 67
1
23

139

7. % 5 6 F

@
5 G/ ,) @) 7 L
- ,)#
-
#
5
* 0 " 4 0
?.8 T C0 ( CF (1 # ) R/8
.

). 1.5
?- C0 # )
?:
R0 >
+ ) 5 ,-
% F 9 *. #

%9 .% # &
L

%0 1) .8 >/ CF 1
.* ,) 9 #8
%9 % 5 ,- (139)

* )

%0
- I- .8 >
+ ) .%

,99 ,
8 5 AM7" C0 A 5 G/ ,-
."
9# F %
) 6 S0# .% # & >/
1) 8 ))- .%#

8F
08 140
.1F
G/ F # ?:
)
%
I # B - G $ C0 ,99 ,
8 &

) B# I B 1 - , (

.99 ,
8
B U AR/ 7J :
.) 6 .% S0# metastable
8 +8
& : )# @ 5 / : 8
- ?:K 1%F #

A,)0 1 8
$

.0
264
+8 &8 - # )# 1)
-
% +
0 )
.G
% +
0
: ,99 ,
8 : >/ %
99 4

239
>
%
,99 ,
8 C0
% 1)
C0
% ,
.99 ,
#

,
8 C0
.

# 98 ) ,
#
, # 99 ,
#

: >
.0 J
R/
A

0
)
#
- >

98
Mo + 1on 99
Mo + γ
. ,
#

8 5 ;. /

M0
.

,)#
-
@:

.) 67 D 99 ,
#
0 .% S0#
,
+
# -
8 @ 99 ,
#
8
F 4% 4% L
# @:

) J % R8. 99 ,

.,99 ,
8 %

#
. ) B# I ,99 ,
8 J
8
#) #
1#0 , ,99 ,
8 8 ,

+
# D 9

,
+
# 0) # 1%7) >-)
.,99 ,
8 6 ,
#
C0

,)# 99 ,
#

,99 ,
8 +7) ,
. %

265

5&
339
" &

R - I %.
99 ,
#
0 .% 8
.
># &

) 6
,99 ,
8 T
.%
) 67 S0#
#) # - . &
CF &
L
/ U
D >/ () 1.7 .% G S0# >/) ,113 ,
"

(J
115 .% G S0# >/) 113 % R8.
.># L
CF 1 # &

1) I %. (3032) A(2832) 970 J
) B - , 99 ,
80 A2 " +)
" 9 ;. A2

0 " %
,
G/ : # 99 ,
#

,
0
) 9 – 8
# >- .% (:- )
#

- .
113 % 5 :
# A 2

0 " # ,99 ,
8
:97# ,
0 A1 "
A2 / A1 = λ 2 / λ 2 - λ 1
.+ #

,
0 R8. J#I λ2 A λ1
E#% &

# B - /
,
0 " #8- A2

0 "
" 49 R/8 . λ2 / (λ 2-λ1) >
) #

0 " 49 ;. # ,

78
#)
8 ,99 ,
8
.(932 8 @ ) ,
99 ,
#
0 A1 " CF ,99 ,
80 A2 "
. &
# %110
266
:6
# 5 99 ,
#

" 8 /F

8< 100
,99 ,
8 @ &

/F
/ 0 ( .F.R 140 9 /

7: 7: 8

. G/ #) - 0
. 0.90 (f >-) ,99 ,
8
:'

9 / I#

. #)
f

8 R/ C0
.@ 5 7: CF

/ I#

.
Nγ 140 = 100 x 10 6 x (110/100) x (90/100)
= 9.9 x 107 photons/sec.
99 4

2"' 439
. .99 ,
#

,99 ,
8 5 +0)
)8-
%
- #8 99 ,
#
Z
8 : )

0 #8 /
8
. (Mo7O24) 6-
- (MoO)2-
#
(Al2O3)
- C0 >
>/ (
+
# -)

.(PH-5)
;X# E0
0# )<0 J @:
#

(,

%
08 0.9) # E0
0 #
+0 ,
8 #
% +
# , 99 ,
8
- 6
. Technicium pertechnetate ( 99mTcO4) - ,
8
+ ) ,99 ,
8

R

.(

/ H
+

/
>

267
0
0 & C0 >
( ) 839) 8 +

/
I- C#
/ +7) #
.

# % #
0 D

8 CF >!
C0 0
0
,99 ,
8 8 *. +#) /
.&
8
8
.1#7) 8 ,
8 8 # *. R/8
0
0 & CF O 2 )8 :U# 08 G/ 1

.& IX *. CF >!
)8! 8
A& 7 0)

8 G
, (

-

0 &U# R/
A,
8 8 # 6 & #
268
2035 (

,)
.+7) #
0
<% 9 @:
>/
0
0 00
<% 9 )
# 0
0 +) , ,I A
0
( ?
R/ # ,I A 99mTcO 4 +) R/
?
1 $ .
0 ,
?
1

F .J B..
7
CF , 99 ,
8
# & ,
8 & >- )8-
.,
8 8 # +7) 17 , 7 + !8
99 48

9
53–9

8 #
,
8 8 # C0
% ,
#)
8"
8 #
A7+ !8 ,
8
I8- G/
.) #
)

- B#
.
0 ,99 ,
80 ) 8

- (939) 8 C0 B
% # (99m TcO4)- ,
8 8 #
8# B ) " ,)
/ L&
AR/ .

#0 <
9 < J))- &8
,
8 8 #
Choroid

# ?<
.Plexus
G/
% ,
8 8 # ,) - 8 AR/
, B U ?: 9# #) # - .9 < % A?:
(0 A#) %
% CF ,
8 8 # $% F
&8 # # )
?: C0 >
1&

.?: G/
% 8" > # ,) ?:-
8 # )8-
.0 M 8/ +8 G/ @)
269
.0 % C0
% .8
, 99 ,
8
)
- ?: &8 *
.
%
1%
% ,1
4
. *# (139)
* )
>
+ +% #
.
,)#
8-
1 )
?)-
A : 9

4.0 F C%9 )
%
. 8#<
#
!%
8
'
6 39
,5 , >
+ 4
. #) #
)
?: G/ # ,I * CF
.In-vivo ,) 4
.# / 4
. (
..0
- ) /- B7 , 4

. ] L
R
270

.* ,) 6 BF (:
* ,
.In-vitro 4
. ,)# ( CF 4
. G/
,) ,) # , 4

.

% 10 M0
% ,) I# "
%
#) Anger Camera ]
%
- AGamma Camera
.1 >/ &.0

0 %
4–9
Anger or Gamma Camera %:; -% / !
-%
149
F M7 8-
% ,) &1
G/ % # B # > # ,) %
- 75 ,
0)
- 131

- ,99 ,
8 I "
J )
%
8
.
# $
: ) ?& >
+
-
1149
Q
4% 4 9 #
% )
;. G 9 S0#
%
# 2.0
C %
# 0.5
# B8)
)
.;0 ,)
) :
(8 9 9
9 :. F ) ! " 0)

!) (80
)
00# CF * ,) I#
:
.18 )
1F 0%
F (8
0: (+
I ) (
<0 J #8 J )
)-
* ,) %
# E) #
-
271
% 4
. *# :(139)

1 )

>
+

0 8 <%
,) 4.
4.0
600
-
.) #8 ,99 ,
8 ,5
%
,
8 .)

800 " " " ,99 ,
8 ,5 L
%
500 DTPA
- TcO4 ,99 ,
8 ( 8)) _
%
500 " " ,99 ,
8 J. _
%

#
8
0 +
400 ,

%
08 133
& _0 , )
200 TcO4 ,99 ,
8 9 <
%
80 ,
I
08 201 ,
I +

<

%
9
6000 &$ ,81
# 8
1
%
160 DTPA // ,99 ,
8
200 > # & @ ,99 ,
8 J.
%
80
)

$ ,99 ,
8 #8
%
100 ? 8# ,)
,99 ,
8
%
800 > # & ,99 ,
8

+0
%

600
.) #8 ,99 ,
8 +0 0:
%
.)
100 ,
I
08 201 ,
I +0 0:
%
J.
160 )
)
#8 , 99 ,
8 +
%
350 DTPA , 99 ,
8 +0
%
272
8
)
8
0) 75 ,
0) +
%
400
)

$ , 99 ,
8 &1 (&
%
:1
300 ) 67 ,
,

%
100
08 201 ,
I
400 )
)
#8 * , 99 ,
8
) - .1 10) (8

00#
,)
) 4% 4 ) 1 U
&#
00# C0
.B )
(80 # %
) .0 L
- 9

% @ ,)
(1039) 8 F * )
:
.(-1039) 8 # R08 &

+
I / ) – -
.(+1039) 8 +
I / ) – +
.(61039) 8 9 . +
I / ) – 6
. (1039) 8 #I ) –
&
+
I / ) - CF " <# B - F
00 .
% J) I8 )

00## ) E) 97
8 :-
# ) G/1
C0
% )) U R/ 7 J : A,

%

D)
-
: I >/ " %
) # )
. B &8 >/
4.0 @:
273
<%
88'
.%, -%
' 2–1–4–9
# 1 - C0
%0 $ . 00 (

%
- %0 <% % C0 1 9
#
.,)

" <0
(% 8 * ,)# ( # A A00
U 0
. FWHM (@# %. @ ) L.
00# FWHM L. (% 8 * #
LP % 7I ` . # T <% ) I
.*# 1:# 0%.
% 15 #
274
,) (8 9 1
% (8 )) -
& 08 . % " # (8 C0
%
1 (8 , L" #) & (8 ))
R0 )) C0
% U 0 <0#
.(8

. % ;. " #8- #) 1.8 )
1 9

% )) # )8 97 J R - CF "
4 J 1 )) & - /
.$ . 00
.$ . 00
The scintillation crystal =

-%880
31–4–9
NaI(Tl) ,
I#
& ,

%

00# ,)
0 F (80 0)
8
%
)) G/
.
%0 @% D)
-
:
M0$ ,8F , AR/ .1 #) 1: # (0
#
0
? I- ,

M7$" 8

%
00#
A < ))
00# # AR/8 .1 %

CF A ) 8 /F % A < / >! - 8
. 1.0 CF G
# >! 1 a

,
I#
& ,

%

00# 9-
.

.,) 60 A,) 15
#
% )
- .> 4 9 8 0 &1
00# @ 8 :
6 F 8 # A
00# ? F 0
#
9

& 8F
A@ 0)
- #
0#
A 0.25
# J )
00# R) Q

.!
0.375 18) S0#
00# ,) ,5
A%
# 0.50
.%
#
275
)) &
00# R) & 08 B - CF " <#
$ . 00 C0 J#0) I

/ - F .
%
-
%
# 0.5 C 0.375 R)#
0# ,) .
%0
P #) #
% ())) ?.8 & +
0
% >/ ,99 ,
80 #) # - .( .F.R 200 19 &

00# ?.8 A;) A( .F.R 140 9# F
%
# 0.50 18) S0# R0 %
# 0.25 18) S0#
:- J $ 7J % I8 9
00# - F A %15
#
.
%0

>=
20/ 41–49
#8
8 8#
% ,)
. D >/ *
)

. (: +# -

.
0# G/ @
0# C0 9) F
# @9

% +# G/ "
+
# - 8 9
( 9 J ))-
) ,

%

0# ) 1
.) +#
+# 8
0# /
%
6 97# +# 1 )) )

% +
=1+ 3×6) 19
- (7=1+1×6) 7 - +# 8 R/#
.n+1
S0# #
#8- )#
0# @ % 9
- .(19
#
# - 55
- (37=1+6×6) #
# - 37 F +#
&# B U AJ

.#
# - (61 =1+10×6) 61
- A(55=1+9×6)
$ . 00 I8 )

. (: +# -
+# - %
AR/8 .
% ) 7 J :
J)) 7 J 8 1 /
9

. (:
276
E) 8 7<) CF >! >/ A ) 8 J #
)) &
" ) ?.8 & CF #

0#
8 # L:
K J (1039) 8 #
.
%
.
%

. (: +# -

0#
)
-%
54 2–4–9

% . . .0 #
0)X#
%
%
8
# $

%
8 Analog Cameras 0I

% I L
- .
% 0 ? I- #
+) C0
%
8 , 9
- 0I ?V
)
- Analogous 0I +
0)# # ,8 0 7 #

8 ,8 0I
% . . Digital 9

%
8 & ?## ,
Scaler –timer
%

%
% Z
8
. & # @ 1 ,I
& 7
- (J#) @ & ,) & 7

% )
8 0) :# ;#
0 (9
:# CF
%
#
A(2,)1)
.
%
)
#
% #) , I
% -
" I8
-
% & F >/ H +)
..0
% @9
0)
%&0
?09 %:3 3–4–9
Positron Emission Tomography PET
I# " (80 +

0)-
, G/

%
8# 4.0 @: > # D)
-
:
.4.0 @: > # D)
-
: / T
)
277

&
# .
&
# ? .#
5 C0 G/ )
J
) #

8" 08 J
) 08# & >/
.
8P : ,) B X# ( A#
1 - F
8"
# 1 - : B)
,) 4%
) 1 U J#) <% )

8
*# 1:#
A

I 9 CF 08

88 J .

-
8" 08 - ) ( .F.R 511 1
8 9 S0#
08 !8 97 J
A9 / c8
&
#

&
#

8" 8 ? .
.( 9
:

. M0 :. )# 1# 9
.J
R8. 5 0
7
@
( I %. @ – +

# R8. >-)
&
# # @
1
.) 5 G/ 6 F H 8
6 F : 9
, .#
.

08) 7
3

(9 20.3 (% #) 11–
# 8 I 5 G/
( I 71 .% #) 143 )8
(9 9.97 .% #) 13
G/ : ,
. $
( I 124 .% #) 15 )8
I
Co
# 8 )8-
- I .0 8
% 5
G/ : ,
. $
NH3

Co2
# 8 )8-
7. #
0 *
.0 - *- &

) C0 ) A1

#
?- 10 T ) R/8
A?: (5

).
.1.5
:0 * :

&
#
# F
@ . )
&
# 1 # D)
-
278
#
A7 G/ C0 19 .
# @9
# 7
CF 19 *. - # I# )
&
#

>- #
&
# G/ + 9
.#
&
#

M0
? .
B . )
8F
0
A(.F.R 511 9 1 8
.( I 15310 C0 & & M .#) 50 ;.
:
#8 1 @ ,)#

%

1:# @ J & # I )

(1139) 8
@&
0%.
% ,) 8 B U & M# ,)#

%# ( D)
-
:
&
#
#
.
&
# # 7
279
0# 6
&

: CF "
6
&
A( A-) 6
& I 4.0 @: %
(
8
>- . C A(1139) 8 C0 (
A6) 6
&
A( A+)
>-

. 6
& >- # #
. :

0
%
59
,%
:

% 159
- : 9

# % ) #
4% ) ) G/ 0I-
.1 >
+ L -
<
4% ,)#
0

0 9 <
M ) * C 0 G/
. Iodine Uptake 9
10
1 S0# @ 1313
5 (@0#
8 : , 8 ,

% Q7- E0
% >
8
8

#
. 0 8 1) # +
# - J 0I
8) * #9 @:
, 0 * L7# C0 ) 24
% ,)# (
-)
F &1 ,- (1239
,

%

0# &1
8
. Iodine monitor (

#9 #I
.

(: +
# - C0 #8 :
(88
E) ,) 25 ) C0 9 <
8 # *
L /
.4% L L
:
(8

" .0 0 F *.
#
L ;. >-) # (8 ,- @:
AR/8 .#
18) E 8 ,) 4% # *
(8
. 00 1.5
280
R)7#
) @:
,
< @:
J I # ()
0 ) > # D) 0 0I
" 0 ) ? F R/ # ,
.M
9

8 - # A C0 8 A* #9

C0
%0 (80 #) # ) 1 @:
;.
:

: )9 # - ? F ,
.#
9
281
G/ 8
9 8 :#
# * #9 –-
.N ?
,)10 1:
,)10 1
4% @:
–+
C C0) * #9 M
,)1.25 18)
" .0 ;9 ,

(#9 C0 <:
. Nb .0 ? G/ I
9 8 :#
#
* #F # 8
AG7- (-)
8/ ; 8 36
;. C0
@:
;. # B#9 #)
S , R/#

A)
.9 8 :#
#
M
(+)
8/ 4% @:
–
. Sb > % .00 /-
:97 9 < 4% R/ #

T. U % = { ( N - Nb ) / ( S - Sb ) } x 100 %
. Thyroid Uptate % 4% T. U
>/ 1313
% (N-.Nb) I
I! #F # 9 < 4
8
% ;. ( S - S b) - . #

4% 8 AR/#
.,
0 > %
#
@0# # 8
)
# 7 131
A#
A1 G&8

4% C0 < ?.8
.1 : * *#
:6
8 9
< 131
4% )
1313
8 8 /U A
#8 ?
282
;. # 8
A>
8
8 10 * 0
* /1 9 < 4% #) ."
.% 0
A1313

N Nb S Sb
500 170 2800 180
:'

T.U % = { ( 500 – 170 ) / (2800-180 ) } x 100
= 12.6 %
T.U = 0.126 x 10
= 1.26 µCi
<# ) X #) *. B - CF "
8 %" X
8 # # ) @ > -
; & , - R/ C
. % 3 &

J <% 1
8 7 0) :# # ) G/ >
)# 1 +) ,I :# 2500
;9
. 9# ; & C0
@%8
&"0
!' % 259

> # :
( ,)# ) G/ ,
> # ,
(
- NaI(Tl) ,
I#
& ,

%
8 well type hyperpure germanium type ( ) F)

.> %
* , 0 F
: 0)
* #
) &7# @:
,
283
9# ,
0 F #
8

8 #
A8
,
L
;. # #
#
8 , 8
)
) &7#
) > %
.@## #
# " ,
A( 000 3 1
: F
# / (
8 ,) +#)
>-) (8 ?.8 & A( # ) 1 @ ;0

&7# 0 F ) (B))
.0 D >/ X *.
. @
(8 - + A# #

F
R) 4%
) 0# >- B0#
.,) 1035 1$

- 19
-
)
#
* * 0 , &7# ,

0 (RISA) 1313
8#
)
0) &

) 8 @:

A(>
8
8 10 8
) "

8 # A 8 # +
# -
)
&
0
) *
"
# 1 E#% # ?# (. ,I A
+) , M9 10 # * #
. 000 2000 (.
5 ?
%
.
* , 000 10
&7# 8 C0 ) &
L&
M9
% , ( 000 10) , +) #
.* ,
8
% #
.>&8 &1 ,)# 1 ? , 8
+
# @:

( 000 3 8
) 1 ,
0 , /
&7#
0
&7# 8 @: R/ # . #
(9 /:#
#) 8
A( C0 9
;.
0) :#
Np A Cp = Np / t
&7#
0
A9 t G ;9 & 7 &7#
284
0) :#
Ns Cs = Ns / t

;9 , (
5 ;.
. t & 7
# " .0 (8 0) Cb .0
,I t b & #) 0
. .0 ; - :.
.0
7 Nb 0) :# )9 6 8 Cb +)
.9# t b & / C0 .0 ;9 &

# > ) P , &7# , -
/- >/ V * 0 &7# , +) 1) B U A 000 3000

A Cp &7# 8 # , B
,
A Cb " .0
A Cs
97 ( 000 2000
- 1000) Vs (. #
: )#
V = Vs x( Cs – Cb ) / ( Cp – Cb)
-
(. +#) - CF "
C &7# G&8 # 9 1 " &8

8
0 #8 ? E% 7 8

D A,) (0 & +#)#
.
. &8
:6
* / * &7# , ; )
..
>
8
8 10 G F # 1313
#

#
A 000 1000 1 E#%- # (-
&7# % ,
* , 000 10 +) , &7 .

.. ,
) /-
8 ( C0

000 3 &7#
1462 A 0 9/:# 3306 :H8
285
+) ." .00 9 /:# 180 A&7# 9/:#
.* /1 &7# ,
:'

/1 &7# ,
8 1000
(. -
:
*
V = 1000 x (3306 – 180 ) / (1462 –180 )
= 2438 ml
!
- 5' 5 !
%!
2 ' 69
# +) 0 #
+0
A 0 > # ,)
#)
188. -

# % #
.
G/ 8 9
. 1
f ,
&8
10 M0-

#
&. * < /1 08 9
0
. Medical Radiation Internal Doses MIRD ,)
(
)
.#
9# G/ #) /.
!) 0 G/
&7 )) &. d#0 % Q . G/
0I )#- X8 A,99 ,
8 ,)# R/
G/ +)
.

0 +) +
0)- C0
083

0
169
,)0
0 +)
- I A
G/1 &. # @ + > #

G/ I# .
9
17:
G/ 8 f 9
-
G/1 #)
0

. #) f I
.

0 #) # A
0
A 9# 7:
286
/ f 9 - AJ7I .
G/1 "
/ U 0.986
, 99 ,
8 # (.F.R 140 9
# , 99 ,
) 8 T

1000 7: B -

# (239)
#
.(.F.R 140 9#

986
. ,99 ,
8 R8.
7: 7: 8

&
" 9
8 9 + : 7% L
# ,99 ,
8
: - >- A f 9 G/1#

. # #)

E = ∑Eγx fi
=0.0021 x 0.986 + 0.1405 x 0.986 + 0.1426 x 0.014
= 0.1426 MeV
,5 7: 8 0% 9

8
A9

> ,5 CF

:>
)
E = o.1426 x 1.6 x 10-13 = 2.28x10-14 Joules
F
# :(239)

,99 ,
8 7:
#)
# f I

. 9 ,9
L CF K
((.F.R)Eγ
E3 0.986 2.10 1
M2 0986 140.5 2
M4 0.014 142.06 3
(.F.R 142.6 = 7: 8
&
" 9
287
<# B U D)
-
:0
9 9#
F # T 4% *#

0) 9
.# R/8
A# 18
- ) <

#
A, 99 ,
) 80 MIRD
# G/

+) <# AR/8 .(239)
@#

#)
L AK 0 #) # Conversion factors 0
+) >
: # G/
. L CF K
A G/ # +
I
0

8F
) #

8" L&
"
9 +) 8
.
-
8F #
- &
., 99 ,
8 7:
7: D) 0

G/ MIRD # ) (339)
* )
9 /

. #) # B - E:
/
. #
/ 6 1 U (1 ,)#
# ) (.F.R 2.1
L
8F G I- C0 M0 J 0 J
F
,
8 / K C

8F L& 9 .8

.0 #) # - .(.F.R 1.6 9#
8" M0 #
(2) ,)
#
(.F.R 140.5 9 /
8# 0.878 = f #
M0 1 U

8F %F CF T! 8 A(.F.R 140.5
19
(3)

.0 #) #
. M AL A K 0
R
0) ;. R0) 1 U
(.F.R 142.06 9# M0
)
# 9 L&
#
9# - .J# (2)
@
,99 ,
80 M AL AK 0

8F
@ R/8
A /
8F L&
" )
.( I %. @ )
-
8F
288
(MIRD
0) , 99 ,
8 # :(339)

&
#I #
R8. 8
8 #) 9
13310× ×>
8
8 (f) 9
) ((.F.R)
000 000 .% 2.10 (1)
0

8F
0.0026 0.0035 0.986 1.60 L
0.0980 0.1980 0.2630 0.8787 140.5 (2)
0

8F
0.0174 0.0232 0.0913 119.4 K
0.0026 0.0034 0.0118 137.7 L 3
0.0008 0.0011 0.0039 140.0 M 3
0.0001 0.0001 0.0011 0.0003 142.6 (3)
0

8F
0.0016 0.0022 0.0088 121.5 K 3
0.0007 0.0010 0.0035 139.8 L 3
0.0002 0.0003 0.0011 142.2 M 3
0.0013 0.0017 0.0441 18.3 kα1 ) -
0.0006 0.0008 0.0221 18.2 kα2 ) -
0.0003 0.0004 0.0105 20.6 kβ1 ) -
0.0004 0.0005 0.0152 15.4 KLL
-
8F
0.0002 0.0002 0.0055 17.8 KLX
-
8F
0.0003 0.0004 0.1093 1.90 KLM
-
8F
0.0008 0.0011 1.2359 0.40 MXY
-
8F
0.0981 0.2279 0.3029 "
89
8 ,
9 @#
-
&
#I ,)# / (
.).>
8
8
, 8 G/ +) B - 5 Equilibrium Dose Constant ∆
E)
-
: J ) J &
L&
@ 5 - *
5 % )

. @ 4 # #8
.B 1 >- 6
D)
-
: / 8# @
: - (

3600×410×3.7 = ).>
8
8 1
7: 8 10×1.332 =
:
, 1 -
` F 100 = , /` F 100×, 1

5310 =
,
08 .> $ 5– 10 =
: U R/ C0
.(@#) %. @ )
10×1.332/ 5310 = ).>

8
8/ , 1
8
.7:/
14310 × 7.51 =
:6
% (2)

- # (339)

8 0.8787>
) f #) #
A(.F.R 140.5 9# , 99,
8

# B #
/1 ∆ &
#I Z A7:
.) >
8
8 8 ,
:'

∆ = 0.1405x 0.8787 = 0.1235 MeV/dis
290
= 0.1235 x 1.6 x 10 –13
= 1.975 x 10-14 Joule /dis
= 1.975 x 10-14 / 7.51 x 10 -14
= 0.263 gm.rad / µ Ci .h
8
%!
2 ' 269
+) +0 (339)

# 7 J :

0 *# D)
-
:

( %. @ ) .%

# I

#
: / 8 R/ # AD)

-
:0
0
D)
-
: 8
, (0 9
.B
D)
-
"
% :(439)

# ?: *# ,8

?:
: @ 5
. 8# /> .>
8
8/
: B ,8 G
I ) .%
153 53
10×3.45 10×4.6 #8 #8 ,99 ,
8
173 73
10 × 3.38 10×4.5 *# ) 6
183 83
10×4.66 10× 6.2 %
163 63
10×1.20 10×1.6 L
133 33
10×1.73 10×2.5 9 < 9 <
193 93
10×1.58 10×2.1 9 ) P # ?: 8-
,)#
.,8 70 B08
,)175 B
S0# " 9
0

8 +)
8
D1
> ) " 6/

8 B0 " 8

: %

.
+) #
. D)
-
:
+)
I) #
) D # - F +
0) /1#

#
. J I8 +) 0 ) 9 (
8
D #
. ,99 ,
) 80 #) # D # G/ D *# (439)
:6
*#
#8 8 )
+)
/F * ,99 ,
8 >
8 00 1
#8 8# &8 +8
%
5 / 8
I8# I8- .%

# - ## J) J&8
.) 6.02 S0# >/ &. .%
:'

.% >
) @ 5 )
>- ,
0
ι )

8 AR/# .( I %. @ ) Ln2 C0 J
)
:
#8 &8
80
ι = 6.02 x Ln2 = 8.685 hours
#8 ,8 A " +) 8 AR/#
:
/
A)

8
A = 3.7 x 107 x 8.685 x 3600
= 1.1568 x 1012 dis (or Bq.sec)
292

#8

8 (439)
,)#
:
8
D = A x 3.45 x 10-15
= 3.99 Gray
:1 / *#

-
D = A x 3.38 x 10-1 = 3.91 x 10-2 Gy
"

%A
79
.0 ) ! " ) - 8 0I
5
" G/ ,) 0) )
5 ,) E I #) C0 .7 9
) *#
- * ,) # >/ @ 1313

) #) 67 @0# M ? @ C

- 1%) 8 9 <
67 5 / ,) 8 A #
8
1313
5 # ,) AR/8 .< G/1# # *
8
0 L
- *# 67 @ 323
.). 5
- @
,) 5 *# ,) E#%-
A(, ))
?
) ) L
- *# 67 ) *
%)8 T - 67 @ M #
- . C0
.8 67
-
,) * ,) 5 # 67 7:
" % ! " ,&

,&
- A1373,
&)
- 6030#
88 F %
7 )
-
8"8 .. )
293
78 ((.F., 20 C 6 ) 9 /
8"
$

#8 0I
,&
- A
-

,&
- A ,
-

08) 7

) ,
, R/
A
&
#
" ,&# , A

.> # ,)
I8
(9

- ) 67
C & 9
& E%
0) 7# I8 :"
) 7 8
# , H

. ) ,
#
9 ,: Oncology centers A ) 67 &8
LF
67
!) &.
.67 . C ,) % @:
%
03

89
)
,- ! " # : 9

%
9 I

# , )
:f R/ +#)

. $
,

.
- #8 T , M #) # .08 09 3-
$ (7$ 1 +

0

-
(0< 3+
: * ,I )
.
- 8#
- ?
10 /.
g )
- " 17$ ,0
C#
F )
.
8# @
./. $ (7< # ,
@ CF ! "# , >! 36

@ , ,) B U R/ .,80 :
294

L"# , #
A
- #0 ))
H ,
.
G/ , C0I

.1 (0 >-

L"# %

,
* 0 B0 #9 L"# , , 0 #%- R/8
&F
# 9 .) @ ,
: 0
##) 8#
)
.
*#
- &"
- #
>#8 +18 *
. $
&1 ,

L"# , M )# 3
& >- " *
I!

." & *
I8 & ,)# , 0 , A

)

- 6030#
8 % F
G/1 1 % ,0 : *

8F
E
)# M % - M A&
., 0 .8 0 9
C
%A8
B%/ 03 99
.0 5 0 T ) R
1
+8 / @) # ! " ,&
# 0 6 F ) G/

.+1)U#
" IX 40
.
0
#0 8. 8#0 :
& G
-
Q0 * B - !

Q0 /1 0. 0 & *. ! "
, AR/8 .* 8
C0 B 9 *.
197F
*#
8/ , L" ,) 9

295
@ ) 49 CF >! 0)
8/ ;
09
CF #
A7
T #
.,
* K
- 8 # 18 # 6 F 5 0
) # I 9 %# F
- (9

)
5 B ,) 8 %
#
- ?:. .)
#
- 903,

)
$
- +0 # : ,5 &1X# %
!%8
8 / 109
.h ) & E # 31
& E ,

@ % ,) 32
9 , *# ( C0 15 )
.h1 40 8 (8
., G/
15 +#) . )
.h/
Ah> / @:
+ (8 33
% % " ,&0 ) ,) / 34

.h137 3,
&)
- 6030#
8
9 &# ) & .% R) < (8 35

.h G/
I7I 1
X#
% 7#) +

& 8/- 36
. ) # 4 0
.h>
+ E0%#
%
37
+ ) I8

8/ 38
@ A1 8 ,
6 .8 %.# Q
>

.1 8 . #8
296

, 99 ,
8 +7) , (8 %.# Q 39
.,
#

) 24 8 ,
8
+7) , B - * .# 310
I +7)7 " #) A
;.
.h
#
8/
) 1
8 #
%0 ,) 311
.1
8 8 .5
A00 1 9

% )) 8 ( 312
.h*# 1:## % # (8
5
A
&
# # <
Q 313
.h10
% , (8
.h1 )
<
4%
%.# Q 314
.
8 8 .5
,) &1

8 8/
A9
0
A4 , &7# , ;9
%.# Q 315
(. - 8/
A >
) +#)-
.h(
) 0

A
8 9 < 131

4% ) 316
1313
8 8 /U A
#8 ?
8
A>
800 20 * 0
/1 9 < 4% #) ." ;. #
.% 0
1313
*
N Nb S Sb
2700 205 12500 200
297
1313
# * &7# , ; ) 317
..
>
8
8 10 G F #
. #
A 000 2000 1 E#%- # .-
&7# % ,
* , 000 10 +) , &7

.. ,
) /-
( C0

000 3 &7#
A 0 9/:# 3280 :H8 8
.00 9 /:# 160 A&7# 9/:# 2325
.* /1 &7# , +) ."
% (3)

- # (339)
318
f #) #
A(.F.R 142.6 9# ,99 ,
8
∆ &
#I Z A7: 8 0.0003>
)
.) >
8
8 8 ,
# B #
/1
*#
#8 8 )
+) 319
* ,99 ,
8 8#< 600
8# &8 +8
%
5 8 /F
.%

# - ##
AJ) J&8 #8
.) 6.02 S0# >/ &. .% I8# I8-
298

External radiation hazards
– * E !"
", (
D
-E
GE1 – (
-E
G1 – " (
(E @ – E (E
E,49 E –"E1 (

.
-! 3!5 – > 4

110
The natural sources of radiation and their sources

.& # $ # $%
!"
-. / .
", !"
( " ( )* +

. . 5 01 213 ,4
", ( )*
"
.734 $"
8 1 6
:. " 31 (
.
9 -.
;*5 1 (!. ;5 . 6

.
",
(
(The cosmic rays) 1110

+<% = .
9 ". (. -
.? 4 $6& > 9" ,1 #
(>," ( &34 @5 3
9 )* #1
.
9 ;" +
* 8 ( ( ".
( )* -4 .(The primary cosmic rays) 9
* . A -& B C # +<%
299
H, - . +
6 . :" % +<%

9

. 9
6 9 .3 ""
,4 * - 3 .
.# ,%6 , <6 1" H, @& /
K ( ( ". ) .

9 1 ".
# C ,% -" 9 H, " >
L #= ",7 ) $/ ,4
" 1
?& $/ ,4" 7" ",7 " > 3. K.
-" K / B ( 5 . 1" H, @& /
( ( M : ,%
.&34
,,4
7 % <!* 1" H, @& / G

3
)* @ +<4" +34 ..
9
.
9
1" H, . ( 3 ""
5 / .1 * ( & . 30 1
H, O ;. 1 N3" @& $" A -." (
G
3 B ( ". " = ". 3 "" 5 . 1"

& N3" 01 1" H, M $" 213
240 1 $/ ,4 1" H,
L" !," L )* L . ( & .
" .;. 1 $" @& / A ". " L ;K @& /
@& / . ". * -. % &. (1D10) -.
." 5 / 50 ,4 1" H,

& ( ;> (1D10) - " :.
, " A ;

" .
9 ".
300
3 (" 7 .
9 & 3

.; 1993 ;1988
* 7 1 ;C 3

& 3
, 5
. 9 ?5 3 ) 7 ; > .
9
;7 B 4P
" .&34
,,4 (& /
. 9 "" L > "

,3 -
. K 45 :. .&34
,,4 (& /
67 5 "
01
9 & > 3
K >
" O71 . -4 (> % 80 ,
..
9
104
&4 ,
(/ )

A& ,

103
102
10
1
0.1 1.0 10 100 (km)
(1D10)-.
@& / . .
9 (". % &.
50 ,4
301
(1D10) -
;

" .
9 (
& 3
,

&
(( & .) @& / .
@ ( ". ( ")
=
270 30 240 & 1" H, M
440 110 330 1180 ,
570 170 400 1610 (1 (/) &
820 290 530 2240 :.
1130 440 690 2840 ( .).
1710 740 970 3600 )/
2020 900 1120 2900 (&")L"/
380 80 300
,
5 (1D10)-. - * H6

N3" @& +6 . .
9

,1 # +<% H6 . . 1" H, ;.1.5 1
R!4 G1 ..
9 O L1. 9"
10.3 1 . ! L1 S. 5 H6 # +<%3 !>
. 5
1 (!. 3 .

C " K 6"
# +<%

" T #= B
A 14 " . . <K .+<% * (. A 3&
# 14 A .
9 ( -&
: -&3 7", : # +<%3 ?! . -K
302
14 14
N+ n C + p
H, - 1 # +<% 14 " .
9 3 1 (!. A G. -4 9
) ) 41;.. M 49 !2
" . :. ."K ""
5
10 × 3.08 & ) ) 36 3. ( 510 × 1.1 &
.* 8 (

2110
The terrestrial radiation

( 3!6 (. 3 6 9 7 #1
232 ; K 235; 338 ; -K
3,
3 7 )* #1 . .( K G" A ) ;
& ) N3" # A 40 ;" 2 33> (.
1 & ) N3" # 87 ;" 910 × 1.28
> " 5 &5 ( ( )* :.& . 510 ×4.7
,4 5 &5 ( -K / . (
: A"
.* 7 2 9 O
" 3

(
"" 5 .3 ,4 " ( -K / :.
?! ; -K B
> 4/ 7 (
."

3 (

7

L. (& .
( L. " 3 " @
L. L 01 " @
" ". &
(
.3&, " 5 4 -K -" 3 ;

& (/
;> (2D10) - "
" (
.9
" "
3 (" 7 -
L , > :.
.1 ;C 3

303
. -4 ( (7 A H6 :.
35 " . -4
& (/
5 4
: G"
., % 45 – 40 1" 4
LE. 3 #1 . $E" 4 $"
(2D10) -
(

& (/
;>
-
3
, .9
" 6 9
-
.
( & 33"
0.23 .
0.55
0.36 :
1.32 W. W*
0.32 "
0.65
0.35 1 .3
0.28 . 9 1 (/
0.46
,
238; -< ( -K

",
&
.40 ;" ( :. 232 ; K ;.9
! "# 3110

!2 3!6 (. 3 1 !. ; #1
9
10×1.28 & ) ) 40 ;" 14 " ..

7 39 ;" A
", 40 ;" .(
N" #
; 3. 01 .100000 : 11.7 ""
B 39 ;" 8 140 1 3 #1 ;%. 70 N3"
.A 40 ;" ; 0.16 3 #1 49 3. )*
K ..& 4200 1 A ;" . )*
304
* 7 M> >," " ( -. % 89 .1
; -4 -." " ( >, R .+..; 1.461
)* #= .34 (
>, % 50 R . # "
" . ( & 33 0.2 * 7 !. (

7 ; -4
;*5 (3D10) -
. -. !.
(3D10) -
-4
",

( # " ;
!. ; (..& 2 ;
; 33" (K ) N"
20 4200 40 ;"
1 3210 14" .
5D0.5 5D4 226 ;
;2
1.4D0.1 8 210 ;"
;2
17 – 0.4 300D25 90 ;
@4 4.5D0.4
49D23.5 @
The radon $% 4110

".9 ;* * L8 "

!2 K<K 3
", .
", @

:.&
" 238 ; 33 W 222 *

" ; K 33 :.& W # 220 226 ;
33 :.& W # 219 ;K 224 ; :.&
. 223 ; :.&
" 235 ;
" 37 2 1 " ,4 219 -K /

.219 3 &
&4
", 235 ;
305
; K" % O, L 1 ,4 220 -K
2 O<, 3 ,4 ".5 -K 222 2 5 .232
.(; 3.82) " -, &
" L 9
$ )L. " 7" " -4 L8 L. L

@ " @ 3 " -4 L.
.O3,
( 1& " & . G35
5 .O3, $ )L. " 7 " -4 L. .
:< %" " *=* / 73% .9
L. - 5 . +. (3 >,
)
" "
:. . ,4 (
OK" ) )* "! . 01 3
L%
" L . .(1 4 ) ;4
L8 L. " -L ;4
",
L. - 5 . .L% : O 1
/- ." 100000 3 L ;> 73% .9
"
" [ O3, $ )L. 5 1 $ G
.
G
. - ." ( -3> - ." -3>
.(3; /- ." 50 D5)
-7 5 . ?& $* A ; -4

5 ,4 -K .! 3 " K= 5 ;
W
( <6 &5 (
L , L. ;> (4D10) - " ...&
( L. :. ,5 . K. 7",
* 8 210 ;" 214 ;" -K A L
. 3 ,4 ".9 ; ( )* -. 01
".9 ; -. L8 5 H6 *

",

&
306
%50 1 * &" 3
-K 01
.
", A

(

",
.*
,4 +<4" )* +34 .
!"
. @ "
", 1" H, & .
!. ( (5D10) - " . K. M 45 -
:
",
L8 L. (, :(4D10) -

L. )*
& ( L

& (3;/- .")L.
(( & .) A>
( L8 (
L L L8
130 3 8 10 " T 4 222
1000 48 16 40 " -4
1200 1 (( & . )
& ,
1.8 1.9 0.1 10 " T 4 220
67 2.3 0.3 3 " -4
73 : -1 (( & . )
& ,
".9 ; -. L8 5 H6 .*

&
1.2 , * &" 3
-K 01
",
%50 1 -K * /( & 33
.
", A

(

",
.*
. +<4" )* +34 .
!"
- . @ "
", 1" H, &
!. ( (5D10) - " . K. M 45
307
3
3 (3 (" 019 7",
",
.= (
( K"
1 ;C
, ( ;> :(5D10) -

= (
\
",

& >
(( & 33),

O, O,
@

2.00 0.38 .
9 D
0.01 0.01 $ . ( D
(
\ 4
D
4.30 0.46 "
0.60 0.23 ( +<4") 34
D
10.00 1.20 222 D
0.10 0.07 220 D
3 K.
2.40 D
@& / .
", ,

&
210

( 2 (
)* ;*5 . " ;

& (*
: 3
The diagnostic radiology 1210

-

(

+34 .
L -> 5
9" 4
308
L @ "3, @ 6
+<4" >
3
3 .= .* 8 3 ;4 ?1 ;3&
9
;* * 4
9 5 * 7 1 ;C
;
" *".
& ;29
3 7 .(man- made sources) "

" ;
.
& 1 ;C 3

,4 -
;4" .( & < 5D3 " [
= 4
9 5 " 7" -&
M 3 3> , " +5 50 1 30 " 01
*".
& ( 7 (6D10) - " . ;

"
9" (1 ,73 #5 ) 1 R1& &

"> 25 ;
-
.4 R1&
1 ,73

& , :(6D10) -
-
" $69
"
9" R1&3

(/ , R1& @
1
D 0.13 0.17 0.22 1.4
D 0.20 0.23 0.14 1.4 # 7&

0.21 0.07 0.36 0.18 0.28
4.5 0.56 1.50 1.9 2.6 ,"
D 1.60 2.50 7.1 10.4 " L
D 0.6 1.50 3.2 1.6 4& 1
Therapeutic radiology ' 2210

< ; # 6
3 !. > +>

& L > .T<
@ G3,

] .R4 " 7" K.
T<

309
T<
3 ;4 # -
5
5 L 18000 1 ;

5 %" 5 / ., 6

7 :" .%3 1 @
" T<
3
64 R49

& 5 1 ;C 3
3
.( &. 3 1.8 1 N3"
T<

(
) 3210
The nuclear Energy and industries
$" . >, ;4 49 ( A
.><
(% ( !, (<1 & : 1
!" . >, <& 450 K.5 ;
]

(. (^ )* . K<K L
. 013 5
", -% + 2 6 !"
# >
A ; ; 0" : <6

(. (<& .<
"

5 / .= @
\ "
L (*
; % # 9 7" ;L<
".5 &5 7 .1 -L
M 3

-" -& 01 * > + K.5 -<4 # 01
)* ( & . 600000 N3"
."
;

$L5
" $L L / 49
. 4 R1&
The radioactive waste 4210

" 7" 5 (<& &34 (& :3 *

& -4
;4
. >, (3
& 6
The radioactive dust ,* + 5210

310
(& (
) 6 7 K + -<4
" & 4 ( & (! -" (
G 21 !L >&/ A> -"> : 1962 ;1954
3 (,> G ) .1963 ; ( & )*
"% ". (. . + 4 9 H,
3,
,/ W ( & (&34 6 # #
137 ;L 14 " . W )* ,45 .

& - .90 ; /
- ( &. 3 30 ] 1 ( ( &
(! -<4 >" - + % 15 1 ] 1 "3
.7
1 &3

& ( (7D10) - "
( 3 6 1 ) 9 3 " A "1 ,.
. . ,/

& , :(7D10) -
,/
" &3
# !. ,
(( & 33)
0.70 4
9
0.30 T<

5
0.02 G,
!2 ;4
0.02
(&
0.07 # "% ,>
0.05 ,1 G 7" .
0.04 M 45
.

-#! 310
311
#
-#! 1310
-* . 1 " ( 7> 5 &
" ( O K. 5 & . -4 R/
-
1 G3, ,7 (( )* -
5 )
* ( )* >, 5 (K.2;/ ;) φ * *
-
5) >, O . ! .( . E
.φ E :* (>,
312
. ; 1
36 -, S. W 5 $ "
. 3
:* (2D10 -. ) G
. -<4 >, O
E φ x (1 cm2) = φE
β (
(2D9) -.
; 1
36 -, $ G
. -<4 >, O
( . 1 " ( >, (. B

( 5 #5 ; 1 1 W ( )* M .
>, -7 -
. :" .G
. * -4 >, -. 7&
. % φ E * 3; 1 ) 7 W ;1 " (
.K.2; /(
>, -7 -
. 3; /;8 1 * $ K. 5 01
.K.;8/+..; Φφ E * G
.3 (
A ) ;8/+..; 410 x 6.25 = 33 1 5 01

:* K / 33" -
. (A" -&
313
D* = φ E (MeV/ gm.sec) ÷ 6.25 x 104 ( MeV/ gm. mrad)
= 1.6 x 10 –5 φ E mrad/ sec
:* D* -
. K -7/"
D* = 1.6 x 10 –5 φ E x 3600
= 0.0576 φ E mrad/ hour
. B (WR = 1) * " ( H -
01
: ]. D* !. -
1
H* = 0.0576 x φ E x 1
= 0.0576 x φ E mrem/hour
:5 #5
H* = 0.576 φ E µSv/ hour (10-1)
" ( 5
B : .M7 7 & 5" (>,"
7 )* +34 .( )* >, , 7 ;4 G
R!4
" (8D10) - " . 4] ,
7 2 01 ;4/
! " (
"
. ) >,3 ,
!4 ;*5 " (

" :(8D10) -
; & ;. ( ". " .
90 32 45 35 14 4
28.1 ;14.3 165 87 5730 &

2.24 1.701 0.167 (+..;) M7 >,
0.93 0.70 0.254 0.049 0.154 (+..;), >,
870 600 0.077 30 0.050 (;) $ M
1.1 0.8 60 0.032 30 (;) $ M
0.14 0.10 0.06 0.002 0.029 $ & :
0.0048 5 0.0022 ;)
%3 %5 %63 %84 >, R "
%89 4 ( 3 7",
314
:/
W !. :. -
G1
.2;/; 500 * ( )* O 5 (3 " (
.+..; 0.7 , >, 5 K
:!
>, -
/" D -
G1
*
:><
(( . %") ,
D* = 0.0576 x φ E (MeV)
= 0.0576 x 500 x 0.7
= 20.16 mrad/h
-
!. -
G1 .
:><
" " ( H
H* = D* x WR
= 20.16 x 1
= 20.16 mrem/ h = 201.6 µSv/h
:/
.# . 33 2
, O> 32 & :
;1 3 ( 3 7", (1 -
G1
($ R/ -*5) *
:!
/" ( -
5 ) φ ( O K. /5 G1
. H, 1 3
,
: ]. R = 1 m * ,> + N3" *L.
φ = S / 4π R2
= 2 x 3.7 x 107 / 4 x 3.14 x 100 x100
= 589 particles/cm2.sec
315
7", " ( >, R $L 7 5 01
% 95 >, -%3% $L 7 . % 5 * ( 3
0.7 * && " ( >, , 5 01

:* -
. +..;
D* = 0.0576 x φ E
= 0.0576 x 589 x 0.7 x 0.95
= 22.56 mrad
:/
" -
G1
%8 ," " ( - 5 (3
* ,> 5 7>/; 40000 *
-
.
.+..; 1 ( )* >, , " . 5 ;3
: !
: A 1 /5 G1
A = πr2
= 3.14 x (1.5)2 = 7.07 cm2
φ O K. . R/ -*
: ].
φ = S /A
= 40000 / 7.07 = 5658 particles/ cm2. Minute
= 5658 / 60 = 94.3 particles/ cm2.sec
: -
G1 ; "
D* = 0.0576 x φ E
= 0.0576 x 94.3 x 1
= 5.46 mrad/h
316
!. 5 -
5 G
G1 .
A" > G"" ? (L 3. +
6
$ 7", " (
" R/ 2 :. .
B ( >, 3 R/ / 2 .: L
. . -
" ," >< A6 G

33" ) -
1 " 7 ><
;4
- ." %" 3 S
, ,
( /
.( . %" >, " d
D* = 0.5 S E / d2 (10-2)

-#! 2310
φ * (
( -
#5 ) O K. (.
. E # "K (& )* >, (. K.2;/
( 1 >, )* L .φ E * >, O
>, .
., * >, $L -7 # ,
* @ 3 ,> (
>, 3 ,3 37
; ;1 1 37 >, . 1 .,
: > " # (9D10) - (" ;4 .
-. (;8/2;") 3. R/ -
(;") &
>, R -
5 21/ ) " ;2
36
9
-& 3
# * -
<3> -7
9
.(` [ .0K
-
. +..;1 (
>, (. B
0.031 * 36
W ( - 2) 3. R/
$ K. 5 " 7 $ S. 36
W 5 01 .;/2;
: * ; ;1 1 37 >, . 3;/;1 *
ξ = 0.031 x φ E (MeV/ cm3 . sec)
317
>, . 3;/; " 7 * # " W K. 5 01
: * W * 3; -. 37
(
>, " ><
:(9D10) -
" ;2
C & :
3. R/ -
& : >,
;2 W ;2 36 W +..;
(;/2;) (;/2;) (;) (;)
19.20 4.87 0.019 0.13 0.01
2.46 0.533 0.14 0.95 0.02
0.72 0.154 0.41 2.02 0.03
0.304 0.070 0.78 2.78 0.04
0.161 0.043 1.15 3.19 0.05
0.100 0.033 1.45 3.54 0.06
0.054 0.026 1.88 3.84 0.08
0.039 0.026 2.14 4.09 0.1
0.030 0.031 5.58 9.90 1.0
0.016 0.016 16.3 31.3 10.0
ξ = 0.031 x φ E (MeV/ gm . sec)

4
-
. ;/+..; 10 x 6.25 = 33 1 5 01
:* K/ 33"
D* = 0.031 x φ E / 6.25 x 104
= 4.96 x φ E x 10 –7 mrad/sec
= 4.96 x φ E x 10-7 x 3600
D* = 0.00179 φ E mrad/hour (10-3)
G1 1 # (
H -
5 01
:5 #5 ><
?&" !.
H* = 0.00179 φ E mrem/hour
318
= 0.0179 φ E µSv/hour (10-4)
><
φ O G1 ,7 1
:

φ = S / 4π R2
-
. (4D10) ><

"
:* !.
H* = 0.0179 S E / 4πR2 (µSv / hour)
- ."%" S 3
, " B
,7 " d ( . %" E >,
:* /( & ." !. -
. "

H* = 0.0179 x 106 x S E / 4 x 3.14 x 104 x R2
:5 #5
* 2
H = 0.142 x S E / R (10-5)
-. +<4"
9 R/ -
+<4/ 2
B (;2 5 36 W) W @ (
)* >,
: ><
;4 .
H* = S E / 6 d2 µSv / h (10-6)
)* ./( & ." !. -

(5D10) ><
% 17 7" L /
,
49 ><

.7"
2 11 49 ><

*
(& )* . 1 >," ( A
.
!2 5 ;3
5 / . 3
,3
2 -7 >,3 1 > K." ( 5
: <6 .,4 -. 1 >," ,,4
" 0
"/ 1 "" ,,4 ,4 -. L
f -
" )* 3 O3, . 3
,3
319
( " " *
,43 f -
.,4
-3 2 (..& :.& 100 -. ,43 1 >," 73,
137 ;L 1000 :.& -K -" 3
.-9
M
* 0
" 137 ; " #" :.& -<4
f 7 5 -7 : .+..: 662 >," 852 ; "
60 (3". :.& B :. .% 85.2#5 0.852 * ,4
1173 ;* >," ,,4 ,4 49 60 -.3
. K3 % 99.9 -C %100 # f G" +..: 1332
,,4 ,4 K.5 "1 4=

(5D10) ><
4 &34 f @ & G"
23
:
H* = 0.142 ( S / R2 ) ∑i f x Ei (10-7)
The gamma specific factor

3310
(7D10) ><
" -
9 G3, /
G1
,7
" 3
,

2 ("
"
:. G3,
3 O3, ) " f ,,4 (>, 1 (

.(@ & " ,4" A
"
-

;" + -
G1 ; > B :
#
;23 7 !L -
* +
.
23 Γ
, N3" -
" (13
. . 1
" ,7 1 - ." %

:><
" 6 -
* "

Γ ≡ = 0.142 ∑i f x Ei (10-8)
- ." %" 3
, "
;
* 7" ><
-
?> 1 .
320
><
7" .(A" /- ."%) -. (/( & .)
-
G1 " B (8D10) (7D10) 7"
-

/( & . 1"
& 5 !.
:><

H* = Γ x S / R2 (10-9)
!2
" -
(10D10) - "
.", (/ ;4/

!2
" -
:(10D10) -
-
2 -
2
0.034 170 ;K 0.324 22 ;
0.0130 192 ; 0.356 60 (3".
0.063 198 G* 0.022 99 ;.
0.224 226 ; 0.059 131
:/
; 150 * > 3 W !. -
G1
5 (3 # . 20
, 137 ;L
.( . 3. 662 * 3 (
>,
:!
:* - ."%" 3
,
S = 20 x 3.7 x 1010 / 1x 106 = 7.4 x 105 MBq.
: * ( . %" (
>,
E = 662 / 1000 = 0.662 MeV
:!. -
. (5D10) ><
;4"
H* = 0.142 x 7.4 x 105 x 0.662 / (1.5)2
= 30917 µSv/h
321
≈ 31 mSv/h
:* -
. (6D10) ><
;4"
H* = 36287 µSv/h ≈ 36.3 mSv/h
:/
(3".
" 3 !. -
G1
(3". :.& -. 5 (3 # . 1
, 60
.+..; 1.332>," 4] 1.173 >," *15 60
:!
:* - ."%" 3
,
S = 1 x 3.7 x 1010 / 1x 106 = 3.7 x 104 MBq.
:* 1.173 >,3 !. -

H* = 0.142 x 3.7 x 104 x 1.173 / (2)2
= 1541 µSv/h
:* +..; 1.332 >,3 -

H* = 0.142 x 3.7 x 104 x 1.332 / (2)2
= 1750 µSv/h
: 3. -

H*t = 1541 + 1750 = 3291 µSv/h
= 3.29 mSv/hour
-
;4" -
?& G1 .
:. 01 (9D10) ><
;4" " (3".3
H* = Γ x S / R2
= 0.356 x (3.7 x 1010 x 10-6) / (2)2
= 3293 µSv/h = 3.29 mSv/h
322
:/
5 (3 60 (3". 2 -
G1
* >," ( ((3".3 ) 60 -.
% 99.9 % 100 N3" @ & "" +..: 1332 1173
.G "
:!
(3".3 -
. (8D10) ><
;4"
:*
= 0.142 ∑i f x Ei
= 0.142 ( 1 x1.173 + 0.999 x 1.332)
= 0.356 (µSv/h).(m2/MBq)

12
/3 4 10

W 4 ,49 5
@5 A ,49 )* W . ; T 4
)* 7 .&5 ( $K" = ( (

1 ( 33 4 7", $ O 4 3 (
( (

9 " ( 5 .%3
5 6 #5 - . O 4/ 3 7" L
; 7 - " ( ; W
1.5 1 1 0.3 1 " [ >, 3
(
"K" (&5 0" $K")
A "
: .;
. 4 ,4C
: * ! - K<K 4 ,49 ;.1 A64

.L -
" +
5
3 L &

,7 A "
.
,7 " > L1 5 @
323
. $ 1410
* 4
,49 >3 G35 ,"5
.(
.9 . L ->5 $6>
-.. ; 5 H 6 .

-
t L & -, -. A , G E
:5 #5 ) . E*
& 5 H* !.
E = E* x t (10-10)
!. 5 -. "" ><
)* #
.
& 5
:/
20 * 3
3
& 3 # 1 5 +

( "4 15
& -
. B /( & 33
5 "4 * & A, ;. /( & . 50
.`@"9 0.
:!
G1 " 3 "9 (D.L) 1 /5 G1
:- @"5 50
(D.L) = 20 mSv / 50 week
= 0.4 mSv/week
$7"" <4 [ L . (10D10) ><
;4"
:* 1 @"9 "4 -4
t = E / E*
= 0.4 x 10-3 / 50 x 10-6
= 8 hours/week
324
:/
( K A>" @"9 ;5 4 -
# G,
-
>9 1 * # G, ( "4 15
. "4 * " H #
&
:!
: * "9 -
(
= 5 days x 8 hours/day = 40 h.

& 1 5 O" -K " 5 01
><
O"," @"5/( & 33 0.4 * 3
3 "9
:* "4
& -
>9 1 . (10D10)
Emax* = E / t
= 0.4 x 10-3 / 40 x10-6 = 0.01 mSv/h
= 10 µSv/h
G 4
,49 >3 5 " .*
-

" )1 -
L
L L /5
* -
L 3. .7 .
& 5 !.
"
.. * -4 <4 $7"" H # L -> .

-
L .9 3
L ">
.@
" 3
3 "" 6 5 /( & . 7.5 3
*5 * 10 /" ( & . 7.5 -
;4 G"
> ; (/1 ,% (% 25 1) 5 *
.(
(7
# 2410
K.) (
5 ( O 5 ? -&
% ,7 -. 3 A ((
,7 * " R A" A . " G
A , " G
-
. .

325
G -
5 H6 B (
5 ( O
:" .
,7 " A" A . "

"
,7 ( E1* 5 H1* 5 D1* ) -
,"
M 45 ,7 ( E2* 5 H2* 5 D2* ) -
A R1
: ><
" ?& R2
"
E1* x R12 = E2* x R22 (10-11)
-
" ><
)* 5
. 1 / 33> 5 % 3 11 "

5 .
,7 " " 3 "" <
(. / 11 ><
)* "
< 3 ""
K." ".5
,7 "
.A
" .
A" > ;" (11D10) ><
+

L 5 7 *
. -

L" (+ A" #5 ) A" 3 -
-7 +
63
..* ( A -
-7 +
65 K<K
:/
60 (3". W
& -
.
-
* /( & 33 6 * 1
" ,7
.` * ; 3 3
:!
:*
" ,7 -
. (11D10) ><
O","
H2* = H1* x ( R12 / R22 )
= 6 x (1)2 / (3)2
= 0.67 mSv/h
326
:/
0.5 * >
& (.
* /( & 33 2 * 137 ;L
.`( & . 50 * H"
:!
:. (11D10) ><
O","
R22 = R12 x ( E1* / E2* )
= (0.5)2 x ( 2 x10-3 / 50 x 10-6 ) = 10 m2
: * "3, .
" 4"
R = (10 ) ½ = 3.2 m
( & . 50 &4
& -
5 #5
. 3.2
"/
The shields ) ($! ) 4 3410

,7 A " L1 @ "

19
" & . 4
,45 > -! ;*5
G >/ . / 01" ". 3
, .
-9 & . / B " 9 (! " ( 1
L 3 3 / B :. .3 " ;
1 -
?5 3 &" a & > -= G3,
.
. -4 ;* 7 ( & 3
L /
A&
, (
A6 :
3 . @ @ +> .> @<> 5 @ -4 "
3 :. 3
, >, (
@
.@ * T 4 1 -

327
#5 G3, / )* B &5 ( ""
5 01 ( )* M / 5 , @ @
.; 4 . L / $ 7", R
4 1349

A -& " ( 5 0K -&
(>, ! -& , * K * :"3"

9 #5) ["./ (
( ) 6&4
:. .(3
(>, ! , * . (
A ( )* -&
9 . 5 "
.( >, L" 3& 3 Z #
L" L
-K % Z #

( "
G"
@ -
G5 ;9 5 perspex ?." "
1 ".9
9 . &4 . 1 " (
0" @ . &&4 )* ;4 B : A ..
&. 5 ;8 . )* ,45 >3 &. / " (
M7 >,3
") ; 1.3 1 ; 0.3 1 :" @ -
-& G"" @ K
"
9 5 / (" (
5 G G" . ,4 -K 5 . A (

9 >3 4P @ " T 4 " ( @ ,1
.-9 @ 3
" A " -

. 5
" 7
>
". 4 ,4 -. / 5 01 ( #5 ) @
3 " 1 7 2 ( 5 (
-K
)* M 5 01 H1 8 7/ * 5 / .$ O 4
.( >, L" L K. 5 - 5 . (
( )* ,4 M 3 -3 &. B : <6
, N3" % " !. -
G1
328
* 7 , >," " ( - ." % 1

* N3" 1 ; 3 3 , . % 0.6
./# 8 0.3 -

;L< @ : G1 &. 3 +

-">

/ @ * : 5 %"
" (
3 ,7
3
, 7 3 ><,
# @ .@ @ 3 ( ) M7 >,
) " &. - ."% 1
, # >3 &.
.- ." % < +/P
, N3" 4P >3
" + .* 8 " ( @ L 4 )*
L ( 5 (
5
9 @ 5
"
. 3
, L" , L .
4

#
-#!
@ K
"
C 4P @ ;L3 5 01

9 (
%" B " ( -9

G
* G1 -"> .( )* @ K
"

>,. " ( F 1 >, "

>" " )* G1 . .
5
Emax M7 >, Z @ #
: ><
;4" :

F = 0.035 x Z x Emax % (10-13)
& O" 771 ?.
><
)*
3 #
L 5 " ( M7 >, (L 3. "
>" $7" A
9 . " (L 3&
."K + 2
329
K
" Nβ " ( F "

"
Nx
9 ( G1 . K
: ><
"
Nx = F x Nβ / 3
= 0.00035 x Z x Emax x Nβ / 3 (10-13)
:/
# .
, N3" 32 &
, . % 1.71 * 7 M> >," " (

9 ( G1 (Z = 13) ;9 @ -4
.@ K
"
:-1
:*
. (13D10) ><
O","
Nx = 0.00035 x Z x Emax x Nβ / 3
= 0.00035 x 13 x 1.71 x 3.7 x 1010 / 3
= 9.6 x 107 photons
96 1 K -K * @ 5 #5
* >, @L .
9 ( 3
01 ( . % 1.711 & (&

> 89 5 / . &,
9 +, .
M7 >, * 1 (& )* A >, "

." (
# "$' 4 7# -#!

‫ *ب (' ا&رع ا"زم ت‬+,
56& ‫ا ا&ى‬2‫ ه‬78,‫ و‬.‫ دة ا&رع‬/0 ‫ ات‬12‫ &ى ه‬56&
330
‫ا' ا;‪ R /:‬ا‪2‬ي ﺕ‪ /0 C: 0‬ا‪ @AB‬ا?‪ ،‬وا‪2‬ي ‪,‬ف‬
‫آ‪8‬ﺹ@ ‪I‬ب ا' ا‪ /0 /GH‬آ?‪ 50‬ادة‪ .‬و‪ 5J‬ت ‬
‫ا‪ 6 /‬ﺕ‪ S 2.50 K: LMN &,O‬إ;ون ‪ ;, ،PG0‬ﺕ‪& &,&8‬اه‬
‫ا;‪ /0 /:‬ادة) ‪&*G‬ة ‪U‬ام‪ 5M" (2+(/‬ا‪:5‬‬
‫) ‪R = 0.412 x Emax ( 1.265 – 0.0954 x ln Emax‬‬ ‫)‪(10-14‬‬
‫* ﺕ‪UG: O‬ر‪ +,‬ا‪(Y‬س ا‪) /JH‬وه‪, G‬وي ‪(2.71‬‬
‫أ إذا زادت ‪ 5MN‬ﺝت ‪ S 2.50 K:‬إ;ون ‪PG0‬‬

‫ﺕ‪ ^JA‬ا"‪ U (14-10) 5M‬د‪ ،5bM‬وﺕ‪&a‬م &`‪ 2‬ا"‪(15-10) 5M‬‬
‫ا‪8 5‬ب ا&ى ا;‪ cB /:‬ا‪&*G‬ة‪:‬‬
‫‪R = 0.53 x Emax - 0.106‬‬ ‫)‪(10-15‬‬
‫و& *ب ا&ى ا;‪&a( /:‬ام اد‪ 5‬ا"`‪5MH: 5‬‬
‫ا‪GAb‬ى ‪ dH‬ﺝت ‪ +,‬إ‪ % 15 -10 50I‬إ‪ K‬ه‪2‬ا ا&ي‬
‫آ‪ fL‬أن ‪ .‬و‪ J,‬ا&ى اﺕ‪ & h‬ا‪ 50Ig‬ه‪ '( G‬ا&رع ا‪G:H‬ب‬
‫ ه‪ 12‬ادة ‪ '2‬ا‪ .‬و& ا‪8‬ﺝ‪8 5‬ب ه‪2‬ا ا' ‪&*G‬ة‬
‫ا‪ 5GH‬اد‪ 5M +, ،5,‬ا' ا;‪ K: /:‬آ?‪ 50‬ادة‪.‬‬
‫
ل‪:‬‬
‫ا*‪ 7‬ا' ا;‪&: /:‬رع ا"زم ‪&A‬ر (وﻥ‪Gi‬م ‪8 90‬‬
‫ﺕ‪ n‬ﺝ‪ m‬ﺝت ا‪ 5?J‬ذ' ا‪&A‬ر داﺥ@ ا&رع‪ ،‬ﺙ‪+‬‬
‫ا*‪ 7‬ا' ا‪ & /GH‬ا(‪&a‬ام ا‪GGY‬م )آ?‪U 2.7 C0‬ام‪( 3+(/‬‬
‫وا‪"S;:J‬س )آ?‪U 1.18 C0‬ام‪.( 3+(/‬‬
‫ا‪:‬‬
‫ اوف أن ﻥ (وﻥ‪Gi‬م ‪&A, 90‬ر ﺝت ‪5MH‬‬
‫‪GAM‬ى ‪&b‬اره ‪ 0.546‬م‪.‬إ‪.‬ف‪ ،‬ﺙ‪G8, +‬ل & ذ' إ‪ K‬ﻥ ا‪G,,g‬م ‪90‬‬
‫ا‪& mi‬ور‪ 1‬ت و; ‪GAM 5MH‬ى ‪&b‬اره ‪ 2.284‬م‪.‬إ‪.‬ف‪.‬‬
‫‪ 7, ،'2‬ا(‪&a‬ام ا‪ 5MH‬ا‪GAb‬ى ‪G,,p‬م ‪Y‬ﻥ‪ L‬ا‪Y‬آ‪ ،J‬وا&رع ا‪2‬ي‬
‫‪331‬‬
.^8‫ ﺹ‬U c;‫ وا‬،S‫ﺹ‬Y‫ ا‬5MH: 1‫^ &ور‬:A, J‫آ‬Y‫ ا‬5MH: ^:A,
‫&ام‬a(‫ ا‬7, C‫ﻥ‬q0 ‫ف‬.‫إ‬.‫ م‬2.284 /‫م ه‬G,,p ‫ى‬GAb‫ ا‬5MH‫و* أن ا‬
:‫ أي أن‬،(14-10) 5M"‫ا‬
R = 0.412xEmax x (1.265 – 0.0954 ln Emax)
= 0.412 x 2.284 x ( 1.265 – 0.0954 ln 2.284 )
= 1.116 gm / cm2
،‫ أن‬fL‫ﺥ آ‬Y‫ا ا' ا‬2‫ ه‬% 15 50I‫ إ‬7, '‫& ذ‬
:G‫ ه‬90 ‫م‬Gi‫ب (وﻥ‬G:H‫ ا‬/:;‫ن ا' ا‬G;, '2‫و‬
R* = 1.116 x 1.15 = 1.283 gm/ cm2
/:;‫ ا' ا‬5M 7, ‫م‬GGY‫ ا‬/GH‫ب ا' ا‬8‫و‬
:G‫م ه‬GGY‫ب ا‬G:H‫ أي أن (' ا&رع ا‬،‫م‬GGY‫ ا‬50?‫ آ‬K:
XAl = 1.283 / 2.7
= 0.475 cm ≈ 5 mm
:G‫"س ه‬S;:J‫&ام ا‬a(‫ب *ل ا‬G:H‫و(' ا&رع ا‬
Xplex = 1.283 / 1.18
= 1.087 cm ≈ 1.1 cm

8 # 4 2349
(
5
9 5 0K -&
. L (&
* 01 B -<4
: 4 # 9 73 7 )*
I = I0 e -µ x
* I 3 ,> (& * 5 I0 :01

* µ -& x ) 7 . L (&
.3"7 (
>, 3 , * -

G
& 5 !. 5 -
5 01
-
"
. B (& A , "
332
><
" x . N3" # @ 3 > 4
" (
)*
: 4 * ><
3K
µx
E* = E0* e - (10-16)
x . N3" @ L
"
& -
* E* 01
; 1 ,7 ?&
& -
* E0*
* +34 .>, R -
;" +
-
µ @
<4 0K -& * -
49 -

1
µ ) 9

3. (& R> "
# * -

>, . A> ?.
/ (3%3%
5 . B &
. (
-%3%
. TL T 3 5 !6 . 3
&
5 . >, -. & 7& 9 3
. L"
$L 5 / 3 >, -7 & & 5 ;8 K 1
.$& 5
> >, )*
( . 15 A & B >, L" 7&

511 # >, -. -1 : O3,
-& *<. 5 & * 15 T 4 > +..:
B :. .3 -." -7 / > & >, 5 -7 : .
>, B ". ( -<4 A & -& 1
$L -7 1 . -." -7 / &
.>, >" $L <1 & (
3. 1 7 >, 3

-
5 01
>, -7
# -
;4 G B :
-7 -
" +
* 3 (

3 A 49 -
* - .>,
333
,4 -
# # 3. >, R -

A . K. 3 7 >, R/
-
;4 G (

9 @ ("1
.0K -& * -
/" >, R
"" -7 >, R -

5
+34 . & G"C * -
( % #5) 1
.(
>, +<4" " )*

8 # : # 9&

C 9 R/ >< ;4 . 5" 01
&4 ;L< @ : G1 (16D10) (

G 5 / .G3, 13 @ T 4
& 5 !.
+. 8 . ><
) 7 G1 @ : 5
/ ;4< ><
)* H3 / (/1 2
"%
: ] -K
> 8 K + 2

9 L 76 L1 D5
.%3 % @ : DG
@ : G1 . B , * O71

5 X1/2 & :" +
;4" 5 (16D10) ><
"
:" 5 3 * & : +
. X1/10 # b
:
G1 5 G .* 7 +
&4 #
(* -
/") >, R -
;4" : *
:
><
3 7
X1/2 = 0693 / µ (10-17)
& . . # # L1 5 @ B .*
: . .+
-
&4 1
334
&4 @ * B & : +
65 4 @
. (32/1) = 5(2/1) 5 01 32 A>"
@ * B & : +
65 @ :
(1024/1) = 10(2/1) 5 01 1024 A>" &4
..*
@ 3 G3, : & & :

R/ -
;> (11D10) - " .
3 7 ,"

" ; 1" & : ;> 1D; 1" µ ,4
(

9 > @ -
4
.&34 (>,
& : R/ -

;> :(11D10) -
(>,
"
"
4 R 1 $ 5MH‫ا‬
(‫ف‬.‫إ‬.‫)م‬
X1/2 µ X1/2 µ X1/2 µ X1/2 µ
1D 1D 1D 1D
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
0.012 57.8 0.0005 1340 0.0005 1330 0.155 4.48 0.01
1.75 0.397 0.012 58.2 0.27 2.60 4.20 0.65 0.1
3.09 0.224 0.42 1.65 0.53 1.32 15.0 0.069 0.5
4.62 0.150 0.90 0.77 1.47 0.47 19.0 0.07 1.0
6.48 0.107 1.45 0.48 1.82 0.38 20.0 0.034 1.5
7.97 0.087 1.80 0.39 2.10 0.33 22.5 0.031 2.0
9.62 0.072 1.40 0.50 2.48 0.28 27.5 0.025 5.0
12.8 0.054 1.28 0.54 3.01 0.23 32.5 0.022 10.0
:, 7#
O ,
6 #= # : : *
$L
&4 (

:5 #5 @ > $L5
X1/10 = ln 10 / µ = 2.303 / µ (10-18)
335
& : ".5 # b
: 5 H6 *
.&
6 3.32 7"
:/
) 7
-
#= 60 (3".
: G1
,7 /( & . 320
-
&4 ,7 "
6 ;L< R @
./( & . 10
:!
: * -
"3, &4 (
320 / 10 = 32
:5 01
32 = (2)5
5 01 . 5 * "3, & : ( .
1.25 * +..: 1.332) (3". >, R 3 & :
:* G3, R : . ;
X = 5 x 1.25 = 6.25 cm
:/
# . 5000
, N3" 60 (3".
/ 01"
373 ;L< : G1 .
3> -4 @6
0.5 3 "5 35 0. -

& L
& : " 3 "9 1
.; 1.25 * 60 (3". (
R 3
:!
; 0.5
" 3
& -
/5 G1
:. 01 (9D10) 5 (7D10) ><
;4"
336
E* = 0.356 x 5000 x 3.7 x 104 / (0.5)2
= 2.63 x 108 µSv/h
* 3
3 [ 1 G1 O" > 5 01
-
3 -"7 -
. @"5/( & . 400
:* "5 35
400 / 35 = 11.43 µSv/h
:. 01 n"3, &4 ( G1 - :"
n = 2.63 x 108 / 11.43 = 2.3 x 107
?C 2 " * 49
* 5 01
:5 #5 24.45
2.3 x 107 = (2)24.45
:* G3, @ : .
X = 24.45 x 1.25 = 30.56 cm
4 7# -#! ; "

7& . "3, O71 -1 5" 01
@ 3 ,>
9 L1 . 5 G" 4 7"
" 7 . % @ : . 5 L 76 L1
5 . R ; 30 3 L > @ : 5 O" -K

6 * #= .(*/ A

. ;. ;& [6 .(Build up) ;. " +
01
A T 4 (
.(3D10) -."
/
-K 9 * 7 7 @ " R (*/
# @
.-. 3 4 ,7
,7
9 A
7 /1 G1 #
,73 " - @ O 4
5 ;8 B
,7
5 .:. 9 * 7
,7 )* 3 ,7 5 /
,7
" .
> ,7 @
B :. .". ( G""
337
:. .
,7 3 ) " ,7 @ 3 ". : G""
A ( L" -& @ -4 TL9 #= 5 .
+..: 511 >, ( $& ( O<, ( .
.@ 39 + @
-K ,7 1
,7
;. ;& H6 :(3D10) -.
+<4"
,7 ( - B .*
7 :
; *3 9 7" ,7 ?& - :3
.O",3 1
! + 2 2

"% W ;. B .*
5 .@ 3 " ". : (
6
;L1 *
T ". ( ;. 01 /= -& ,

(>, ". ;. H" : .TL9
. (

,7 - It 3. (& G1 .

:
* . 01 @ +34

338
.-& @ : O 4 Id " ". D5

" -9 (. Is ". DG
$ ( 5 ". (
" ( ,7
.@ ( . A ( L"
:* (& 5 #5

It = Id + Is (10-19)
3.
" " 5 3 B ;. -
+

"
,7 - It (&3
(& @ 5 ( G"" @
73 7
,73 " - Id -& @ O 4
:5 #5 9
B = It / Id = ( Id + Is ) / Id (10-20)
- > ". > 4 5 . ;. -
5
?5 3 G1 @ 5 *
.( +/P (!
L @ : L G . "
/ 9 *
. -
L ;.
:/

,7
+ 2 ;. -
5 (3
(
" * 5 * @ " ,1 A ""
.`;. G"" " * ` 9 73 7 ,7 -
:!
#5) 1 "K" ! " (20D10) ><
;4"
:. (H1 1
B = 5 = ( Id + Is ) / Id = ( 1 + Is ) / 1
" (
" 5 #5 4 # 5 "
: * ,7 -
339
(1 / 5) x 100 = 20 %
: * ;. G"" - "
(4 / 5) x 100 = 80 %
(16D10) ><
H" B ;. G1 B .*
% ! ><
4 G3, @ : G1 1 8
:
µx
E* = B E0* e - (10-21)
:/
# . 5000 (. 01 O" -"> -K
O71 @ 3 ;L< : * 32 N3" ;. -
5 (3
.G3,
& -

:!
9 7 , .7 ," @ : .
G " &
6 32 -
L #= ;. -
B
: 6 G B 5(2) = (32) 5 01 . 32 *
5 #5 & : +
65 4 # O" @ 3 6
:H" 3. :
X = 30.56 + 5 x 1.25
= 36.81 cm
G1 (21D10)><
3 " O"," * 4] -1
-
. 01 & : /" µ R/ -
>
:*
µ = ln 2 / X1/2 = 0.693 / 1.25 = 0.5544 cm-1
; 8 45 ;K ;. -
(/
;>
"
>< 3 -1 ; 9 R343
,
: ]. : ,4
340
µx
E* = B E0* e -
11.43
= 32 x 2.63 x 108 x e – 0.5544 X
1.358 x 10 –9 = e – 0.5544 X
- 20.417 = - 0.5544 x
x = 36.82 cm
.7" ?& *
# 4 33410

>, 7&
( 5 0K -&
-6& 5 > .&&4 M 3 ( O , 5
.( ! . &&4
" 8 ;4
/5 G
( > L1 - B :
$ G : ( 7", ;4" : ( )* !
> . "" 3 !1/ " A 5
-1 L< ( , 5 ( 0K -&)
( A 19D18 1 N3" # 1 A
3 1 ,
.
.( ! ;L< : G1 . B

- H" 1

( -1
"
R/ ". 6 A,7 ( ;4" :
01 % Cd ;. ;4 . 1 (
.%3 ". ;. ( R/ 6
A,7 5
:-&3 7", (
O3, R<
114 115
Cd + n Cd + γ
;4 ( > L1 - B .*
1 3 (; 30 – 20 1 ) " A 5 $ :
)* ,% ;K 1 ( R/ ;. 7>
41
: 13 4 5 R :" 49 1
. (
R/
;. H! ;4 . [ / 19 G385

: ;4" $&./ . ! 1 ( R/
! 3
" @ ;7 . " A 5 $ ".
73
" ( R> 01 R/
µ R/ -
> +<4 A 7" " 9
-

. (
R/ -
( 3
@ 3 ( >, 3 ". R/
%" -
* % &. (4D10) -. " .
#5) K. 1
: ( >,
(. B .(3;/; 1 K. .
3 M1 G. " R< 4
L "
G B .
1.
* ρ* K. . . * 3
" ρ G. K. G 6 -1 " * G.
:5 #5 G. 3 C L
ρ* = C x ρ
10
µ
1 10 100 1000 E( KeV)
342
R/ -
:(4D10) -.
( >, . 3 K. 1
" * µ* 3
& R/ -
. !
-
ρ* G. K. G 6 -1
:5 #5 µ K. 1 R/
µ* = µ x ρ*
:/
7 1 >,"
(
B .-. ,5 $ L4 L. A6 ( . %
&4 ( ;. .; 75 ,9 A,7 ,> + .
.L43 ,9 H, O
:!
: * (H2O) $ 3 L " 5 ;3

1:9
: * C 3 L " 5 #5
C = ( 1 / 9 ) x 100 = 0.11 %
" $ K. # $ K.
:5 #5 3 L
ρ* = C x ρ = 1 x 011 %
= 0.11 gm/cm3ρ
R/ -
5 21< (3D10)-.3 @ "
1 1D; 0.76 * ( . % 7 >," ( 3
3
& K. R/ -
. :" . 3 K.
:*
µ* = µ x ρ*
= 0.76 x 0.11 = 0.0836 cm -1
343
& : > . (17D10) ><
;4"
:# 01 $ 3
X1/2 = 0.693 / µ*
= 0.693 / 0.0836 = 8.3 cm
:* ; 75 n & : ( . :"
n = 75 / 8.3 = 9.04 (HVL)
:* O * ( . :"
( 2 ) 9.04 = 526 times
+<4/ 2 B &34 (>," ( A -

K.5 9 H" ( >, +<4" R/ -

) R/ -
, > ;4 . ! .7

R/ -
(12D10) - " .K. 1 (>,
.

" # ,/ ( 3 ,
(12D10)-
K. 1
" R/ -

(;/2;) µR/ -

0.020 1
0.612 *
0.041 .5
0.024 ;.
0.295 .3
:/
( 3 ; 150 . ! L1 * 7 G1
.# ,/
:!
344
3 R/ -
5 " (12D10) -
3 L " .;/2; 0.602 * (K. 1 )
.(O" -K A ) %11 # $
:* $ 3 3

& R/ -
. :"
µ* = µ x ρ*
= 0.612 x 0.11 = 0.06622 cm -1
:* $ 3 & : .
X1/2 = 0.693 / 0.06622 = 10.47 cm
:* ; 150 n & : ( .
n = 150 / 10.47 = 14.33 (HVL)
:* $ 7", * ," * 7 . "
( 2 )14.33 = 20595 times
.9 "" G39 ?&" ("1 ?& $ B" ;7 ;K
.C R/ -
5 " (12D10) - .$
L " 5 01 .;/2; 0.041* K. 1 $
3
& R/ -
. % 0.89 * $ .C
:* $ .C
µ* = 0.041 x 0.89 = 0.0365 cm -1
:* $ .C & : . "
X1/2 = 0.693 / 0.0365 = 18.99 cm
:$ .C & : ( .
n = 150 / 18.99 = 7.9 (HVL)
.9 ," * 7 . :"
:* $
( 2 ) 7.9 = 239 times
345
* $ #
* 7 . "
* 7 ," * 7 G 6 -1
:# #5 .9 ,"
20595 x 239 = 4.92 x 106 times
2 # 2#< 610

-
* !"
", (
;*5 . D1
M 3 , &
&
`
& ( * `;

.( 3 6 ;
. 5 "")

( ;*5 * D2
& ( (/
* `
`

,49 ;.1 -
* D3
( > ;.1 . +. ` 4
`*
[ 6 (><
. A ,49 )*
. -

[ D4
;*5 * " @ - . +. [ D5

.`@ * -
36&

" ( G3, @ : ," +. D6
.` )* ( )* M A
" " ,1 D7

.` 3 "" A6 G * `&34
346
(

C 9 * > H3 -* D8
G" * `
> (/1 @ : G1
.`:"
+ 2 * `""5 * ;. ;& [ D9

.`* * .

>,
;. -
5 : -> D10
" * 4 *
C L
,7
)* "
9 -.
.,7
* .
( >3 @ - &. [ D11
* -K - "1 4= 5 G -

.`@
, !," 3 -1

& G1 D12
.( 7 1" H, ;. 10 @& 3
@& 3 , , 3 -1

& G1 D13
.+ ;. 20
, N3" 7, -

5 & 15 ,6 D14
-
" H ;. /( & . 150
&
@"5 . L / 01" @"9 -<4
, &4 G ;. G1 `( & 33 0.4
."5 30 -
. 01"
347
33 3
, (" ) 90 ; D15
* ; 40 3 -
G1 # .
.($ R/ -*5 )
;60 3 !. -

G1 D16
3 ( )* - 5 (3 32 &
; 2 ,> %8 ," ; 30
"
R/ -*5 ) 7>/; 3000
-
.
. ($
; 0.5 3

& -
G1 D17
G1 ;K # . 60
, 60 (3".
. 3
3 1 * O71
1 -. 3 G, ;4 90 ; D18

;9 @ " ,1 # . 1
, 7>
" ( R/ ." &.
* `
9 1 " ( >, " *

" d3 @
9 (
.13 * ;C #
. " ( M * D19

`G3, " ( @ : * `7"
# 137; " :.& 137;L (3 D20
-
G1 +..: 662 >," (
.137 ;L3
- ." % 3000
, N3" 137 ;L D21
348
5 (3 ;1 3
& G1
% 85 +..: 662 >," ( ;L
H" 1 ;L< @ : G1 ;K ..& ,7
; 50
" 3 /( & . 25
&
.
G1 # . 3. 10
, 60 (3". D22
; 2 3 *
& -

$1/ ;L< R @ : * .
.6 # @ * ;. -
(3
.+..; 14 >,"
( D23
O &4 ;L< ! @ : G1
. 40960 7"
349

Internal radiation Hazards

+
" – – ! >

0
–

0
@.% – : /

0
@.% – : /

5#7

& – : /
:
+ %* ! – ' 2>
: –

2 – 2
A# –
%* 0. .
C

– :; /B

E# –
D% –

: +
+@
@* –
B – F
G
111

"#$ %& '( !

.

."#$ %& $ )*
The sealed sources

1111
+
,
-. /
% 0 1 0
5
6 +% 7
.% +2 $
"#$ "3 4(
* '( 8 9 * % -%
*
.- / :; <
The unsealed sources

2111

,
-. /
% 0 1 0
/
=6 +%
% +2
* "3 %& $ 4( +
349

8
& 4

C % H /%
+ '(
=6 +!
- :
/B-
%
/ :% 6( /
=6 B
.(0& @%
*) 8
."
& +% '
* B$
* @ & 0.
7 2 / /3 % * '( /
/ =6 -K % * 7( ( /

+%
-
-

& & 0. /% /
+% * %
0.
=6
+
. . + '(
. -

* 0 -%%K '& -( (
: / '(
F /
1%K + :
K
=6 E( + % . / 0K

- @
/ 5
-* +
/ '

/ =6 E( "3 * %
.
@%
. : /
* / L

K :.

211
0 / % ' D2

0 : 5
' 16%
(
,
* ) +
.

K G@ '
-2
/ =6
+% 7 0 0
) K* : 0

M
. * ( ( /

:'( 16 0. C
7 & 8 0. K* : ) 3 >1

.
@ 4B* / B

. ' !@K K* : / 2 >2
.: =6- 0 0

F % >3
.K* : M 0K +
>4
.8 @H E(
>5
350
'( K* : 0 @H &* +

.OK '( 0 8 9

& 4, &* 0. B% * % -P.
0K :6 ) K* : 7 16
.G <$* 0. (%
$ '. : '( @H *

!) %
: =6- 0 0

F D,
8 9 * % -P. @H =6 +
O* 7( (K* :
4,
+ -. B% 0 4, ,*
& '(
.- &
. /
&* 90

H
7 Q

28 H =6- 0K .
Q 86 86 3 , H 6
16 .

.C =6 Q 3 0. =B% B

:K
(Yttrium - 90) 90
H Q 90

H * %
0. ! 0

. : M =

16 .
$ 0. O( + H
.@ &*

. F &* 131

+% 16%
= ! 0K :(
: H =6
& 3 <* G

E# H 6
.* F
K ' ( /
+%
-. 16 .-. B%
./ K O
6 4
/
P. :( *
/
! /
& % -
.
* K* : +%
351
311
: " 0. '(
+
" +F
.

4
- " >*
.
C M -

*
M >C
. R

* L

* " +
>E
'(
=6 +
8
4
-
.
:#
& " / '( - 4B
@
@
- !
@ 0. C * % S 4B 1
.@
-
G 4B D2

./ '( +

'( + F
/ 5
' / + 86 4B '( 0. /
.@BK -

0@% -%
-&
-
/
+ -P.
M *
& 0. * . '(
-
G * % & 4T

=6 P.
L

* 0

. 4B* M '( O +!
/ + * %

! "
1311
-
H
&
K

K G@ :
K
2

: & 16 . 2
H
:K
0
:K
(reference man) (
.(3>11) '& (1>11) +
0.
:& 4( 0. 8 G 6
0&
F !
. :
.

352
0. B%
< * '( / :! 2
3 0.
B% +F + '. . 4,*
(1>11) +

8 :K

! D B
%
,
() +K % (%)
0.30 100 70 +%%
0H +%-
0.05 10 7 (5
)
0.30 43 30 :#,
0.20 14 10
> 7.7 5.4
0.30 2.9 2.0 4
0.03 0.029 0.02 3
(2>11) +

0
E
+ :7
(
/ ) E (
/) +
1.4 +
1
0.6 " 1.2 +@

0.3 @ 0. /* 0.3 %*
0.2 B
2.5 5
2.5 5

" 4
- % :(3>11) +

%
4>3 + @
&
3>2 /* @
&
3
10 F + :. +# " 4
- &
3
10 : +# " 4
- &
)
353
3
20
0. " 4
- &
@ 0.

H 0.
B% & 0. 2

< 5B

., 0.
B
H
. 4,* M ' B

' ( $ # $

% &
411

$+ "
, )*
1411

(+ ) +
@.% ! C&
+ ( 7
* C
, '( :
) O.
=6 B%
, 6 - < 0 H*0

: :
5 16
.( K = t B 8*
.O.
+ ( C

, % & >*
6 0. (+%3) M H S 0 & >C
m
, % ' S 0 !
.
,
. ( /+%3) O. C
B% ' + &
(:
.
%( 3 ) E
2 2 & >E
) ! H
.H 6 / :
+ -% 2 =6 G 8 0. :
0. 2 +
% 16
. &

. C x E
F 0. &

H 0 @.% + '( 2 + +
&
*
>
:
%; Y +
$/D.(. 7 10×6.25 = 1)
/:K 0 @.% +
% 16
(1 =
:

H*0 = 575 C x E mSv/h (11-1)
:
.
%( 3 E /+% 3 C
% 16
354
:
,
5 5# Q
@.% + C&
H*0
2
* : 6( M
4 8
% 0
.D.(. 0.006

/ :
:
0.

4 0.
4 % =6
C&
.% 430
& O% ! 86 8
:
% % +% 3 0
A = 5 x 3.7 x 107 x 10 –6
= 185 MBq
:
4 0. / B%
% 0
C = 185 / 43000
= 4.3 x 10 –3
:
@.% +
% (1>11) 2#
H*0 = 575 x 4.3 x 10 –3 x 0.006

= 1.48 x 10-2 mSv/h
#. / 0$ 2411

+ G2
,
+

: +% B
M
, 0. 5
0 @.%
. / 0 1%K >*

E :
, 0. / % G2 >C
.0

* G2 / 0 * D

.
E( + * H&
OP. 16% .(0F + K M) B M
+F 0*
! , = % 8
H
355
2# -%& 0. / % * 8* .0 1%K
!
:
S = S0 e-λb t
B
, 0. ! / % 0 S &

, 0. :B% 0 / % 0 S0 t = !
+F

0

E :F D λ b t = 0 H&
/
E( +& / O( 6( 0 1%K :F D
D# :F 6 D
.B / &
0.
, / &

%
Z G KK .# D % .M H 5

1%K :F
.F = % 2
<$
, 0. / 0

0K λ λ b 0

H 0K
0 1%K :F 2# F 2#
:* 8*
λ b = ln 2 / Tb (11-2)
.
< 0

0K (4>11) +

< G@ :(4>11) +

2
0K 0K H
D.(. 0

0.006
0.058
4480 3

1H
0.187
69
8.05 131

0.21 48 28 90

0.89 > 64 90
(
0@& E
0 1%K 0 +% * &
:F D C OP. / G2 0. -

. λ eff +K 1%K :F D
356
The effective decay constant (λλ eff)
1$ "+
,
0@BK 1%K :F +% 5
/

λ λp
1%K :F
0F + K 0. O . 86 /
:* 8* λ b 0

λeff = λp + λb (11-3)
Effective Half life (Tcff )

'%
+K 0K λλ eff +K 1%K :F
Teff

0@BK 1%K :F 2# AK F 2#
:* 8* 0K
λ eff = ln 2 / T eff (11-4)
:0Z% (3>11) 2# T eff & % 16
1 / T eff = ( 1 / Tp) + ( 1 / T b)
:* 8*
Teff = ( Tp Tb ) / ( Tp + Tb ) (11-5)
% O# <K 86 B
+K 0K
1%K +% D '(

, 0. /

:
.0

E
0
B % + 3 K% (1>11) +%
'( +! / =6 +

. . / +

.2 '* '( + * '( Q B% B

,
./ +
+ 0. / B Y,
6
2 '* '( B% +

- 2 ' 2* '( +
0 1%K +% * G2 0. * F O

.0

E
357

B
(1>11) +%
/ +
B % + 3
$ )*

3411
0.
*)
, 0. % @.% &
. . Teff +K 0K
H0
. (O%
:2# ! B % G2 @.%
Ht = H0 e- λeff t
(11-6)
% B / 2# =6 +%
:0Z% % @.%

Hc = ∫ H0 e- λeff t
dt (11-7)
358
A 0
& +K 0K %* / :% 6P.
@.%
%
:6K 2 / * % OP. (:
:0 (
*)
, 0. %
Hc = H0 / λeff = H0 Teff / ln 2
= 1.44 x H0 x Teff (11-8)
* +K 0K ! B /K :% 6( *

/K =6 # 0. ! / % C OP. O 3 *
/
%
, : 0 / % 0 0 :% 6P. .
:0 = ! B O. !
f = S0 e-λeff t / S0 (11-9)
% '( : * 0 %- %
%
:0 @.%

( 1- f )
: /
(8>11) 2# 6 16
Hc = 1.44 x H0 x Teff ( 1-f) (11-10)
Y (1>11) 2# 2 <

:0 :K 0 % @.%

Hc = 830 x C x E x Teff ( 1- f ) (11-11)
2 E $/ +%3 / B% C &
0K Teff
:
.
%( 3 :

. +K
:
,

KK H0 @ 7 @.% :% 6(
0 @.% C& / 0 100 0 0. 32

KK 0K
31 ) ' 0. %
.
48.12
O 0

0K

14.28
32
:
(5>11) 2# +K 0K 7
*
359
Teff = 14.28 x 48.12 / (14.28 + 48.12)
= 11.01 days
= 11.01 x 24 = 264.3 hours
:0 % λλeff +K 1%K :F ! F
λeff = 0.693 / 11.01 = 0.06294 day -1
(9>11) 2# f ! F
f = e – 0.06294 x 31 = 0.142
:0 % @.%
% (10>11) 2#
Hc = 1.44 x 100 x 264.3 x (1-0.142)

= 32654 mrem
≈ 0.327 Sv

( ++ ' ( $ )*
&
511
OP. 8 '( :
+

0. C M
./% 2 @.% & C
!K 7 0
"7 ' : / ! '( 16
E& (
(#F & / &
) 3 B& 0. -2 : =6
.-2 +% !K '& /% :.

@.% C& " /

' ! D
O* 7( . : /

C& ! 0
=6 C& / &
!
.

0
@.%
:7 ' + + ( C ! =6 %
. Ψ G 7 + D (10>11) (1>11)
ψ !
$2 +%

360
% 2 '( 0. 2 /

+ 6
. + /

/ /
. / 0 - M,
'
:( 2 '
& 0. Ψ + 6*

(11>11) '( 5

0
% @.% ( % OP.
: : /

Dc = 830 x C x Eγ x Te x Ψ x ( 1-f ) (11-12)
:K 0 / & /. +# % Hc &
2 Eγγ( /+% 3 ) 0. / B% C
+K 0K Te :
.
%( 3 :(

0. 0! 4B f
:
./ & /K

:
,
70 OB
< - < 0 @.% C&
- 24

% O!& * 7 ) ' %
+K 0K * : 6( 8
%
% 500 0
2 :( O*
15
24

.D.(. 2.75 1.37
:
( C K :2 :(
: =6 M F / & ' 2 +% @.% :
.% @.%
:0Z% C B%
C = 500 x 3.7 x 10 –4 x 10 –6 / 70000
= 2.64 x 10-4 MBq/gm
:
: +K B !
361
T = 7 x 24 = 168 h
:0! 4B !
S = e – 0.693 x 168 / 15 ≈ 0

% 16 0.307
D.(. 1.37 2 + !
:0 '
2 %
Dc1 = 830 x 2.64 x 10-4 x1.37 x 0.307 x 15 x (1-0)
= 1.38 m Sv

% 160.0.268
D.(. 2.75 2 + !
:0 F 2 %
Dc2 = 830 x 2.64 x 10-4 x 2.75 x 0.268 x 15 x (1-0)
= 2.42 mSv
:0 %
% 16
Dc = 1.38 + 2.42 = 3.80 mSv
The annual limit on intake ALI

% % 611
% [ / % /

:K 0 20) O% K & 4,* 0. -
Q 8
& B
7* C O* 8* .( 0.
2 (
,) +
% =6 +

.@
T O% K &
5
' /
(ALI) + # 8
&
-%
'
0@&
0@BK 0K '
/
=6
'
G ' & 6 16% .8 +
* M " 4
/
+ C
*
O 0@63 H
+
& :# 2 2

:
* 2
.AK
6- < 86 G B# . '( (+%) + 7
:
M 16
AK
* M " 4
+ 7
362
:# =6 2 (5>11) +

.K +&
+ 7 (+
0. %) K +& A
+& AK :# 2 (6>11) +
% M "
16
(AK) "7 " + 7
. :

(5>10) +

B# . '( M + 7 +
& :#
T ( +%/:K) . '( + 7 +
& +
[ G 16 :
10 :
5 5 '& /

18'& 16 '& :
10'& :

11> 11> 11> 11> 11>
10x1.8 10x1.8 10x2.4 10x3.5 10x4.3 3

10> 10> 10> 9> 9>
10 x5.6 1 x5.6 10x8.5 10 x1.1 10 x1.5 14
%
9> 9> 9> 8> 8>
10 x2.6 10 x3.3 10 x6.0 10 x1.1 10 x1.8 32
K.
10> 10> 10> 10> 9>
10x1.5 10x1.8 10x3.4 10x6.2 10x1.0 35:%
9> 9> 8> 8> 8>
10x5.0 10x6.2 10x1.1 10x2.1 10x3.3 40

9> 9> 9> 9> 8>
10x3.0 10x3.4 10x5.4 10x8.6 10x1.3 60:
%
10> 10> 10> 10> 9>
10x2.6 10x3.2 10x5.6 10x9.8 10x1.5 67

8> 8> 8> 8> 8>
10x2.8 10x3.0 10x4.4 10x7.4 10x1.2 90

11> 11> 11> 11> 10>
10x2.1 10x2.6 10x4.5 10x8.1 10x1.3 99
%
9> 9> 8> 8> 8>
10x6.4 10x8.1 10x1.5 10x2.7 10x4.4 114
(
8> 8> 8> 8> 8>
10x1.5 10x1.9 10x3.8 10x4.9 10x6.6 125

7> 7> 7> 7> 7>
10x1.1 10x1.1 10x2.1 10x1.8 10x2.2 129

8> 8> 7> 7> 7>
10x2.3 10x2.9 10x6.0 10x1.1 10x1.8 131

8> 8> 8> 9> 9>
10x1.9 10x1.9 10x1.4 10x1.3 10x1.3 134
B
8> 8> 8> 8> 9>
10x1.3 10x1.3 10x1.0 10x9.9 10x9.9 137
B
7> 7> 6> 6> 6>
10x6.2 10x7.7 10x1.4 10x2.6 10×4.2 210

7> 7> 7> 7> 7>
10x2.2 10x2.4 10x3.5 10x5.7 10×9.0 226

7> 7> 7> 7> 6>
10x2.7 10x2.8 10x4.0 10x7.0 10×1.1 228

6> 6> 6> 6> 6>
10×1.8 10×1.9 10×2.1 10×2.5 10 ×3.1 232

F
8> 8> 8> 8> 8>
10×3.6 10×4.0 10×5.9 10×9.8 10×1.5 238

7> 7> 7> 7> 7> 239

10×2.8 10×4.0 10×3.6 10×4.7 10×6.4
:
,
363
$ = F 0. M, +K +

6 0. /

% * : 6P. 0

C +K 6- B# K
* 500 0
. 6
(6>11) +

B# . '( "7 + 7 +
& :#
T( +%/:K) . '( + 7 +
& +
[ G 16 :
10 :
5 '& /

18'& 16 '& 10'& :
5
:

11> 11> 11> 11>
10x1.8 10x1.8 10x2.4 10x3.5 11>10x4.3 3

10> 10> 10> 9>
10 x5.6 1 x5.6 10x8.5 10 x1.1 9>10 x1.5 14
%
9> 9> 9> 8>
10 x4.3 10 x5.4 10 x9.9 10 x1.8 8>10 x3.0 32
K.
9> 9> 9> 8> 8>
10x3.3 10x4.1 10x7.5 10x1.4 10x2.2 40

8> 8> 7> 7> 7>
10x5.6 10x6.0 10x9.1 10x1.5 10x2.2 60:
%
7> 7> 7> 7> 6>
10x3.5 10x3.7 10x5.7 10x9.9 10x1.9 90

8> 8> 8> 8> 8>
10x9.6 10x1.2 10x2.4 10x3.1 10x4.1 125

8> 8> 8> 8> 7>
10x1.3 10x1.8 10x3.7 10x7.6 10x1.1 131

8> 8> 9> 9> 9>
10x1.2 10x1.2 10x9.2 10x8.7 10x8.5 134
B
9> 8> 9> 9> 9>
10x8.5 10x8.2 10x6.6 10x6.6 10x6.8 137
B
6> 6> 6> 6> 5>
10x1.9 10x2.4 10x4.4 10x8.0 10x1.3 210

6> 6> 6> 6> 5>
10x3.1 10x2.6 10x4.7 10x8.5 10x1.4 226

6> 6> 6> 6> 6>
10x1.1 10x1.3 10x2.3 10x4.2 10x6.8 228

3> 3> 3> 3> 3>
10x2.1 10x2.3 10x2.6 10x3.3 10x4.4 232

F
5> 5> 5> 5> 4>
10x3.4 10x3.4 10x5.0 10x8.5 10x1.3 238

5> 5> 5> 4> 4>
10x6.4 10x6.9 10x9.1 10x1.4 10x2.0 239

:
500 0. /

N

:6 7
* C&
.39

0@B B

.*
N = 6.02 x 1023 x 500 / 39 = 7.72 x 1024
364
M K

M 40

* &

:6
% 100000 :11.7 39

:
40
N40 = 7.72 x 1024 x 11.7 / 100000 = 9.03 x 1020
C, + &
0 * &
% =6- A 0

% - 1%K :F 0. 86
:
(+%) 40

:6
A =9.03 x 1020 x 0.693 / 1.28 x 109 x 365.25 x 24 x 3600
= 15618 Bq
E = 15618 x 3.3 x 10-8 = 0.000515 Sv
= 0.52 mSv
:
,
% 600 0
& ! % [ +

137
B F
G -
0 % :% 6P.

B# K C& %/+% 1000 = ! B%
. 6
:
86 0.

A 0 % 7
* C&
:0
O

A = 600(kg) x 1000(Bq/kg)
= 6 x 105 Bq
G 137
B M + 7 +
& +
:0 E B# K

% [
E = 6 x 105 x 1.3 x10-8
= 7.8 x 10-3
= 7.8 mSv
365
0 7.8 ! B# . % G * 8*
* !
-
8
& %* 8* :K
.! D,*
/
+ # 8
& ( %
20

) G & ! 16

. '( + 7 +
& + 2 ' (:K 0
.(6>11) (5>11) 0
0.
:
,
AK
M + # 8
& !
*
.226

90

8H +% -
:
2 M + # 8
& 7
*
226

90

(5>11) +
+
& :#
:0Z% 3
ALI(Sr 90) = 20 x 10-3 / 28 x 10-8
= 714286 Bq
ALI(Ra 226) = 20 x 10 / 2.2 x 10-7
-3
= 90909 Bq
! &
0- < & * '( /
:, M 0( &

/:K 020
0. &* < 6( O* ' .
7* C OP. :K 0 15 ! 0 < C .

M + 7 5
* M B# K B

. :K 0 5 + 6- AK 0. :

< #% 0 * 6 M
8
&
0- < & K :
0
0
. /
+% ALI + #
(E / 20) + ∑ ( Is / ALIs ⊆ 1 (11-13)
366
+ - + & 0
K E &
S /
8
+ 7 Is :K 0 0 <
M
S /
=6- + # 8
&
ALIs
.- 0 :
M
:
,

+ 7 8
C 2* ! &* <

+
+% 5 10×3.08 = ! "7 " 131
+% 7 10×3.8 = ! M
8
" 99
%
:, + 6 =B
7* C 86 ' 2 & C&
.
:
:AK " 131
+ 7 8
&
ALI( I –131) = 2 x 10-3 / 1.3 x 10-8
= 1.54 x 106 Bq
:M
% + 7 8
&
ALI(Tc –99m) = 20 x 10-3 / 2.1 x 10-11
= 9.5 x 108 Bq
:
% (13>11) "
(E/20) + (3.08 x10 /1.54 x106) + (3.8x107/9.5x108 = 1

5
(E/20) + 02 + 0.3 = 1
:-
E + 4 + 6 = 20
E = 10
0 8 0 < B
7* C O* 8*
. 6 +
:K

3 +
4 711
367
4,* < '( ' 2 D -
.&
& %* ( : K
A2 16%
4
- 0. !
B% A! 16
<3 6-

. @H 8 K Y

&
(DAC) 4
- " B% 0
:& &
.(WL) + "
Derived air concentration 5 6 $ .$ 1711

B% O (DAC) 4
- " B% D
" + # 8
&
& - Q 0 4
- 0.
) "# 8
& ! " B% &
.AK
& %
. 0. " 4
- & ' ( H
3
10 0
&

0. F + : +# " 4
-
OP. ( 0.
* /
) * 5 0
+ *
:0Z% (3/+%) 4
- " B% & %
DAC = ALI / (50 x 10 x 5) = ALI / 2500 (11-14)
:
,
4
- 0. 239

%* 0F " B% C&
.& ! 8
& B
7 &
:
"7 + 7 +
& + 2
:0Z% O ALI + # 8
& ! C&

ALI( Pu- 239) = 20 x 10-3 / 6.4 x 10-5
= 312.5 Bq
DAC = 312.5 / 2500
= 0.125 Bq/m3
368
4
0.

%* 0F B% B 7* C O* 8*
+ ( 8* < 7* C%/+% 0.125 ' .3
. , .3 =6 0.
Derived working limit $ 2711

+ " & ,
AK " + '( + * % 0

& 6 &
.E M
* M
*
:0 & 0.
* F#F 69
& AK " + 0 % B

7* C >*
.4
- " B%
& K
8 " % B
7* C >C
.M " I + # 8

8 ) 0 M < >E
0.
.L 8
& B
7* C ( 2
A@
M C & H
: /

* .

.A@
M
* "7 +% C. K*
Y
+ " & (7>11) +

. :(

* K* : /

(7>10) +

@H Y
+ " &

* K*
2
/+% 410× 4 2
/+% 3 10× 5
369
K* :
" & * +
6 H&#
: :(

* :
=H '*
.K* : /

) Y,
6
"+$ #
8 7%$ 811
+ %* D 6 2
%
:
*
T *
*
-.
0 :
-
/ /
5
* * '(
D 6- +

H :6* 2
. radiotoxicity
. -2 0. O :B
9
9
+$ #
8 7%$ 1811
/ /
% D (8>11) +

:Z M 5
'( :; B-
*
(8>11)+

+ %* D
=6- F* OK 5

%
: 7( /
H& " -.
0 % +

/& C
' ( *
-- A# 4
% * %
/%
M M,
2
-.

2 -.
2

: 7( /
H& " * % 0 % 0F

@% - ' ( * -.

%*
A# 4 C
* % 0
*

M,
2
/
-. &
370
/B- -.
/
, B

.2 : .

. +
D3 7( /
H& " -. B 7 0 % F
/
7
- ' &
+ % /
,
0. 0.1 '
D$ +F A# 4 7
%(
5
7
%& .2
.- -.

.2
0 /
H& $ ! 0
% M
/
:
:
% &

& : =6 )

* 8
& 7
#-
.
9

+$ #
8 7%$ 2811
:
+ % D 6 '( .,

&
K
-
0 : D !.
&
MB
16% .:
M* '(
. :
=6 ' -

)
:% :3
High toxicity radionuclides

223Ra
210Po

210Pb G :0

F 228Th

F 227Th

F 227Ac
%* 228Ra
226Ra
233U

232U

230U

231`Pa
%
230Th

239Pu

238Pu

237Np

234U

* 241Am
* 242Pu

241Pu

240Pu
371
245Cm

% 244Cm

% 243Cm

% 242Cm

% 243Am
. 252Cf

K% 250Cf

K% Cm624

%
$ * )
:% :%
,
Medium high toxicity
Sc
% 45Ca
% 36Cl
% 22Na

:0
46
90S
89S
60C :
% 56C :
% 54M B

% 110m Ag ,. 106 Ru
F
95 Zr
%B Y91
*

125 Sb
* 124 Sb
* 114m In
* 115mCd

B 133I
131I
126I
124I
129mTe

127mTe

152Eu
144Ce
140Ba
137Cs
B 134Cs

( 182Ta
181Hf
. 170Tm

F 160Tb
154Eu
G 211At ( 210Bi :
B 207Bi :
B 104Tl
F 192Ir
234Th

F 230Pa
%
228Ac
%( Ra224
212Pb
. 249Bk
%
236U

$ )
:% :,
, )
:%
Medium toxicity

% 24Na

18F
. 14C
% 7Be
:0
42K

41Ar
* 35S :% 32P
K. 31Si
% 38Cl
48
V
. 48Sc
% 47Sc
% 47Ca
% 43K

:
% 55Fe & 52Fe & 56Mn B 52Mn B 51Cr
%
65Zn 64Cu A& 65Ni +% 63Ni +% 58Co :
% 57Co
76As ]B 74As ]B 73As ]B 72Ga
69mZn
78Kr
% 85mKr
% 82Br
75Se
77As ]B

90Y
91Sr

85Sr

86Rb

95Nb

93mNb

97Zr

%B 93Y
92Y

% 99Tc
% 97mT
% 96Tc
% 99Mo

103Pd
# 105Rh

105Ru
F
103Ru
F
97Tc
115Cd
% 109Cd
% 111Ag ,. 108Ag ,. 109Pd
#

122Sb
* 125Sn 2 113Sn 2 115mIn
(
132Te

131mTe

129Te

127Te

125mTe
372
131Cs
B 135Xn
% 135I
134I
132I
130I

143Ce
141Ce
140La
F7 131Ba
136Cs
149Nd

147Nd

143Pr

142Pr

153Sm
151Sm
149Pm
F
147Pm
F

159Gd

153Gd

155Eu

( 152Eu

(

169Er
166Ho
166Dy
165Dy

181W 3 177Lu

175Yb
171Tm

F 171Er
188Re
186Re
183Re
187W 3 185W 3
194Ir
( 190Ir
( 193Os
* 191Os
* 185Os
*
"@B 199Au C6 198Au C6 196Au C6 197Pt # 191Pt #

F 201Tl
F 200Tl
F 203Hg "@B 197mHg "@B 197Hg

220Rn
212Bi :
B 206Bi :
B 203Pb G 202Tl
. 239Np

B 233Pa
%
231Th

F 222Rn
Low toxicity ;% )

:% :+
58mCo :
% 37Ar
* 15O %* 3H
:0

85Kr
% 71Ge
69Zn 59Ni +%
97Nb

93Zr

%B 91mY
87Rb

85mCo
129I
113mIn
( 103mRh

99mTc
% 96mTc
%

135Cs
B 134mCs
B 133Xe
B 131mXe
B
197mPt # 193mPt # 191mOs
187Re
147Sm

238U

235U

0

F 232Th

F
.0
$ " %

+$ "+$ 7%$ 3811
% 16
@ 5
* F#F '( : D
@H :

-. -
0 @H
.D 6 (9>11) +

.
(911)
5
+% 0. H :%
5
0

373
+
0F F -( 0
H

% 10 +2* 8
%
% 10 0 1 F%* '

8
% 8
% 01 '( 8
%
0 1 +2* 0 100 '( 1 100 F%* F
8
% 8
% 8
% 0
100 +2* 8
% 0 100 10 F%* FF
8
% 0 8
% 10 '( 8
%
8
% 10 +2* 1000 F%*
1000 '( 10
8
% 8
%
16%
/
H& :
% M M, * C

8
8* D%7
2 - /
%
.OF
&
.
7 '& O
' OB( C OP.

&
.OB( ! M

* " '(
6
4 >+ 911

.

& M 2
A#
. .O%
+&
' A# =6 5

D 4 0K%

2 :% Y

* . :BK!

2 86 46&
8
!3
% & 4 C& OP. : % 8 4
-
+
C*
* 4
- Y /
B A* +
& 52 M
& 4 C +@

&
.0! 4
-
.0! 4
-

B A* 52
!3 %
3 2 .$ .

* C. A# 5
% -
.
C % .
M C B&
K A#
:.3 =6 C! +@

374
.(R .
+,K
) 8 +3 <
& >*
.(A#
8
)
D% /B-* >C
.+ 2 KH 2
A# >E
.B& DH C ' C <& >
. :K
F
A# :
&
6K

9 $ +
M B& 2 C% >L
. $
A# + :
8*
& & 0. D K% ^
: >
. &

* "& +F )*
&
( $ +4 1011

"!& '(

2 D -
:Z
.% & ' * '(

% <K >*
' B& + =
&
* 0.
4
& >C
.+2
A# ! && :
6K
: 5 >E
.
+@
+$7
2

: 0.

4
& K% (2>11) +%
/ + / 4

& C &

0 B 0 * +% 6 0. B
& [
.B
&
B O. M,
86 4

/
* +@ 8
&
86 +

B& *

- C7

.
B- O M,

375
1
2
5
4
(2>11) +%
4% : 0.
4
&
.3 E >4 /
& B >1

B- >5 B& <
& >2

- C7
>3
( $ +4
4 11011
+ @! . M '
2
Y 7 16.
D; M,
* C2 % 0.
'

*
B 6 .T 7( % =6 +

8*
& & 0. D K% '
% 1 0. +
2
.
=6 8* 0. + - C 0

! *
:0 %
.% =6 +

C
+
57 >*
.=$
* [,% K :%& + 57 >C
+@
+

M
(:3 -) L
3 >E
. '(
+ 7 '& % '( +
+2 -(
C % + G 8 L
8*
& >
0. -
-
B(
2
+
9 - [
.+&
376
+
% + +
. - 7
BP 2

C
2 M, % =6 E 0 4 M >
-,( C % 6K +2 -( ' !.

6*
- /B : M,
C 16% .
7
' : M,
C % .(0
:)
:
-
% 1 0. :
M
.) % 0.
"

? 9. "
1111
=6
. ' 7
/
:2 F#F - & B% /@ / (3>11) +% /

(B% /@ M) @
' 7 K :& / ' C%
.4K K '
: :
+ :& =6 *
/
5

377
(3>11) +%
/

A % :@$ 11111
Caution: radiation area
-. < * % ! 8* 0. / =6 M,

. ' + & & 0 0( +

.5
0. :K 0 0.1 !
9
:@$ 21111
Caution: radioactive material
*
0 :
* D3 0. / =6 M,

(10>11) +
0. :% ' B
-. B
Caution radioactive materials :@$ 31111

378

& 8* ' O9 +- % 0. / =6 M,

10/1 B
7 %
+

* B
* +!
.(10>11) +
0. :%
5 6 '*
'
A
% % 31111
Airborne radioactivity area

B% -. B 0 " 0. / =6 M,

.(11>11) +
0.
& ' 4
-
* 4 0.
(10>11) +

# M,
C
86 & H
( 8
%
% ) .3 '
100 32
K. 42

45
%
100 36
% 137
137
B
100 198C6 65 24

1000 64 A& 14

%
1000 35 :% 55 &
10000
3
51
%
10
10 60 :
%
1 131
125

0.1 90
90

0.1 226

1 K* *
(
D#)
* *
B "

B
+ B #
8 '* + 1211

O
C
+ %*
.:,

YT &

- H %
379
(11>11) +

3
/+% B%
/
H& " /
H& $ " H
4
4 4
4
4>
0.011 74 10x3.33 2.22 35 :%
4> 5>
10x3.3 2.22 10x3.7 0.011 131

4> 6> 3>
10x1.85 1.48 10x3.0 10x7.4 125

3> 18.5 >
10x2.60 5
10x7.4 0.74 32
K.
3>
10x1.1 11.1 5>
10x3.7 0.33 45
%
3> 4>
10x3.7 29.6 10x1.85 1.11 24

3> 4>
10x3.7 22.2 10x1.48 0.74 42

2> 1850 3> 7.4
10x7.4 10x2.96 51
%
3>
10x7.4 37 4>
10x2.22 1.48 82

3>
10x7.4 74 5>
10x2.96 2.22 36
%
> 2> >
0.37 10x1.1 85
%
> 2> >
0.37 10x1.1 133
B
740 2> 3.96
0.150 10 x 3.7 14
%
0.185 3700 111
10 x7.4 36

6$
:% 11211
+ '(

: 0.

- D -
. & O.
B% B
7 '& 4
-

- H
: 0.

- H D 7

:0 -* C

/ 0. 7( @% : 0.
0. !

B& :& M,
/
, >*
.E -
4
-
O
C B$ & 0.

& 0. >C
% &
- E '(
:& '(
380
%* 0. B%
-
* :B3 =6 Y
.2
, +
6.
M /
- E
% >E
C./
%
* : 1 '( 4
- +

.: "!& '& :K '(
- E >
CD %
21211
0.
Y M 0.
"!& * C
:&
K

* -
0 %
' :,

:7
+F Y M
% >*
*
%
* R
*

B(
-KH +- 86 5

%
:!!
.-
G 7 +2 $
@% + 4# M 4# >C
.) +@

* 4
@% :#K
/&
!
, 3 >E

:% * C 7 & -!
.-&

!
8*
* %
. Y :7
3 >
" # Y =6 "
@% :#K
/&
.B# @%
&
! "!&
7 '& / %* 0. 0@-% +
YK M,

.

<
&* +% -* & :K% M,
'( O
>
.
3 - C * %
:6 :B
D.%
, $ Y* * M,
>B
.% + E
A# $ .3% - 7 /
.$ G >L
/B-

4
B * ' (change room)
.2
A#

381
M 0. : =6 .
/
, '( /
+
5
*
M
F 5
%
:
.:% 1 - .
* +,K OP. 0F
( $ 1311

E$
( $ .
6
11311
/
+% 7 2
2 % * * %6
'( 8 9 * % OK :2
0. -%

(
Q 0 )
* 0 6
.3 /% /

.
* C OP. 16. K,
% D
/3 % =6
Y /B- ! 3 &
/B-
.3 :%
D% % '& 0
D
% /
B
/B-* <3 6-
/B- =6 &

.0,

* 3$ +F &
/B- =6 +F HK&7 C
(!2
* F 0.) +
. 2 /
%
# @ /B
% &
C ( $ #
+ 7 21311
A#
:,
:7
Y*
D%
.
/B-* / 2
8
8
+%
B
.2/+% 3 / -42 /B- H 0

Z
K*
&* B-
+ : : * '( /
.

+ :( @,
16 .% 0. : ( K .
& 0. 3
! C :

D% OP.
.
D% / $
382
C ( $ #
+ 7 31311
:

C
6
D% C
6 16% . : K

0.
C
6-

.
K, :

:0Z%
Y 2
(2 0.1 0
&)
Y & Y
7 '& F( 0
A% + 2
M,

KH

<K 0( )
:6 .$ '( 2
69 F

)
& ..3 =6 0. G B- '
:2# ! 2/+% 3 (Contamination level C.L)
C.L = C ( 100 / η ) x ( 1 / A ) x ( 100 / E )
D% /4K% 0 ηγ F 0. + C &
E M Y 2
O& 86 Y & A
& C

.0%
'( O! 86 4B
G@ -* :+
/ ' -* & E 2
! '
16 .
Y
/ @%
.% 10
E
A! )* ! E 2 & 0. 2 C
Y /% & Y 16

$
.
2
=6 69 F (damp paper towel) D "
& #,. Y

BP
! - ! =6 B
.O
)

5 6 ( $ 41311

& * % 0 % M 0. 4
-
C
" ) &P / 4
-
&
.
6 -.
:
.YT 0&
>*
383
.+@
Q
DK >C
+F
$ O Q
D ' 0 : >E
.M! :
&
% C& 16
4
-
A2
' Y 2

+ A! F Y 2
+# 4
- 16
& 6@ .K, ( K 86 % 0. 5
,

: 2# 3/+% (C.L)a 4
-
)

(C.L)a = C x ( 100 /η ) x (1/V )
D% /4K% 0ηη F 0. +
C &
.Y 4F* O& 86 4
- &
V
#, !
F 1411
O. -
8 '(
+

+ -% <K '&
* - G Y
C OP. 16 .-H 0

0K % C 16
O
.
=6 +

& M
- M +6
&
! % =6 +F 0. M B * C
2
A# 4 - C %
+

.O
2

D% /B-* +&

& <
& +& OP. 16 M

2 . C OP. 16 .
< <
0. (C)
! =6 +F
.
F
G
:0Z
.O
)
G ) & >*
' 2
:. + C. / :% 6( >C
.%
384
B O

,
:. ! >E
.O. O
O
+2

0( Y 4( C
B( 0. 5
+2 >
.
B-
%* & G
6 OB( C 4B
D%
OP. O

* 8 T
& 6( +F + '. .4B
4 + 7 &

_. 4 -$ C
4(
.-F
. 4B* 02 '(

*
-H
! * D%
A2 +3
.
B( * '( % C !
+$
2
A# M C 0%

& >
DH +
& 8*
*)

_. 4 G
4 + 7 & 4
:& 16
(S 8
2
B( 16 .D
K
O
'( 2
Y 4( 16 .R :& 02

:& &7 F
! 8* D% 0

.
B( '&

4 R
43 M C OP. F
! 0. & L
8*
.
- " 7 '& /
! -$
- 02

B( G %
* / L

& 0.
.O B# : ! C

8 +3 4( C
G 5# >B
* +! 0
< 16 O@P Y
+& 0.
.,- /! 0.
G M
+F
L

& & 0. >L
'( 6 & 0.
=6 +

* 239

16
(DPTA) @%
L % @
* 7 0. M,
* C
.
<3
.-6 & 0. :
% =6
#.$ 1511

385

) # M,
C 0
M B
."3
K7
"& , /B- (B
*) D$ 0. (

B
,
0. D3 =6 C
=6 M, * C

.0
+@
E
.
C 16% .2
+
9 +2 2 D3
.3 0.

M
* / +% :#
"@F

]

0 O
O
% O : M Y,

D3 =6 0.
B
./ +% 0K

O

B
7* C
. 5

:
& 0.
/ 0 0.5 5 + B

: 7(
5 0 Y 1 . ' 16
6& +@
6@ B- C
5 ! .3
' /B # M,
C % .
* @
.-
.3 0. : M,
5

C -(
* .3 4
8* +!
. 2
(C%
*) +
9 !.
' +
&
)
)8 1611
.L
K
"3 #% D >1
.` * 0 >2
F%*

& : 6 >3
` T /

.
+
" L >4
+K 1%K :F
0

E :F #% D >5
.+K D
386
.`B M + 3 D% L >6
:
0

+ 7 8
& D >7
.` & 6- 2

+ 7 8
& 0 2# ' L >8
.0 <

.`= & 0 * 0

+ " & D >9
2 & + %*

: 5
* 0 >10
.`
.`: 2

A# :
% 0 >11
M, % 0. + - C 0

! %6 >12
.
' 2

* :(

' : 5
* >13
.`: =6 +% '
+ %* 0.
- H -!!& * C 0
%6 >14
.

+ %* 0. -!!& C

0 >15
.`
.F
G DP
! * C %6 >16
387
. -&
Y
D% ! %6 >17
.`
6 A2 1% D%
`4
-
& D% >18
.
B
! %6 >19
0 10 5# @ 7 K C& >20

2
* : 6( 90
H 8
%
F D.(. 0.21
H 6 / :
.16 B# K C&
15 5# @ 7 K + C& >21

% C& F M 32
KK 8
% 0
0K * : 6(
64 ) ' 0.

48
O 0

0K

14.3
KK
0.7

KK / : 2
*
.D.(.
< !& @ 7 K + C& >22

* : 6( 131
8
% 0 70 !
C& F D.(. 0 O / : 2

0K * : 6(
24 +# %
.
70
O 0

0K
* 8

% 60 OB
< !& K C& >23
% 6( M 24

* 9 ) '
0K

8
%
% 200
0
2 :(
15

.D.(. 2.75 1.37
388
0 0( +
: 0. &* < >24

G 6 % 6P. :K 0 8 @.% O :3
!
* "7 "
% +
<
.0K 6 =B
7* C 86 +% 0
389

Waste Disposal
9 – )
, 9 –
9D – /D0 D 9 –
../0 /0( – 9>

112
.

: ! " !# $%&
*+ ( !, -, ./0 1 ( 2 *+ 3, )(

. ( ( 34
6 78 3 . ( *+ 39 )5
.3,
0 22 4 !# # 3 ):
. 7( !# ( &; <
= .6 .7 7 *7
#>2 -? / /9 3,/,
4 0 $%& ( . @% 1 .
.6 ( $%& ( *+ @% !# 50 12 .78
.2 78 A B 3 ,
389
2 *+ 7 -, 7
B *+ EF ( E2 G3 1 ( 3 #
:!& 7+ 72 0
. , 2 2 7 1 )(

G3 H 2 7+ 72 *7 ., )5
.I
*7 "0 2 2 7+ 72 B ):
.B4
J K . 2 72 B )
. 6
! . 2 72 B D&
.6 !# *7
34 $ *+ J # L@%

7+ ( . !# @% H ( .
:!M !# .6 *7
.5 $ I )(

. N I )5
@04 . 2 7+ 72 *7 ., ):
.

212
1 . 7 50( $%&
9 # .(3 7 *) , , 74 %
L? . 78 3 B 0 $%& .6
. ( 3 @%
1 , $%& 0 " . / *7
. 0
( 9# 9 !# 9 I /0
390
& ! 2 !78 3 ( *+ L9
. / !# 3
E( I . ( 52 9 # .

0 , L 9 $%3 /
7
*+ ( 2 I *+ EF ( !
7
% 52 B> %3 . 9< ( 0 /
: @ 9 7
, !# JK ." Q ./0 ( 52 )(

8)6 *7 PH " 9 Q( 52 ( E( L $%& ?
. 64 *7
.G3 I I 1
<+ )5
,) / 9 7 52 ):
.. !/ 3 # " ( Q+ (0
# !, % 0 (

!# $%& % # ."F . 3 0 9
39 < ./0 7 &9 J # /0
0 ! . 1K L. 9 !# @%
. !# M E2 .6 0 0
7 K $%& . I 0
– . ( *7 ; %& !# Q " ./ 3,
3> , *+ $%& . & –(
5, " 0 $ -> E% :29 0
, ( !# ; 0Q $%& 9 .(, . <
9
4 2+ ( *+ 9
L 0Q $%& + . M .3
2 , B4 !# 7 3# @%
$ ( #2 G0 ) $ *7 3 K E Q !
.(4
391

312
, 9 + *+ #K8
7 3# $%& .6 J # L0
0 . B !# # 7 0 .B4 R0
" 1K ( 52 $%& ( Q+ . $%& .6
.,
$%& ., + !# $%& .6

52 L@% .5 $ , *+ ! L#2 $ *+ 3#
$ *+ 3, . I $%& #
. J #2
7( *7 # *+ J2 52 L@%

# B( 0Q 2 0
E( I !

20 .7 52 @% 7
K# .08 ( 79 B<A
.7 " # # 7 # 7 #
! @ >, 7

3 J # L1, ( 0 ( 2 3
7 !# 1K - I L- 7
32 , $%& .6 5 . $%& # >,
7 . !78 , = 52 .F0
$%& - .9 *,"4 *,"4
0.1 ! *+ 0 !# ., 3 M
7 !78 9 % # . .>
0 Q , 0 *+ =2 52 J # %&
.
. B

. =" *+ ( 97 7 !# 3/ ) 3/
392
B 504 %3 ( B
. 7
K# L7 2 - 6 @% + I 4
. / *+ $%& 7 3">0 ! 9
( " ( M * 2 Q J( !# $%& , .6
504 %3 3 ! . &
.@% , ! 4 .
52 J # , J # L7

7 ., " !# 3" ( 30 7 + 32 B
.,Q * , .
9> S R 52
.2 / *+ G3 1 02 7 K ! 4

412
78 0 %
( !4 . # &9 @%
, %/7./ 2 (
, L0 % 9 /0 (
78 0 % ./0 ( .,
: 6
6 3 # K
. # !, -, ./0 1 3, )(

. # ( 34 *+ 3, )5
. # *+ 3, ):
!

1412
0( !, -, ./0 *+ -,
7 F0 32 , " 1K ( 52 J( Q+ L
I + *+ @% !# 50 12 .F 78 "
.7 B L E2 !, -, 5(
0 @% 7
K# . $%3 I !, -,
393
, S 0 I . B !# !, -, S
I EF LE $ 0 ( 0( ) ,
. .,

"# !

2412
" 34 *+ -, 1K ( 52
, !& 34 $# ." 7 F0 0 ,
92 Q( 52 @% .. !# E 5 H/
> 6 10 !# 3 E0
. 0/.
!

3412
-, R0 J # /0 -, 0
!# . > 10 10 ! *+ ., " *+ (
G4 B 7 K & $%& !# H/ . .0
J # L@% . $%3 7 2 I @04
Q( 52 L.6 .0 *# . . ,
> 9 10 *+ 3 ! 90 0 92
! @04 G4 1K ( 52 L@% .0 !# .
G4 $%& 3# ! *+ /0 -,
."

$
512
@% 9> L( I
504 %& ( *+ 8 52 .E2 G3 *+ 3,
S !78 B ( I L504 (
. K E2 G3 *+ 9>
L 7U 2 4 !# $%& !# .6
=
E2 G3 H 2 4 !# @%
394
9 Q( 52 J # @% .B4 Q; *7 3"0
J2 52 . 7 J, E% !78
!# &9 7 $%& *+ ,
.
52 E2 G3 *+ 9> -, ."

:!& 7 7 %
7 02 ., , R )(

.9>
, 1K 9> !78 B )5
. 9> $%3
0 0 !# 9> K ):
7 = . Q I L
./0 0 / -? # $
*7 9> = *7 R G L7

)95 ! *+ 2 -? !# G $%& ., LR =
# R, R ( ?
52 . % 99
.J 7 @% L, . ( 52
.3 / I 1 . 7 ( 52
52 E2 G3 *+ 9> 7

!# = ( .K .7 0
K 2 ! = -K( 6
6 ( !K
*7 3"0 9 L ! *+ 3 7 9>
. >,
!# 2 !# 3"
9> 7
*7 $%& 9 0 9 Q( 52 ? < (
(11)11) .2 .4 $%& - .
395
!& /? B 9 ,
9> E 7 .4 % " 2 3 !
. 9 0 52 J # ? 6( *7 2 50
Q( 52 L? @% 9 J W0 *,"4 *+ ?
.R, /? 12 50 $%& =2 92
:
.
1 133 9 9<
!# G3 0 70 % # L! ( R0( # 32
!& # 0 7 "/0.7 !&
:50L20.3
9> %& !704 . )(
!# < 7 9> %& . )5
E ! 0.6 L 14 E ! 80
.=04 !# 131
:
:& Q 9> 0 . )(
Q = 07 x 0.3 = 0.21 m3 / minute
= 0.21 x 60 x 24 = 302.4 m3/ day
= 3.024 x 108 cm3/day
9 *,"4 # (11)11) .2 *+ =2
3
0/E 0.297 = 30/. 2)10x1.1 & G3 !# 9
. 30/E 0.3 ≈
:& ! . *,"4 @%
Qd = 0.3 x 3.024 x 108 = 9.08 x 107 Pico Curies
≈ 91 microCi
:& !704 . *,"4
396
Qw = 91 x7 = 637 microCi
!704 *,"4 2+ 14 0 )5
G3 !# $9 *,"4 ( I 30
0.1 E0 E( L 30/. 3)10 x 3.7 &
3
0/E
!704 . *,"4 @%
.E ! 212 ! E( E ! 211.7 & 14
.E ! 2.12 0 %& 131 0
0.377 = 212 ÷ 80 = 14 0 !
0.283 = 2.12 ÷ 0.6 = !& 131 0
0.660 = 0.283 +0.377 = 0 !
0.34 = 0.66)1 = 133 9 0 @%
=0(/E 216.6 = 637 x 0.34 = 9 ( E(
& ' 612

. &( % )1
*7 3 6F ( - )2

.Z 08
.Z, !& )3
.3 ." /0 3 *+ . % )4
." 9> 3 ! . &( % )5

7 37 52 !& .3
Z9>
397

الفيزياء النووية Nuclear Physics pdf تحميل مباشر العلوم كوم

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

الفيزياء النووية Nuclear Physics pdf تحميل مباشر العلوم كوم

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

 

"#  # $ %& ' ( .

"# # ( 5 ( 9 * +  (  

The atom  2 1

The proton  

The electron 

The neutron 

<# .# (  .# (/   ( $

%#& / . (/  * J / ,( '

Mass and atomic numbers $ % ! % 3 1

The isotopes '() 4 1

"  (( 3  (/  ( (( : 11H 1  

.# .,#6 #+& (radioactive) ) 

L# %#& ((  + , 5E * "6 'H (

5 )/ 5E  +&  3 S& A .5 +

The size and the mass of the nuclues    * 5 1

Atomic units of energy +("  ,* 6 1

,.  3 10 = ,.   (KeV)

,.  6 10 = ,.  (11 (MeV)

'  (/ +

 4.18 = , 1

( < ) 27– 10 x 1.6555 =   ( ' 1

The nuclear binding energy  "  +(" 7 1

/ & .  O,/  O,/ .   ( $

.   ( M ( '  )/(  ( * *

%$ Mp (   ( %$ Mn  ,0 '   ( M :J

   <( '  )/( F) R  

=     )/( F) * "6 'H (

%  '34 '(3 8 1

( + , . 9 ))

./   ( ./ (H  ( %$  B2

.C(  9\  [E  % ,(  B3

*  /( 6 226 < ' )F 7+ * B4

F) A 16 4 '  )/( F)  B6

17 4 <* 16 4 ' C( 9*  * B7

 ( ./ 12 / '  )/( F)  B8

–   !+2 –   .# – # .# –  %4

/"0 1  ) Decay .#

α - decay   2–2

0 *; 6.# * +    =5 Parent nuvleus $C   $

/4 C  E B 2 + 9: 840  .#

 % # !    .!;

% # !  7 I0

 < 0 67  5 M;

β - decay   32

*5& % /0 !2

:U  G9:

# .#  ?4

V V UV *V .V9 6

:The positron decay  !   

The electron capture    $% #

*V, .# *:   .# J   " %  KF; 9:

6   .(anti - neutrino)%1     $ ν ′ ) 

4 >  4

Energy of β- particles  $& ' 232

  6*, .# 0 *; %1     

V  V 5 1  ! .#

Gamma radiation & 

V %%0  7 K " 0 9 

V *, C 8 

V < 0 6 0 *;

(I3–2/V+ ) 60 !V /"0 1  .# & / 

%V2 3V  1C 0 =2 =C   0

The internal conversion )*  + 14–2

"# # $ %& ' ( .

"# # ( 5 ( 9 * + (

The atom 21

The proton

The electron

The neutron

<# .# ( .# (/ ( $

%#& / . (/ * J / ,( '

Mass and atomic numbers $ % ! % 31

The isotopes '() 41

" (( 3 (/ ( (( : 11H 1

.# .,#6 #+& (radioactive) )

L# %#& (( + , 5E * "6 'H (

5 )/ 5E +& 3 S& A .5 +

The size and the mass of the nuclues * 51

Atomic units of energy +(" ,* 61

,. 3 10 = ,. (KeV)

,. 6 10 = ,. (11 (MeV)

' (/ +

4.18 = , 1

( < ) 27– 10 x 1.6555 = ( ' 1

The nuclear binding energy " +(" 71

/ & . O,/ O,/ . ( $

. ( M ( ' )/( ( * *

%$ Mp ( ( %$ Mn ,0 ' ( M :J

<( ' )/( F) R

= )/( F) * "6 'H (

% '34 '(3 81

( + , . 9 ))

./ ( ./ (H ( %$ B2

.C( 9\ [E % ,( B3

* /( 6 226 < ' )F 7+ * B4

F) A 16 4 ' )/( F) B6

17 4 <* 16 4 ' C( 9* * B7

( ./ 12 / ' )/( F) B8

– !+2 – .# – # .# – %4

/"01 ) Decay .#

α - decay 2–2

0 ; 6.# + =5 Parent nuvleus $C $

/4 C E B 2 + 9: 840 .#

% # ! .!;

% # ! 7 I0

<0 67 5 M;

β - decay 32

*5& % /0 !2

:U G9:

# .# ?4

V V UV *V .V9 6

:The positron decay !

The electron capture $% #

V, .# : .# J " % KF; 9:

6 .(anti - neutrino)%1 $ ν ′ )

4 > 4

Energy of β- particles $& ' 232

6, .# 0 ; %1

V V5 1 ! .#

Gamma radiation &

V %%0 7 K "0 9

V *, C 8

V <0 6 0 *;

(I3–2/V+ ) 60 !V /"01 .# & /

%V2 3V 1C 0 =2 =C 0

The internal conversion )* + 14–2

!, %0C

<0 6(LC /0 :) L +4

V+ V *V

V I5V X %0 ! 9 ! % *; !, 2

V V % 5 +C $ +C G9a5

V V V+C V7

*5& %V /0 5 K+ 5 G9:

V V !V2 8"V 2 =2 +, %

K =5 ωK !2 8" <%0 /0 ) =4

The sample activity

%0 ; .# B %% ) .(10(2) 7"

The half-life and mean-life

V 3V+ V5 ( *#V ) )

λ .# ! A7 %0

τ V %V K 9 +

) t1/2 / λ .

.( e = 2.71 ) *V AC $> (ln) / <0