النشاط الاشعاعي - المرحلة الثالثة

The atom and the nucleus
, – % ( , B ' – C B
B ' ( < – 5E –
)/#( #F) – F) '
5 5* B '
1 1

"# # $ %& ' ( .
) %& * + , - ./ * +0 +
3 '# #4 '+ & ( element ) + , * . '
# # 78(( .5 )/ )/* '+ "6 (
#9 #,/) #+ ,#( # 9 $ %& '
'# ;( 6 .$: $ 4
<# ( / + 9 + )/ = 4 + , .
. .>0 ?,/ 4 %& @/ $4
"# # ( 5 ( 9 * + (

# (H2O) # #( 9 / " ,& .(compound) /
#+ # ( %& 4 +
"#6 ( * A . 4 /
.5 ) < (/ 4 -+
The atom 2 1

# ) @+ %& $ ( /( . + , (
* ' #(( .# ( 7>( / + , 7 ( .. <
(nucleus) ' #/ 7#, @+ < +
# # # # . < 13– 10 % $)F 7+ G /
'# (( . < 8– 10 $)F 7+ G / . %& . (H
.# ( (protons) .# (// 7#,( . $/
.(neutrons)
The proton

# #( # #/ <
10 × 1.6726 (/ ( G /( ./ (H
27–
(atomic mass units # # ( . < ( . <
.( .A. ) ( ' 1.007276 (/ ( ( amu)
The electron

/ ' .F %& <
#( # * *) (/ ( C ) (F /
%/ (/ ( @+* (H ( .< 19– 10 ×1.6
'# 0.0005486 *) < 31– 10 × 9.11 G /( J ' 1840
( (
The neutron

# # 3 * ) # #,( < $
G# /( J# #(/ # ( #/C( # #( ( (/
#( # /: .(.A. 1.0086649 *) < 27– 10×1.6749
* ) ( 6 J (6 (/ (3 ( (
"#6 #5C ( A0( <9 CF 15 ' )( %& K, ( ' ;
.(6 (/
<# .# ( .# (/ ( $

. %& . (H ( ' / 7, '
'# ## ##F* L( .0 ( (orbits or shells) .F *
%#& ( k-shell) k '#C * </ 7#, )C& (H
.# (6 9 L </ 7, % 9 L(
# (6 9 M </ 7, J9 L(
. (6 9>9 9 N $ L/
%#& / . (/ * J / ,( '

#/ ..# %& / . (H L 5 =( '
' #/(,( .< %( )) ( ( 1B1)
3 %#( '# ' %$ >)H " . )/*
(/ ( (( J ( %& . ( " ((
. '9 : ' ( K %& (6
4 1
2 He 1H

(1 1)
! !""#
Mass and atomic numbers $ % ! % 3 1

%& . ( . (/ M $ ' ! %
# # ( ./ /C( ' ( , $ NO . (
( ./ ( * + 5 % ( , * J
, $ %& 3 .N+ , > F C (&
#* .A #/ % ( , .$@+ E . (H (
/ ' %& . (/ '/ & ,
# & Z = 1 #,/ 11H ' (( A " .Z
# Z = 2 $& 42He < ' * . A = 1 % (
%# ( Z = 6 ,/ 126C / ' (( . A = 4 % (
..# ( ( . (/ ( " ( (( J A = 12
$# * # %& Z = 92 $,& 23892U < ' *
146 (/ 92 " < ' (( J A = 238 % (
,/) %& ' + , C9* P < /(, . (
#)/ A# " * % ( * . + ;( 6
# * # #0( .$: 94Pu < ( / 9 +
% 0# %& - ( "4 (> &8/ + ,
. 4 , %& % ( - 4
The isotopes '() 4 1

# #0 #, "# # #+ , . ((
% , .. ( 0 ( * " (( F * 36 . (/
% ( - @( %& @( 3 + , , * $
'# # + , 6 -$ %& C .. ( , ,/(
:%$ 5E 9>9 * > 9& . 5E
" (( 3 (/ ( (( : 11H 1

(A = 1 Z = 1 ) . (
( (/ ( (( : 21H 2
.<( </ 7, (A = 2 Z = 1 )
* ( (/ ( (( : 31H 3B
.<(( </ 7, (A = 3 Z = 1) *
. + , 0( 5E (2B1) /

# 9* "6 * +( 5E +
# %& 'C( 5E ?,/ ( . + , E
.# .,#6 #+& (radioactive) ) R O,/
-5#E ?,/ ) %& ,/) %& + ,
+ ( 6 6 ,/) %& ' >& R O,/ *
. .>, * .>0 < (/
2 1
1H 1H
3
1H
(2B1)
+ , 0 ( 5E
L# %#& (( + , 5E * "6 'H (

# # #$ #+ , , * J 5 +
5 )/ 5E +& 3 S& A .5 +
.= * 5& )/ O,/ +& <( 6
( @#+ , . * ) 00 + , / /
# # #F* * #/* * . ( *
'/ )( 4 . + , / / * .. (/
.. (/ ' /* . ( &
Z # #, # , $ / 0
# #, G# / J# #CC -$ < 5E NO(
.240 230 % / % ( , T( %& 92<
The size and the mass of the nuclues * 5 1

7#+ 9/ @+* ' ' )F 7+ *
#5 %/ ' -E ' )F 7+ C J ' )F
# # # * " E * ' "6 E .' 7*
7#+ ' %& O,/ / +( . (/ . (
# '#/ .4π R3/3 # '#/ A/ R $)F
( A % ( , '/ * ) ' %& . ( . (/
'# #)F 7#+ #6 # * F .' <
:( F>, < (/ ((( /)
R= 1.2 x A1/3 x 10-13 (cm) (1-1)
%#& ' = L 240 1 / T(( A * J
.<12– 10 =,( 3 ' /* )F 7+ S& ,/)
# A %# ( #, * # C& ' ( / / *
#5 ( ' CC ( S& CC %& .' ( C(/
;#(( S& )/( ( ' "C/( % & .% ( , F*
( "6 ' .0( 36 O,// . -$ )/( F) "6
' ( S& ( F) / ( * F>, ,/( .4
. #O,/ L# ' . A( "6 U( )/( F) "6 (
. ( ( M F* ' ,0 ( N/+( A/
<#/ 7#,( . = ( VC ' . ( F
#/( " 0( C .(atomic mass unit) ( '
VC/ . ( ' 12 M(126C) 12 / E (
# ( M(11H)=1.007825 # E ( ( A "
Mn=1.008665 %$ ( ( MP=1.007276 %$ (/
.#/ A# Me = 0.0005486 %$ (H ( * %&
. (
# '#/ %#$ %( (amu) ( ' S& $
10×1.6555 $C ( ( (126C) / ' ( 12/1
.< 27–
Atomic units of energy +(" ,* 6 1

' * " ,/ .(5&( ' F) * ( * ./9*
F .' "6 (( * $/ F) F) "6 (( *
( J F) ' / )/( %( F>, ( * X( (
:%$ F) ' U&( F> </ &, F>, %$
Eo = mo C2 (1-2)
' ( mo / F) F Eo :* J
(C = 3 x 108 m/Sec) 9/(/ O C . /
' < (( .3 %& F) /,(
.eV unit .& – (H ' </ 7,( '@+ '
$C0 * /( %( F) '/ .& – (H
. .& -C & -( ( (/ * ) (6
19B
:* < 10 x 1.6 – (H * J
19–
10 x 1.6 = * ,. – (eV)
:%$ ' -$ .0O
,. 3 10 = ,. (KeV)

. 16 10 x 1.6 =
,. 6 10 = ,. (11 (MeV)

. 13– 10× 1.6 =
' (/ + .F>, ?,/ 0 6

:(R F) . ?,/ "6
4.18 = , 1

6
10× 3.6 = . ) 1
( ' F ( S& .F>, -$ < (/
:* J .& (H/ * / Z
( < ) 27– 10 x 1.6555 = ( ' 1

2
( 9 / ( 8 10 × 3 ) ×
10– 10 x 1.49 =
19B
10×1.6 / 10– 10×1.49 = A 1
.& (6 @ 931 =
The nuclear binding energy " +(" 7 1

/ . (/ , " (( ' .
& ( =F ' . (/ -$ / (( S&
* J . / .& L/ L / ( (( ((
* LF( S& @ '@+ ' %& . (/ / .&
6 (( 3 ' * J/ @ '/ & ( =F F (
A $ * % , ( ' C/ * 36 .A0(( S& . (
/ =C -$ .' & ( =F =F* = * =F
(/ (/ / 9U( %$ =C/ 7,(
-$ . 6 ( (/ / A ( (
L / =C * ,/ & ./9 F . O,/ / .
S& A . 5&( . -$
( (/ /( ( V)
.(nucleon) < * " )
/ & . O,/ O,/ . ( $

)/( "6 A U .( < 13– 10 F* ) '@+ . -$
% .' </ 7, )/( / ( . -$
, S& . "6 ' A0((
M ' ( C( )/( F) ( * 6 F)
/ ' ,0 ( / 0 $ . . (
( )/( F) * )/( ( " ( ( M
.F) ( / U&( F>,/ / & )/((
. ( M ( ' )/( ( * *

F) * %(/ . ,0 ' ( T) '
:%$ B )/(
B = (N Mn + Z Mp – M ) C2 (1-3)
%$ Mp ( ( %$ Mn ,0 ' ( M :J

& . (/ Z ' %& . ( N (/ (
. , *
<( ' )/( F) R

A 2.013547 %$ <( ( * J ( (/
B = 1 x 1.008665 + 1 x 1.007276 – 2.013547
= 0.002394 amu
= 0.002394 x 931 = 2.23 MeV
(6 @ 2.23 %$ <( ' )/( F) * *
F) * ' . " C -$ C/ ..&
(6 @ 1.165 %$ <( ' %& )/(
= VC /9/ )/( F) F /(,( ..&
( ' . C -$ . & . ' C( A(
: 0( 9* ' * % , $ S& C -$ . F 'C(
.'C(
= )/( F) * "6 'H (

'@+ ' ( ( <9 < 5E 9 ) 00
@ 8.5 % (/9 (( % ( , '/ ( <9
%& */( <9 ( )( = .& (6
' .& (6 @ 7.5 % ) C9 = ?0 3
'/ F) >) "6 U / $ $ .( <
>) <9 9 = 4 C9 + , < )
. 5E 9 00 + ; /* F)
% '34 '(3 8 1
( + , . 9 )) ( < B1

14 9 3
6C , 4 Be , 1H
./ ( ./ (H ( %$ B2

[.& (6 @
.C( 9\ [E % ,( B3
* /( 6 226 < ' )F 7+ * B4

.' " '
10

Radioactivity and radiation
– !+2 – .# – # .# – %4

– +, /" (*+, .#
+ A 7 ! %0 – <0 *+, +
./ 5 – *+,
12
) –
) & (( !" !"# $ %&
.(radiaoactivity) *+, + $
/"0 1 ) Decay .# *+, +

/ ! %2 3 *45 (Disintegration
) . !+2 8" %7 6 # !
% .+ /"0 1 .# 9: ; <%0 *
*; ! *; <%0 .# 5 =2 +,
.: > ! 1 /&% $ 4
0 0 / ) =5 ?7"2 % .# 5
.@ ..
α - decay 2–2
13
E#& ( D /4 C ) 5 4 B
> B G9: F; 6.9 . *; 5 / 7 7
% 6/ / =5; .? 4 )& B =2 .# 64
146 6 92 * 23892U $
144 6 90 23490Th $ =2 .#
: 9 6α # $ .# 9: <
G9: .# 5 / . $ 5
: %
238 234 Th 4
92 U 90 + 2He (α)
% % $ .# 6 9:
% 6.9 .# $ %2 3 $ *: ? 4
$ %2 3 21482 Pb D =2 .# 21482Po $
: 6#
214
218
84 Po 82 Pb + α
5 I # $ + *
85 ) # $ (daughter nucleus) % *5 J
0 *; 6.# * + =5 Parent nuvleus $C $
* K .(.# =5 % $ 85
+ 840 I # $ %F .# $C 3
:*
Mp – ( Md + Mα ) > 0 (2-1)
$ 5 Mα 6% 5 Md 6$C 5 Mp < 0
/4 C E B 2 + 9: 840 .#
.D )&C % %%0 %% D
.# ! %, 4 F; )&C B
9& % # ! 7 =2 +, %

, #5& !0 *; % ! 92 .%0 7
"
? ; .%%0 $ 7 ! 9 #5& # ! !7 9%;
14
7 9& 210 $ % # ! 7 %
% # ! .!; 2 L 5.305 *: %0
4.149 6!; 2 L 4.198 : 7 9&; 238 $
234 $ =2 .9 *; I % .!; 2 L
C 4 # ! 9&; 1C 0 *; %7 %
# ! 9&; 0 *; % G9: %7 675
% # ! 7 I0 .75 LC 4
< 0 67 5 M; + 7" $ %& .9
:*: .# E 7
E = { ( Mp – ( Md + Mα) } C2 (2-2)
I % # $ 7 G9: J
6(0 4 7) $& 4 4 4 .9 5
0 *; .# 7 C / 0 # $
I0 / .7 G9: ?% ? L ? % / 0
Md % 5 E .# 7 % Eα # ! 7
6 0 7 $& 4 7 8 .9 6 Mp $C 5
: < 0
Eα = ( Md / Mp ) E (2-3)
/ .# 7 6 B / < 0
.# % %0 % # ! 7
G9: !7 9& %7 6 1C 0 *; % =2 $C
!0 *; % N % %%0 %% 7 !
!7 %%0 ) : # ! ) /4 .9 .#5&
9: * ! 6&O )5&
.) 9: / & (1(2) /+ .G > %
β - decay 32

$ ) B& ! + E B %
!2 ! G9: .( β - particles) !
15
K5 $ (positron) .!
.# J 9: <%0 . K0+ , 5
5 4 ! *; B5 ( .# $ ) )
.# #& $
Nαβ
Eα
Nβ
Eβ
Nβ
*5& % /0 !2
)
Eβ
16
! ) (I # ) ( :(1(2) /+
*5& % /0 !2 + ! ) (P
17
%, ?4 * K ) ;
! ! %% I !
1 R 9: *; ( N/Z )
5 1.6 * 0 =2 / =0 % % # #& 5
< 0 4 (126C) 12 0" " ? ; .5 4
.1 = 6/6 = N/Z *: ; ! =2 !
( 6C)14 .# #& B
14
G9:
:U G9: 2 < 0 4 > *;
N / Z = 8/6 = 1.33
4 (13355Cs) 133 $ 0" 6.9
(13755Cs)137 $ 0 *; 1.42 U C
=0 (2(2) /+ U1 .1.49 U C 4 >
%% 7" =0 9: . .# 4
! 9F; .4 5 Z ! %% N !
=0 =5 7 V V5 ! ! %%
G9: ! & 92 . .# ?4 4
..# 9 ? + F; =0
# .# ?4 6.9

"
? ; .U 0 A .# 4 > K
% .# ) .# 4 238 $
%2 3 .# ) # .# 4 > 6( $
$ *: % % α $ : %, . (α $
::% 238 $ 5 N/Z I0 % .234
N / Z = 146 / 92 = 1.587
:*: % 234 $ 5
N / Z = 144 / 90 = 1.60
18
=0 ! & ! =2 !
.# 4 > U $ % 6 9 . 4
:* .# 9: . $ %2 3
234 234
90Th 91Pa + β–
3 234 $ =2 .# 234 $
% .V# 9 K 0" .( 2) I $ %2
%%V /V7 0 *; 6%0 %4 /& % ! %%
$V *; N/Z U; %0 %4 !
. .# 4 840 *: 6 1.571 *:
(2(2) /+
.# 4 =0
19
Types of β-decay 132
The electron decay
V /0 W 2 %2 0"
V V UV *V .V9 6 =2 !
.V# 9: . 4 *: ! !
:*O
1 1
0n 1p + β-
=V2 ( 60Co ) 60 !V5 .# *, .# 5
137 $ V =V2 ( 137Cs ) 137 $ .# ( 60Ni) 60 /
.(137Ba )
:The positron decay !

*V; ! =2 ! 0C E *;
V0 G9V: *; . 4 840 * /7
/V0 .9 85 6 =2 ! %0 /0
G9V: *V; .# ) . 0+ / 0
:*O K 6* .# 0
1 1
1P 0n + β+
=V2 ( 22Na ) 22 $ % .# * .# 5
.( 22Ne ) 22
The electron capture $% #

4 =2 ! %0 /0 <%0
VX XV .9 $ .* .# *; 9 )"& B&
V ) V V 4 % !, ?2
X , 9: %0 ( L % 5 57 0 *; K %
.V $ V %V2 % ; ! %0 3
:*O K *, C 0 G9: *; .# )
20
0 1 1
-1e + 1P 0n
*V, .# *: .# J " % KF; 9:

*V; .(electron capture) *V, C (β+) * (β-)
. ! % *, C 0
8V5 .# J <%0 % K % ; ! %4

. (V ) ν – (neutrino) V $ ) !
V K 5 0+ /% $
.4 " J C 9: =5 . ( mν=0 ) #5
:*O
( *2 .#) 1
0 n 1
1P + β- + ν ′
(* .#) 1
1P
1
0 n + β+ + ν
( *2 ) 0
-1e + 11P 1
0 n+ν
6 .(anti - neutrino)%1 $ ν ′ )

%V K V 3V =7" 92 9 : K =5 %1 $ )
W % 5 # F; %%0 0
!+2 ) L !+2 /+ *; 7 # 9:
.( +
4 > 4 92 ;

:+ 840 9F; . .# J C
A
ZM > ( AZ+1 M + me ) (2-4)
%V V $C / *: me 6 AZ+1M 6 AZ M < 0
.!V, %, + 6I ,
:+ 840 92
A
Z M > ( AZ-1 M + me ) (2-5)
21
6* V .V# 0 *; % 5 *: 6 AZ-1 M < 0
* KF; ? & .! %, +
:+ 840 I *, Y +
(me + AZM) > AZ-1M (2-6)
V: 8V40 %7 (6(2) + % (5(2) + 840 9F;
*; ! %, + F; 6.9 .&O
.V# FV; 6.9V .*V, Y + K# !7
AV *, C ? % K0 *
+ 840 % (6(2) + 840 KF; .U 0 >
V *, Y + % 69% .(5(2)
.! %, + >
Energy of β- particles $& ' 232

7 9& % # ! 7 9
A# % β ! .75 %%0 7 %0
#V V 675 $ 7 9& 7 F;
KV =V2 .9 *; I 3 . / B7 7 =0
: &[ $ %Z 3+ % $ =2 ;1,
.#5 .# 7; . %1
:7" :% %0 6 *,
E = { AZM - ( AZ+1M + me)} C2 (2-7)
.V# 7 * .# 0 *;
:*: .9
E= { AZM - (AZ-1M + me)} C2 (2-8)
V V 0 5 *; .# 7 J
6*, .# 0 *; %1 , :
VC 0 *; .* .# 0 *;
V V 5 1 ! .# 7 *,
:*:
22
E = (AZM – AZ-1M ) C2 (2-9)
%%V0 > .# / 7 3
#V V % 7 %1 7 %4; .
) .# 7 / (*, .# *;) , / 0 .9
V V4 7 .#5 B4 7 9% , 7
.V# 7 %1 / 0 %7 .(end point)
/V 0 %V7 6.9V .V7 G9: *7 , / 0 ;
V V 7 , 7 ; 5 .# 7 %1
V % %% % !, 7 A 7 % .#
V 7 ! 9 !, %% 7" $ + B
=0 K5 9 ! ) =5 /0 7
.(I1(2 ) /+ *; K +
7 U1 : + ) $ =0 9: )

\ % 6 7 9& % !
$V )V .# 7 7 *: 7 =7 =0 #
)V V ! ) /4 KF; 6 9 . 4
V 7 %V0 7 9& 9 # ! ) A =5
.%%0
Gamma radiation & ( 42

V# .# % B 0C I5> *;
!"V# BV& 5 B ) .#
V7 9: * .( excited state 0 *;
6(4V ) 1C 0 *; 7 =5 !
V0 *V; 5 0 *; 5
0 =2 0 /4 69% .(ground state) 1C
.V9 6V , V7 D5&5 1C 0 =2 2 /7
V .V !+2 $ ) L !+2 %F
%V V7 G9V: 3 , 7 D5&
23
V K4 K % & ) % !, %0 =5 :
V %%0 7 K " 0 9 , 9: 85 ; (
(internal conversion) *5& % /0 $ 5 G9: ) .7
%V2 8V V V , 2 =2 +, %

/4 <%0 ( !+2) L !+2
<%V0 6.9 . 1C 0 =2 + 0
/V7 V0 =2 0 /4 X /0 =5 /4
. V1C 05 / =2 6 9: ... /7 0 =2 $ 2
\ 22 $ % .# <%0 % KF; 6/ / =5;
V *, C 8 * .# 8
:* * .#5 4; 622 : % %
22 22
11Na 10 Ne* + β+
:*, C .# 4;
e- + 22
11Na
22
20Ne
*
V < 0 6 0 *; : * "

1.275 : %4 2 7 0 *; .# * *; 22
=V2 0 22 /0 1 $ .!; 2 L
V K7 ( ; ) J+2 %2 3 1C 0
. 5 G9 & ( 3(2) /+ . , 7
(I3–2/V+ ) 60 !V /"0 1 .# & /

%V; . /0 =5 1C 0 =2 0 /05
60/V V =2 /0 , %2 60 ! .#
: .# %
60 60 *
27Co 28Ni + β- + ύ
: %4 2 7 0 *; /
G9: 60 / (/0 1 ) /4; .!; 2 L 2.505
1.332 *: /7 2 7 + =C 0 =2 0
24
L 1.173 : %4 7 ; %2 3 !; 2 L
/4 $ .( 0 7 8; ) !; 2
22
Na
(3(2 ) /+
7 ! &
22
1.275 β+ + EC
γ
0
22
Ne
60
Co
β- 2.505
γ
(I3(2)/+
1.332 7 ! &
60 /
γ 0
60
Ni
%V2 3V 1C 0 =2 =C 0 /

V # .!; 2 L 1.332 : %4 7 ;
i % 0 /4 E γ ; 7
%%V0 V0 *7 8#5 2 /7 f 0 =2
:7"
E γ = Ei – Ef = hν
25
V7 V Ef 6 5 % 0 7 Ei < 0
34–
ν 6(V ./ 10x6.63 = h) ." ! : h 6 0
. # %%
The internal conversion )* + 14–2

/"0 1 W 0C E *; K =2 +, 8
PV& % 9 M L K ! +4 !2 %0 8"
/ V V0 G9: *; .9 P& < ;
%%V0 7 2 / 2 /"0 1 W ;
*V; V, V 7 0 ; 7
.%%0 +4
V M L K +4 45 !, )

G9V: *5& %V /V0 !VF V5 /"0 1
8V; !^ 7 %%0 3 ; *# & *; !,
/ V =V5; .(P1(2) /+ .# !, )
198 8V =2 I .# /"& 198 I:9 .# /
% .) 2 . 412 2 ; 6 # 6=C K0 *;
" V0 ; 85 1C 0 =2 198 8 /"0 1
%V V# 9V: /# .) 2 . 412 : 7 8;
!V2 / 4 % !, %0 3 K7"
.5V ; (< /# 3 ) K7 / K0 ; M L K +4
" V0 85 K .; =5 7 G9: ,
*V1 CV 9% 5 ) 67 *7
. # 85 * 9 A# *; *5& %
!, %0C , 7 85 6.9

V 7 , 9: + ; 8" % +
V 0 6V K V+45 * * !,
69V% 6 /"0 1 ) .M +45 % 06 L +45
26
)V5& . *5& % /0 !2 /"& /"0 1 KX
!2 7 *5& % /0 !, G9: 7
/V; / 0V .9V . 85 #5 *1 C
. *5& % *1 C !2 *5& % /0 !2
*: $7
Ee = Eγ –Be
*7 8; ; 7 Eγ 685 , 7 Ee < 0
. ^ 7 Be6 /"0 1, <%0 9 ,
V+4 *; , 7 198 8 0 *;

V G9: /0 !2 7 .9 .) 2 . 83 *: K
:*:
Ee = 412 - 83 = 329 KeV
% . K +4 45 !^ .9
< 0 6(LC / 0 :) L +4 !, 8"
6) 2 . 8.9* 0 _5 I:95 +4 G9: *; , 7
:*: L +4 *5& % /0 !2 7
Ee = 412 - 8.9 = 403.1 KeV
%V V 7 % 0 !, & 9:
. ! ) 8;
!, ) K +4 *2 %0 8" %

*; ; .: 9% /4 6>; K . KF; L +45
*V; % !, % 6* . M =0 L K +4
8" .9 <%0 6 # G9: /L+ %C ! %
.40 % 7 8; / 0 +
K V+4 *5& % /0 <%0 * / 0 )

%%V =V2 K V+4 45 !, %% K =5 αk
27
V L 6 .B G9: A# !;
% K 7 % 1 6 # αk *5& % /0 / 7
! +45 *5& % /0 !" %%0 . 5 Z 9 %%
V V /V4 !" V G9V: 2 I5C A# M 6 L
. K +4 !"
V+ V *V % % .: % 6 9:

# ! 2 % G9: .# .* *+2
8"V V ; /"& + .9 3 %7 6 5
=2 !0 % ! /"0 1 !+2
. 1C 0 =2 2 /7 !0
X - rays $ % 52

V V# ! V )"& 9 +C %
V V 8V # I . % * !+2
+C 7 J I5 < 0 #5& +C #5&
: :
) ,! $ % 152

!V, /V4 % +C J 9: %
/7` 7 ! 9 ! % =2 =5 7 ! 9 (! +7) ! % 9
/V7 V7 9 % *; 2 ; % %; .# 9 *;
6V # G9V: /LV+ =5 7 9 % !, %0 /4
( V L ) + ; # 05 *; 85
!V7 $ VV7 !V V . % *; , *7 8;?" 0
)V5& %0 5 %%0 9 ! % *; !,
V V45 +C !; 9& KF; 6&O
V V75 V %%0 7 ! % !, /4
% K * 9: . )"& $ 4 G9: )5& 6%0 5
V I5V X %0 ! 9 ! % *; !, 2
28
(V , D5& 0) 9: ! 9 % , I
8V5 .V5 5 %%0 !7 ! 9 !;
V V % 5 +C $ +C G9a5
.5 *# * / 50 ! 5 *; % $%& 6K
AV# V0 5 +C $

6/V / =5; . , 2 /4 * +4 D&
+C G9: $ K +4 =2 L +4 , /4 % KF;
L V+4 =V2 M +4 , /4 % . K )0
V 9 =5 $ 4 . L )0 +C $;
6.9V 6 V0 *V; 9&M 2 , 2 /4 * +4
! .9 /4 $ * +4 A# # !
%VC V # +4 /4 %; . 2 /4 $ * #
6 Kα1 V $ K +4 =2 L3 +4 *: (7 =5C )
$V K +4 =2 L2 # +4 /4" +C
! %V ) # ! +45 & (4(2) /+ . Kα2
/V4 VV VV +C $ (!^ #
.! +4 G9: !,
:
9 ! %V *V; !V, V V7 ! 5 92
V& $V: 7 *: ; .* /% *; *: D
.D5 +Y #
M3 M2 M1 L3 L2 L1 K +4
2P3/2 2P1/2 2S1/2 2P3/2 2P1/2 2S1/2 1S1/2
7
3.066 30554 30851 13.035 15.200 15.861 88.005
)..
:+
29
V+4 V , /4 W Kα1 )
V V V+C V7 .9 . K +4 =2 L3 #
:*: 82Pb D
Kα1 (L3 –> K ) = 88.005 – 13.035 = 74.97 KeV
Kα2 ( L2 –> K ) = 88.005 – 15.200 = 72.805 KeV
Kβ1 = ( M3 –> K ) = 88.005 – 3.066 = 84.939 KeV

Kβ2 = ( M2 –> K ) = 88.005 – 3.554 = 84.451 KeV
MV M1V
M111
M11
M1
Lα1 Lβ1 Lα2

L111
L11
L1
L1
Kα1 Kα2 Kβ3 Kβ1

K
30
(4(2) /+
+C & 9 *; !^ # ! +4 ! +4
=%Y =5C ! +4 !, /4 % +
+- $ % 252

( V *V; % %V+ D7V ) % %+ R <%0 %
9V: /# I 6 # 3 0+ $ C 6 ^
9V5 % %V+ * / 3 0+ $ ,
IV ( 0+ $ ) , :%4# * 7 85 5
V7 8V; /V 0 V V+ ; *; K D7
9V %V +C = ./# % /7 $ ,
V 0 V+C ) . 0 +C I5C
V#5& 7 !# 7 9& 6 ) KX (5(2) /+
$ V V, 7 7 =7 % * # %
$V *V V+C .5 0 +C 5 .U
*V; * D&+ *; %& +C I *; :%
$ %&V !V, / $ < 0 6#5& !4
(%VC ) % % a5 5 !, U $ % 8;
. 0 +C 85;
Nx
Ex
31
0 +C ) :(5(2) /+
32
Auger electrons & ( 352
) V ; <%0 % K % 4 (1(5(2) 4# *;
9V /V4 KF; M L K ! +4 %02 *; (*2 b ;
V !V, %0 > 0 =2 %
V !V, %% # G9: /L+ =5C %
=V%C ! %V 3 /LV+ =% ! %V =2 =5V ! %
8" K 5 I .9 % .!, 4 %%V
8V# V / # 7 +
. +4 *7
/ V =5; . #5 8" 0C E *; <%0 K 2

V2 K +4 *; ; % % K 0 /
# 9% 6 K +4 *; % b # /L+ L +4
<%V0 %7 K 2 . + ; 8" 3 L +4 *;
2 .L +4 *; # /L+ =5 +7 2 : .9 %
V; V % 6 M +4 &[ 2 8" 0"
=V5 8V5 .M V+4 *; ; 9 . +C
, 9V: / 0 . 2 M +4 85 ,
: Ee 7
Ee = h ν – EM
= EK – EL - EM
L +4 /4 % 85 *L 9 # 7 h ν < 0
.K +4 =2
*5& %V /0 5 K+ 5 G9: 9 %

V !V; % % !2 8" E& 9
+ ; /0 * 2 2 .
8V5 .K % 2 8" # 8" $% 2 =2
%V %V KC 6 KLM 2 0 G9: *; 2 =5
33
M V+4 2 8" =2 5 ! K +4 *; ;
L +4 =2 M +4 , /4 W # %
V V !V2 8"V 2 =2 +, %

I7 +4 : / )0 " 9% = =5 !
V 8V5 *V +4 # ; ! * =
.: > K L M / 2
K =5 ωK !2 8" <%0 / 0 ) =4

%% =2 K +4 45 +C !; %%
. K +4 *; ! #
The radioactive decay 6–2

!+2 # $ 0 %2 3 *+, .#
A K < 0 6 0, # 4 1& 02 5
.V V0 *; .# * B 37 ,
V V 7" B K .# 9 4 % 2
. 0,
The radioactive decay law . ' 162

*V; .# / 0 : ( % ) E#
: 6 % L / 0 9: 6%0
0<λ <<1
V: dt G %4 7 /"& G9: .# / 0 .9 =

* 9; N : % .# $ * + B %% 9F; . (λ dt)
. N λ dt : dt /"& B %% 9: / .# / 0
:: 9: /"& .# 9 B %%
dN = - N λ dt
34
/V4 .# % *4 N B %% +, *
9& N %% =5 &C % G9: *; 4 . % 5
N0 : t = 0 % + B %% 3 ; /
: %
N (t) = N0 e- λ t (2-10)
=V0 .V# % 4 + B %%V: N(t) 6< 0
) 6 . 7" G9: ) . t 05
(/"0 1 ) λ
The sample activity ) , 262

A(t) BV %%V ; : I5 0C $ *;
%%V0 .V# % 4 B %% A 6 *; .# *
%0 *; .# * B %% ) .(10(2) 7"
*V+, + G9 +, %+ $ +
% /1# .9 %+ G9: % %0 / .(Activity of a Sample)
: 6 5 (10(2)
A(t) = dN(t) / dt
= λ N0 e - λ t = λ N(t) (2-11)
9V 6 t = 0 05 % +, %+ A0 = λ N0 )
: F;
A(t) = A0 e- λt (2-12)
The half-life and mean-life $ / 3–6–2
V 3V+ V 5 ( *#V ) )

V +, G%+ "& E#& * # :
V : ) F; &[ = .) =2 9:
6V 6*#V 5 . B %% ) .# $"
35
t = t1/2 6 N(t) = No/2 3V1 KF; ) 9: #7 . t1/2
: (10–2) 7" *;
N0 / 2 = N0 e- λ t1/2
:
t1/2 = ln 2 / λ
= 0.693 / λ (2-13)
λ .# ! A 7 %0 F; *: %0 2 < 0

.( 1( ) /1 *:
τ V %V K 9 +

=V5 V4 B 3 J ; ()
:*O (10(2)7" $ %& G% %0 / :%%
∞
τ = (1 / N0 ∫ dN(t).t = 1/ λ = t1/2 / 0.693 (2-14)
0
V7" V1 V τ 6 t1/2 6 λ " % 9:
. 7 : %02 ; 6
) t1/2 / λ . 462

$ %&V + % %5 λ .# ! % %0
* /+ *; K 9 (12(2) 4
ln {A(t) / A0 } = - λ t
.( e = 2.71 ) *V AC $ > (ln) / < 0

/V+ V &C 7" 9&X + AC $ > $ %& %
:*
log {A(t) / A0 } = - 0.4343 λ t (2-15)
36
t = t1/2 6 N(t) = No/2 3V1 KF; ) 9: #7 . t1/2
: (10–2) 7" *;
N0 / 2 = N0 e- λ t1/2
:
t1/2 = ln 2 / λ
= 0.693 / λ (2-13)
λ .# ! A 7 %0 F; *: %0 2 < 0

.( 1( ) /1 *:
τ V %V K 9 +

=V5 V4 B 3 J ; ()
:*O (10(2)7" $ %& G% %0 / :%%
∞
τ = (1 / N0 ∫ dN(t).t = 1/ λ = t1/2 / 0.693 (2-14)
0
V7" V1 V τ 6 t1/2 6 λ " % 9:
. 7 : %02 ; 6
) t1/2 / λ . 462

$ %&V + % %5 λ .# ! % %0
* /+ *; K 9 (12(2) 4
ln {A(t) / A0 } = - λ t
.( e = 2.71 ) *V AC $ > (ln) / < 0

/V+ V &C 7" 9&X + AC $ > $ %& %
:*
log {A(t) / A0 } = - 0.4343 λ t (2-15)
36
$ > 0.4343 = + AY %% $ > C
: 6* AY K# %%
log A(t) = log A0 – 0.4343 λ t (2-16)
V V % 5 +, %+ A 7 % KF; 6 9:
$ 4V & =5 /0 F; 6 t log A(t) 7" $
/V 4 . S = -0.4343 λ K5 _5 ( 6(2 ) /+ *;
.λ .# ! 7 % %0 &C 4 G9: 3 %%0
V t1/2 )V 7 % 2 / .# ! ;
! A 4 .(14(2) (13(2) !7" $ %& G9 τ
% %V V V ;V =5 G9: 31 λ .#
AV 7 $V ( !+, %% / $%& ) !+,
IV . V ! ; /"& (counting rate) R % /%
*; 5 ! %% : ) R % /% 0"
V 31 5 +, %+ 3 I ( %0
: 2 ; / L $ % %5
R(t) / R0 = A(t) / A0
log A
t
( 6(2 ) /+
t log A +, %+ $ > 7"
37
* V> )V * $ 8 $%& λ % %0
/V % %0 . / *; $ >5 7 P & =L =0
% %0 .9 ./4 =5 >5 ! % %% $4
2 < 0 6+ (16(2) 7" $ %& λ
λ = { log A0 – log A(t) }/ 0.4343 t
A0 " $ 4 =5 % 4 & 0 G9: *;
. & 4 /4 * 8# : t A(t) 6
6V+ )V V % %0 K =2 +, %

$V V % R(t) %V /% A 7 %; .(12(2) 7" .9
=V0 =V5 /0 t [R(t) α A(t)] < 0 R(t) 7"
6V+ t1/2 ) % %0 K 6(7(2) /+ *;
.) =2 %+ K"& E#& 9 K2 < 0
= 2(2/1) V %+ U ) *; /"& K 0"
V %+ U ) ! ; 7 /"& 6 5C %+ (4/1)
UV ! ; + /"& 5C %+ ( 128/1 ) = 7(2/1)
% 0.1 /7 6 5C %+ (1024/1) = 10(2/1 ) %+
UV %+ /4 !7 KF; 9: . 5C %+
.# =2 / 5C %+5 5 7
V λ .V# ! % %0 K =2 +, %

*#V : R * 5 4 G9 t1/2 )
V: _V5 *V 5 .! % * %
*#V GV _5 9 " 238 $ ) 7 *#
!V #V : 2 % %0 KF; ( 9 10 x 4.468
V +, %+ *; E#& < 0 4 G9 .#
! V+ 9: =0 /"& 0
*#V V ! 9 V5 .# ! % %0 KF; 6 9 .
38
*V; *; % + ! %% ; I KF; /
: . 0
| dN / dt | = λ N
= A = R/C
5 * ! %% %%0 ! C < 0
%V /% : R 6 % ! 3 %% =2 % %
N V *; + B %% C ! R % /% ; KF;
. 5 ) I0 * λ .# ! % %0
R0
½ R0
¼ R0
t1/2 2t1/2 3t1/2 t
(7(2) /+
t R(t) % /% 7"
8V $%&; L *# ! 9 5

. # $: % %0 B&
)* 01) + 562

V V5& =5 0 4 > 0 <%0
%%0 %% 5& 9F; .5& + E
V C !V#5& (V C =5 " ) +
39
*V; *; % + ! %% ; I KF; /
: . 0
| dN / dt | = λ N
= A = R/C
5 * ! %% %%0 ! C < 0
%V /% : R 6 % ! 3 %% =2 % %
N V *; + B %% C ! R % /% ; KF;
. 5 ) I0 * λ .# ! % %0
R0
½ R0
¼ R0
t1/2 2t1/2 3t1/2 t
(7(2) /+
t R(t) % /% 7"
8V $%&; L *# ! 9 5

. # $: % %0 B&
)* 01) + 562

V V5& =5 0 4 > 0 <%0
%%0 %% 5& 9F; .5& + E
V C !V#5& (V C =5 " ) +
39
*#V % %0 KF; 6 5 ;"& G9 #
% ! %a0 5& *; /
.K# J #5&
% 5 R(t) % /% A 7 I 6.9 ,

E# R1 , EL . t log R 7" $
/V+ *; a =0 64; 5& =5 0
. t 6 log R 7" %%0 (8(2)
log R
4
a
2
c
(8(2)/+
t log R % /% $ > 7"
4; 5& =5 0
/V (8(2) /+ *; =0 C 0"

*#V 9 5 .# & : 4 &
% .*# G L # J &O 2 < 0 6C
b $ 4V =V5 /0 =2 a =0 $ 4 %
V b $ 4 R . /C 5 .# / 9
40
$ 4V V 9 c : &[ $ 4 =5 /0 a =0
9V: V $ 4V / / % %0 . 7C 5 .#
.%0 =5 / λ2 6 λ1 .# ! % %0 4
2 662

The successive radioactive decay
%V %7 KF; % =2 $C .# %
$V )V V =2 % .# 9% . +2 +
V *; / =2 5 6 9: .(grand-daghter) % #0
. 3 *+, .# 5 G9: ) .4 =2
*#V : )226 $ % .# / / =5;

V: ) &C G9: .# .222 % =2 ( 3 10 x 1.6
BV&C *: * 6218 $ =2 ( $ 3.82 *#
=V2 V 5 9: .( 4 7% 3.05 *# : ) +
.4 206 D =2 *; /
! 9V %%V V; : 3 .# % EL

.55 G9: 1 1 / *; (B )
!V N1 t % $C % ! 9 %% 9F;

:% * N2 % % ! 9 %% 6 λ1 .4
N3 %V #0 %V ! 9 %%V 6 λ2 V: .# ! +
! 9 %%V t = 0 05 % K 1; 92 64 :
:: / /
N1 = N10 , N2 = 0 , N3 = 0
6$C %V ! 9 V 5 ! 10 % K
%V .# /% 0 *; 9&C 6(11(2) 7" $ %&
%V .# /% 6% % /% $C
41
5 KF; 6% #0 % /% %
: <" !% 5
d N1 / d t = - λ1 N1 (2-17)
d N2 / d t = λ1 N1 – λ2 N2 (2-18)
d N3 / d t = λ 2 N2 (2-19)
.9 $C % 5 .# /% (17(2) 7" %%0

*; (18(2) 7" .*+, .#5 *C 45 4
%%0 (19(2) 7" 0 *; . N1 λ1 /% % %
.N3 4 % #0 ! 9 /%
KVF; (19(2) 6(18(2) 6(17(2) !%V /0

V % 555 " 1C J / ! 9 %% % %0
:*O .9 6t
N1 = N10 e – λ1 t
N2 = { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 ) } N10 ( e - λ 1 t – e – λ 2 t ) (2-20)
N3 = N10 [1+ {λ1/ (λ2 – λ1)}] e- λ2 t - {λ2/ (λ2 – λ1)} e- λ1t ]

(2-21)
.#V 0 % N20 = N30 = 0 92 0 0 7" G9:
% ! 9 %% U ; # N30 6 N20 / )5& 92
:: % % #0
N2 = { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 ) } N10( e- λ1t - e- λ2 t ) + N20 e- λ2 t
(2-22)
N3 = N30 + N20( 1- e- λ2 t )
+ N10 [ 1 + { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 ) } e- λ2 t - { λ2 / (λ2 – λ1 ) } e- λ1t]

(2-23)
42
V % N3 6 N2 6 N1 / L # (9(2) /+ U1
=V2 .V# <V 0 6105 $ 3 .#5
.4 105 $ %" =2 G% .# &C 9: 6105 $ %
β- β-
105 105 105
44Ru 45Rh 46Pd
t1/2 = 4.5 h t1/2 = 35 h
100
50
4 8 12 t
(9(2) /+
t 3 N3 6 N2 6 N1 ! 9 %% / L
105 $
%V #0 %V $C B %% * 0

V 0 *; 6 N10=100 6N20 = N30 = 0 $C B %% %
V4 D7 N1 0" . *4;C 0
43
V4 % % $ t = 0 % # ; N2 .*+, .# 4
V 4 % 7 =7 =2 / =2 (20(2) 7"5
.% % E#& $ *# )1 "
% % $ #5 ; N3 % #0 B5

V V14 % 2 (%100 ) I4
.( % 5 *# )1 5 * 0 ) /
Radioactive equilibrium .! 762

G9: * ; C F; 6
. 5 L
F; 3 .# 55 1 3 =5 ) 9: 4 9F;

: 6 5 N3 6 N2 6 N1 / L $% * 9:
d N1 / dt = d N2 / d t = dN3 / d t (2-24)
:*: 3 .#5 + F; .9
d N1 / d t = - λ 1 N1 = 0 (2-25)
d N2 / d t = 0 = λ 1 N1 – λ 2 N2

λ 1 N1 = λ λ 2 N2 (2-26)
9V: C *V;0 G <%0 6
.( # N1 < 0) λ λ1 = 0 + $C 5 *
V+ 3V E : +2 + > * 9:
. 5 *+,
The secular equilibrium 3% .!

<%V0 . =2 I7 *: !0 840
) #V I4 % L λ1 % !0 G9:
44
= 9% .λ1 < λ2 0 *; ( % $C 5 *#
V JV 9: 840 % .%C J 9:
9& 6(20(2) 7" *; L $ 4 λ1 E KF; 6
:* /+ 7" G9:
N2 ≅ (λ1 / λ2 ) N10 ( 1 – e – λ2 t )
λ 2 N2 = λ 1 N10 ( 1- e- λ2 t ) (2-27)
e- λ 2t
%0 I4 t % K (27(2)7"
: % * 6#
λ 2 N2 = λ 1 N10 (2-28)
B5 +, %+ U < 0 %C 840 K
(10(2) /+ A .$C B5 +, %+5 %
$C BV5 +, %+ a & < 0 %C
V .( % *# 2 < 0 ) λ 1 N10 *:
!V7 % % *; ( b =0 ) % B5 +, %+
%V+ c =0 .λ 1 N1 *: 4 A# / =2
. " 5 +,
log a
c
2
a
b
1
2 4 6 t
45
%C :(10(2) /+
V5 λ 1 .# ! A 4 %C $ %&

9V .(28(2) V7" $ %&V .9 *# ! 9
*# 9 % 5 λ 2 .# ! ; I 6EL
3 $C (! 9 ) B % $C ! 9 %% 6 L
.λ 7 % %0 / .9 <%0 % % B
:
5 1 =5 0 K % 238 $ R" U5
3V .V#5 V $ % 9: 226 $ % %
/V %V0 9 *: G9: ! 9F; .238 $ 5
V: $ % 5 *# ! 5 92 6$ 9 6 10 x 2.8
.$ 5 *# : ; 1620
:+
:%C 7
λ 1 N1 = λ 2 N2
:
N1 / N2 = λ2 / λ1 = t1 / t2
6I $ % $ 5 *# 5 6 < 0
: F; &C 7" *; *; E
2.8 x 106 x 1620 = 1 x t1
:
t1 = 4.54 x 109 years
The transient equilibrium - .!
46
*V4 V $V ) &[ J %
V %V J 9: <%0 .(transient equilibrium)
) %V 5 λ 2 .# ! L $C 5 λ 1 .# !
V ) #V V 7 ! λ 1 ( λ 2 > λ 1
λ1 0 G9: *; .( A $C 5 *#
%V0 J # I4 e- λ 2t *C %0 F; .9 3 .= 0
9V& *4 <%0 ) % KF; 6.9 . e- λ 1t
:* /+ (20(2) 7"
N2 = { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 )} N10 e- λ1t
= { λ1 / (λ2 – λ1 )} N1 (2-29)
.$C B .# /% A# .# % B * 9:
BV $C B / A +, %+ 6.9
:*: %
A1 / A2 = λ1 N1 / λ2 N2 = (λ2 – λ1) / λ2 (2-30)
%V U % B5 +, %+ 7" G9:
K01 9: .$C B5 +, %+ ;
BV $C BV / +, %+ 9 (11(2) /+
V t = 0 %V % B %% 92 t *; % %
.#5
log A
2
a c
b
1
47
2 4 6 t
*4 :(11(2) /+
$4$ 72

The natural radioactive series
VX 82 V C 9 %% ! 9 3 B
*V; !V %% % I .9 6 +2 4 >
G%V 9: %M . ; B7 /
.# ! %2 # .# /"& .5 E .# =2
! =2 ! % % ! G9: %,
BV G9: E *; .# + # =2 %M *;
.(V ! V ) !, %2 3 .# 9: <%0 %
V J+, /" ) ! <" *; %
232
5V5 6 $ % – $ 55 6 Th $ 55 *:
*V: 6$ 55 *: .: ! .$ C
: /C *# C O *; %
%V4 9V 6EC /7 : 6 6 10 x 2.2 :
6/" G9: D& $: (1(2) /% . 9 10x3 * 0
. 5 4 5 .# /" $ 0 ;
+, /" :(1(2)/%

555 /C 5 $
! *# : 5 4
10
10×1.39 6232($ 208(D $
9 – $
10×1.47 6238($ 206(D
$ %
8 $ C
10×8.12 6235($ 207(D
$
48
6
10×2.2 6237($ 209(!
EV V *; % +, /"5 ;1,

62Sm $ V 19K $ V / B&C +
147 40
! %, + X G9: .: >

.( 9 10 ) % : 6(!2 )
The induced radioactivity 5+$ 82

P2 5 + =2 ;1,
V G9V: WV .* 3+ " ) =5 %
! V #5& J X 4 )97 8 &C
.V !+2 ! ! # ! /
!V 5 %V V !"# EL 9 $%&
V# ! V / 0+ ! 5 % ! C !"
. !+, % .9 65 4 ! C =0 !
% % ! %& K + : 60 !5 P, " ;

3 + $ 64 59 !5 10 #5& ! *;
!V5 )97 % . /# /& % ! G9:
/V# 9: % 6 60 !5 4 59
./#5 4; ; /# 0 A# *;
59 60
27Co + n 27Co + γγ
*V+, *V VC /V# /# 9: )
.9 $ < 0 6(neutron radioactive capture)
./V0 *V; VC 9: ; % 3 % %
.V# 6 5.27 *# G 63+ 60 !5
: 6I $ % 60 / =2
60 60
27Co 28Ni + β - + ν′
49
V+ V V ! P2 6*0 !7 *;
=V5 /05 I5C A# $%& .I5C 9
$ ; *: 6$ /4 % %
*; % > G9: .(Trans- uranium elements) $
. L *# : C
V /# /& % 238 $ % % " ;
V: 239 $V .9 ; 6 $ X
V: %V % V V $ %2 3 .# 3+
:*O .9 6239 $
238 1 239
92U + 0 n 92U + γ
239 239
92U 93Np + β - + ν′
.9 $ % .# 3+ G% $
239 $ 5 : % %
239 239
93Np 94 Pu + β - + ν′
V !V !"V# /V& % $ 5 W 9
6V .V 05C *; 7 P2 *; 9: $%&
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63 V+ 8 /% : λλ1N1 < 0
V W $ + ! 9 2 < 0 ..# /% : λλ2N2
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52
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Units of radioactivity 7' + 92

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*: $ %& % *+, +5 %0 .:

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V V7 / :2 3 9 / / % $ %& (1
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54
!

Interaction of radiation with matter
# & – #$
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Interaction of heavy charged particles with matter
The energy transfer 123
! )# $% # & =$
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55
B .#=5 :5 ! 0, A 0,
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A . 4.+ 2 , " collision)
#=5 # & 9
0, 9 , &! $ 7! ) 94 %,
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A 6 E 2@ 6 F&
% 30 2& 2@ / 6 % .4 # $%
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)7 % 6 : 3 6 2, % 70 2& 2 # 5
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B # % 0 . 6 0, 7H 3 )
. (δ- electrons) ,
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B # 6 , #
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# C = B+ E )7 % 2@ / 6
E #=5 # & #5= #3 .# +
#*. #5= W #= # $ M& 1 N3 n K*-
:# #5. & 2 ! – 2 , K*
W = E/n (3-1)
& K* #*. W # 5 ! $
! #=5 #5= 0 / 4 0 &P
56
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# : ; 23 Q4 # 3 , 35 7 243
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I # 9 $3 .:5 ! 5 # I
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23 # $% # & (the track) %! ! 23 M
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! " 223

Range of heavy charged particles
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57
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58
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0, A E * /! I EV "P B% U
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The specific ionization and the stopping power
The specific ionization S % &
– # K*- 1 ! 0 S 2 6 :
7 Q4 23 %- & .+ # # -
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E ) %- K* :/D ! #
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, * ! 0, E 23 M "
# + . = J B 2 4
59
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#5. B . : :5 0 & =IP
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# + 3 0, # % #3 #3 # + =IP &
#5. 0 & 3 )# = : ; % =IP
M- E 23 M .(1T3) 23 # R #3 N
# ! .# % : # H # * # 5 0 #;3&
* & 23 : % R <$ 3 #
0, A E * /! I EV "P B% U
#5. B B% . : :5 !
. $ E
# $ % & 323

The specific ionization and the stopping power
The specific ionization S % &
– # K*- 1 ! 0 S 2 6 :
7 Q4 23 %- & .+ # # -
S # 5 .C@* B 760 =IP # @ W 15 & #
E ) %- K* :/D ! #
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23 # #5. 0 & B #3 !
I 2 6 ! .(2T3)
. * 1 5= 7! %- # 23 ! B
1 # 5 05! 0, ! 0, A 2 6 *
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, * ! 0, E 23 M "
# + . = J B 2 4
59
0, 2 7H * * .1 5= $ 7! )B
. 6 & *
#3 S 2 6 #5. B

0 & 0 & ! # * #*& #
1$ = 3. + : + 0 & .(3T3) 23
: . % 0, :. +/ 23 M " . %- # 4
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(:/X) S
6
1 2 3 d
& B S 2 6 #5. : (2T3)

B #3 !
(:/X) S
6
60
1 2 3 d
2 6 U 0 & :(3T3)
The stopping power ( - dE/dx) # $

1 5= # #5= 7 B $3 2
II #3 * #5= $3 2 # . +
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( - dE / dx) = W. S (3-2)
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:2 ) B 1 #= :$
(-dE /dx) = (4πe4z2 /m0v2) ZN [ln ( 2m0 v / I )ν- ln(1-v2/c2) – v2 /c2 ]
(3-3)
# 2 m0 )=5 B # # & v ) z F &
Z ) 3B N )
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( - dE/dx) = ( 4πe4z2 / m0 v2 ) N Z ln ( 2m0 v / I )
61
= ( 4πe4z2 / m0 v2 ) N B (3-4)
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.
: R +! # @ * 3 # 5 + P # >- 23

5 . (Relative Stopping Power RSP) # :$ 5 B
7 # 2 # :$
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.
! Q4 (4T3) #5. B+
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# 0 abs )Q4 0 air F &

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1 N3 2@ M 23

# + # @ = #5= ! SP , M
# :$ 5 0 %! 7! / #4
2@ M 23 # 1 N3 ) .
23 :$ 5 # M 23 :$ 5
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:2 # 23 :$ 5
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(3-6)
62
)(-dE/dx)1 )# :$ 5 2 (- dE/dx)comp F &
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3
N2 , N1 B M N0 )M 4 #
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:$ 5 #5. , (4T3) #5. B+

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R ! : 3 .4 B+ E )!
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:$ 5 ! % JP . & =IP 4
I $ 9 $ .( 5 ! 7!) !
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R E
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0
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0
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1 N3 (4T3) #5. :$ 5 ) relation)
! F & #$ 5 > # $ 9 .R # 5 ,
.R # 4 B+ . J / (4T3) #5.
$ ' 33

Interaction of electrons with matter
63
)(-dE/dx)1 )# :$ 5 2 (- dE/dx)comp F &
.… )# % 0- 23 :$ 5 2 …) (- dE/dx)2
3
N2 , N1 B M N0 )M 4 #
.3B # % 0-
:$ 5 #5. , (4T3) #5. B+

:! F & )4 23 !
{ (- dE/dx)α (4E) / (- dE/dx)p (E) } = 4 (3-7)
# ! $ ! ! :$ 5 ! #5. 9 2
#5= ¼ 7 4 5= 2 :$ 5 : P!
R ! : 3 .4 B+ E )!
I 5 2& 4 5= , B 3.5 7 Q4 23 !
= 4 ÷ 5 1 5= \ 7 R )E .3 ,
: ; B 14.0 = 4 × 3.5 )3 , I 1.25
:$ 5 ! % JP . & =IP 4
I $ 9 $ .( 5 ! 7!) !
.1 & ! B #
):$ 5 #/ R & 1 ! 0,

:# #5. $= E
R E
R= ∫ dx =
0
∫ dE /( − dE / dx )
0
(3-8)
#5= R #5. # 9 :

(range - energy
1 N3 (4T3) #5. :$ 5 ) relation)
! F & #$ 5 > # $ 9 .R # 5 ,
.R # 4 B+ . J / (4T3) #5.
$ ' 33

Interaction of electrons with matter
63
$ ' 133
, I ½ 5! ) #=5 #5=
%, C = 4 5= 9 $ (3
#5= $ M! < 9 6 ! #
#& 23 2@ / 6 # \ . 0, $% B
- ; .7 % 6 A 25 % 20 2&
# $% B # # # I I #
1 7 $% B # # $ # I
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6 + 0, 7H )# I I
23 :/D \ ! 2 6 N3 . S 2
` 2 6 ! ;&. 3 )1 4 :P %- #
.1 4 #@ 2& 0, %- # 23 10 R /
1 N3 ( B+* #5= ;&) B+* #5= Q$ $ $=

# @P # $ , " $% B B
B # M F & ) 4m0 / M * / 0, B #5=
! 3 , " =5 B ! . $%
, 0, =5 #$ #5= # 5
#& 23 1 ! 7! .& B 23 =5 #5= :
=5 #5= # $ / & E
* 0, 7H .# &! 0, & B 23
% ! ) ) F & ) #& 23 %
I ; 1 N3 E 0, #3P .# $% #& 23 %
R , =5 N3 #
%! .=5 0, 7H 5
. =+ 23 =5
$3 0, #3P 1 N3 #=5 #5= *

( 6 %, ) # > C = #5=
64
: , 23 4 5= #=5 $ !
# B$ .(bresmsstrahlung radiation) S / , B
#5= $3 23 2- ( #5= $3 7!) +-
. 9 #5= * #=5
C 3 1 ! /, .1 M- 4 5= * $

$ ! 3 . %- # 4 * 7
N 1= 1 N3 %- # 4 1 5= *
) 3 3 E ( * )
4 5. P 2. #3 ; 2
. (annihilation)
$ $) ( 233

Energy loss by inelastic collision
C = #& 23 #5= $ ; : + /
# 4 . % ( 6 %) # >
:$ $ # ; # $ 0 & .# $% # &
#5= # $ (E < m0C2) I 4 5= `
:# #5. E )4
( - dE/dx) = ( 4πe4 / m0 v2 ) N Z [ln (m0 v2 /2 I ) + 0.15]
(3-9)
# $ (E > m0c2 ) #5= , !
:2 :$ $ # ;
(- dE/ dx) = ( 2πe4 / m0 c2 ) N Z [ln (m0 c2 /2 I ) + 0.15]
(3-10)
Energy loss by radiation * ( 333

B (" ) 1 N3 ) 4 $ $=
4 M # = I 4 , B N3 &
M $ , .( ) # " "
65
A . #% : & / .: & 9 N3 Z 4 &
, B : # = I 4 ,
$ F& / .1 5= Q* $3 0, 7H )S /
0 E F& , )M&3 0 #5=
M& 2 ) : = S / , : = . #
$3 # # - M ! " E
.( - ) 0 4 5=
0 S , 23 , $ 2 #5= M&

:# #5. B+ + = &
(- dE/dx)rad = [4Z(Z+1)e4 NE /137 m02 C2] (ln183Z-1/2 + 0.125)
(3-11)
#& C = :$ 5 % 2 #5. 9
#5= , ! .(E >> m0 c2) 7! ) #5=
. C = #5= $3 , 1 N3 I
:2 ` # # :$ 5 N3

(- dE/dx)tot = (- dE/dx)inel + (- dE/dx)rad (3-12)
C = :$ 5 I # (4T3) JP
(-dE/dx)rad C = (-dE/dx)inel # >
)#=5 #5= # (-dE/dx)tot # $ E
(-dE/dx)
rad
b
c
total
inel
a
66
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
E / mc2
(4T3)
#=5 #5= # :$ 5 I
0, E #=5 #5= # 2$3- & % F &

:$ 5 a 0 & % ) m0c2 ` #5=
c 0 & ! :$ 5 b 0 & # >
.:$ ` # $ % 3
Absorption of electrons $ ' + 433

: + 0 =$ E ! ;&/
2& % .# $% E 3. +
B $ =+ 0 / 23 %! ! 23 :. +/
# 23 # $% # &
: + %! = N3 E 0, #3P ) (5T3)
23 B 4 =$ 2 # $ #3 R3 ) 9
# R B4 N3 ) .( :5 0 & 1=$ 9
. >
2
3
67

النشاط الاشعاعي - المرحلة الثالثة

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النشاط الاشعاعي - المرحلة الثالثة

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 

"# # ( 5 ( 9 * +  (  

The atom  2 1

The proton  

The electron 

The neutron 

<# .# (  .# (/   ( $

%#& / . (/  * J / ,( '

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The isotopes '() 4 1

"  (( 3  (/  ( (( : 11H 1  

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The size and the mass of the nuclues    * 5 1

Atomic units of energy +("  ,* 6 1

,.  3 10 = ,.   (KeV)

,.  6 10 = ,.  (11 (MeV)

'  (/ +  .F>, ?,/  0  6

 4.18 = , 1

( < ) 27– 10 x 1.6555 =   ( ' 1

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/ & .  O,/  O,/ .   ( $

.   ( M ( '  )/(  ( * *

%$ Mp (   ( %$ Mn  ,0 '   ( M :J

   <( '  )/( F) R  

=     )/( F) * "6 'H (

%  '34 '(3 8 1

( + , . 9 )) (  < B1

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.C(  9\  [E  % ,(  B3

*  /( 6 226 < ' )F 7+ * B4

–   !+2 –   .# – # .# –  %4

/"0 1  ) Decay .#   *+, + 

α - decay   2–2

9&    % # !  7  =2 +, % 

β - decay   32

*5& % /0 !2

# .#  ?4       6.9

:The positron decay  !   

The electron capture    $% #

*V, .# *:   .# J   " %  KF; 9:

8V5   .# J  <%0 % K %  ; ! %4

6   .(anti - neutrino)%1     $ ν ′ ) 

4 >  4     92  ;  

Energy of β- particles  $& ' 232

7  U1 :   + )  $ =0  9: ) 

Gamma radiation &  ( 42

%V2 8V  V V ,  2  =2 +, % 

V < 0 6 0 *;      : *  " 

(I3–2/V+ ) 60 !V /"0 1  .# & / 

%V2 3V  1C 0 =2 =C   0 /   

The internal conversion )*  + 14–2

V  M  L  K +4 45  !, )

!, %0C    , 7 85   6.9

V+4 *; ,  7  198 8 0 *;

!,   ) K +4 *2 %0 8" %

K V+4 *5& % /0 <%0 * / 0 ) 

V+ V *V  % % .:  %  6 9:

X - rays $  % 52

 ) ,! $ % 152

AV# V0    5      +C $

Kβ1 = ( M3 –> K ) = 88.005 – 3.066 = 84.939 KeV

Lα1 Lβ1 Lα2

"# # ( 5 ( 9 * + (

The atom 2 1

The proton

The electron

The neutron

<# .# ( .# (/ ( $

%#& / . (/ * J / ,( '

Mass and atomic numbers $ % ! % 3 1

The isotopes '() 4 1

" (( 3 (/ ( (( : 11H 1

. + , 0( 5E (2B1) /

L# %#& (( + , 5E * "6 'H (

The size and the mass of the nuclues * 5 1

Atomic units of energy +(" ,* 6 1

,. 3 10 = ,. (KeV)

,. 6 10 = ,. (11 (MeV)

' (/ + .F>, ?,/ 0 6

4.18 = , 1

( < ) 27– 10 x 1.6555 = ( ' 1

The nuclear binding energy " +(" 7 1

/ & . O,/ O,/ . ( $

. ( M ( ' )/( ( * *

%$ Mp ( ( %$ Mn ,0 ' ( M :J

<( ' )/( F) R

= )/( F) * "6 'H (

% '34 '(3 8 1

( + , . 9 )) ( < B1

./ ( ./ (H ( %$ B2

.C( 9\ [E % ,( B3

* /( 6 226 < ' )F 7+ * B4

– !+2 – .# – # .# – %4

/"0 1 ) Decay .# *+, +

α - decay 2–2

9& % # ! 7 =2 +, %

β - decay 32

*5& % /0 !2

# .# ?4 6.9

:The positron decay !

The electron capture $% #

V, .# : .# J " % KF; 9:

8V5 .# J <%0 % K % ; ! %4

6 .(anti - neutrino)%1 $ ν ′ )

4 > 4 92 ;

Energy of β- particles $& ' 232

7 U1 : + ) $ =0 9: )

Gamma radiation & ( 42

%V2 8V V V , 2 =2 +, %

V < 0 6 0 ; : "

(I3–2/V+ ) 60 !V /"0 1 .# & /

%V2 3V 1C 0 =2 =C 0 /

The internal conversion )* + 14–2

V M L K +4 45 !, )

!, %0C , 7 85 6.9

V+4 ; , 7 198 8 0 ;

!, ) K +4 *2 %0 8" %

K V+4 5& % /0 <%0 / 0 )

V+ V *V % % .: % 6 9:

X - rays $ % 52

) ,! $ % 152

AV# V0 5 +C $

+- $ % 252

/ V =5; . #5 8" 0C E *; <%0 K 2

*5& %V /0 5 K+ 5 G9: 9 %

V V !V2 8"V 2 =2 +, %

K =5 ωK !2 8" <%0 / 0 ) =4

The radioactive decay 6–2

The radioactive decay law . ' 162

V: dt G %4 7 /"& G9: .# / 0 .9 =

The sample activity ) , 262

The half-life and mean-life $ / 3–6–2

V 3V+ V 5 ( *#V ) )

λ .# ! A 7 %0 F; *: %0 2 < 0

τ V %V K 9 +

) t1/2 / λ . 462

.( e = 2.71 ) *V AC $ > (ln) / < 0

λ .# ! A 7 %0 F; *: %0 2 < 0

τ V %V K 9 +

) t1/2 / λ . 462

.( e = 2.71 ) *V AC $ > (ln) / < 0

6V+ )V V % %0 K =2 +, %