INTERPRETASI SEISMIK REFLEKSI

KULIAH 7 – STRUKTUR GEOLOGI PADA REKAMAN SEISMIK

TEKNIK GEOFISIKA
FST - UNJA
JUVENTA
BJUVENTA@GMAIL.COM
 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY ON PETROLEUM SYSTEM?

• Hydrocarbon Trap

Alpha Beta
 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS - WHAT IS IT?

The analysis of all of the significant processes that

formed a basin and deformed its sedimentary fill
from basin-scale processes (e.g., plate tectonics)
to centimeter-scale processes (e.g., fracturing)
Some Major Elements:
• Basin Formation
• Fault Network Mapping
• Stratigraphic Deformation
• Present-Day Trap Definition
• Timing of Trap Development
 ROLE OF SEISMIC INTERPRETATION

• Identify and map faults, folds, uplifts, and other

structural elements
• Interpret structural settings and structural styles
• Insure 3D geometric consistency in an
interpretation - is it structurally valid?
• Determine timing relationships, especially the
timing of trap formation
• Check if the interpretation is admissibility
THE STRENGTHS OF SEISMIC DATA

• Inherently 3-D (even if a 2-D grid)

• Able to image trap-scale structures
• Able to image stratigraphy, to identify reservoir, seal,
and for use as structural markers, e. g. to constrain fault
offsets
• Provides a 3-D context for understanding other data
• surface geology
• well data
• potential field data
THE WEAKNESSES OF SEISMIC DATA

• Limited resolution: can’t resolve “small” features

• Steep dips can be difficult to image
• Acquisition can be difficult, e. g. in areas of: variable
topography, variable surface geology, or “hard” water
bottom
• Vertical axis is typically (migrated) time, not depth
• Velocity variations distort geometries
• Display scales are commonly not V:H=1:1, which results
in distortions of geometries
• Typically we can’t “see” hydrocarbons
A ‘SYNERGISTIC’ RELATIONSHIP

You can not get all You can not get all
of the structural of the stratigraphic
information information without
without working working the
the stratigraphy structure
 BASIC OBSERVATIONS: PROFILE VIEW

We can recognize moderate- to large-scale

faults on seismic profiles by:

• Termination of reflections
• Offset in stratigraphic markers
• Abrupt changes in dip
• Abrupt changes in seismic patterns
• Fault plane reflections
• Associated folding or sag
• Discontinuities
FAULT IDENTIFICATION: TIME SLICE VIEW
Do you see evidence for faults?

1856 ms
FAULT IDENTIFICATION: PROFILE VIEWS
A B C
A

N S W E
B
C

Faults must tie on

lines that intersect
or the interpretation tie
is not internally
consistent
INTERPRETING FAULTS

Structural Structural
Observations Concepts
INTERPRETING FAULTS
Structural
Observations
• Fault segments on seismic lines
• Fault plane orientation
• Sense of motion
• Magnitude of offset
• Range of depths
• Relative timing
– when faults moved
– when structures grew
Structural
Concepts
• Tectonic Setting
– Divergent zones
– Convergent zones
– Strike-slip zones
– Mobile substrate
• How Structures Evolve
– Fault-bend folds
– Fault-propagation folds
– Salt movement
– etc.
STRUCTURAL STYLES MATRIX

CONTRAC- UPLIFT,
EXTENSION LATERAL
TION SUBSIDENCE

extensional contractional strike-slip

BASEMENT basement
fault fault or wrench
INVOLVED warps
blocks blocks faulting

BASEMENT detached
fold-and- tear faults salt, shale
DETACHED normal
thrust belts (detached) diapirism
faulting
Courtesy of ExxonMobil

EXTENSIONAL FAULTS
basement involved basement detached

1 mile
STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS
Seismic Observations
are turned into
Stratigraphic Predictions
using Depositional Models

Seismic-Based EOD Map

Predicted Lithologies

Depositional Model
A CAUTION ABOUT SEISMIC IMAGES

Seismic data has a resolution that is not as fine

as most stratigraphers are use to working

Units are often 10s to 100s of meters thick

meters
500
SCALE OF STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION

• Using Outcrops or Cores High cm Very

60 Local
• Visually correlate laminae and 40
beds 20

• Units are centimeters thick 0

• Using Well Logs

Areal Extent
Well A Well B Well C
12

Resolution
– Pattern correlation of log 9

markers 6

– Units are meters thick 3

0
meters

• Using Seismic Data meters

– Seismic correlation of 300

bedsets and larger units 200

– Units are tens to hundreds 100

Basin-
of meters thick Low
0
wide
THE STRENGTHS OF SEISMIC DATA
• Good areal coverage
• Able to image major depositional units
• Able to identify potential source, reservoir, and seal
units
• Provides a stratigraphic framework within which
other data can be understood
• Well data
Vail et al., 1977a
• Basin fill history
• HC systems

AAPG©1977 reprinted with permission of the AAPG

whose permission is required for further use.
THE WEAKNESSES OF SEISMIC DATA
• Limited vertical and lateral resolution: can’t resolve “small” features
• Stratigraphic interpretation is limited by the quality of the seismic
data/imaging
• Seismic responses are non-unique – e.g., low amplitude could be a
massive sand or a thick shale
• In new areas, we often have to ‘jump’ correlate from adjacent
outcrops or basins
• Post-depositional erosion and/or structuring can hamper
stratigraphic correlations and paleo-depositional reconstructions
• Typically we can’t “see” hydrocarbons
TWO METHODS FOR CORRELATING

There are two basic ways to correlate stratigraphy:

• By rock type i.e., Lithostratigraphy

• By age-equivalence i.e., Chronostratigraphy

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
• Units are defined based on lithology
• Rock units vary in space and time
• Boundaries are subjective, and not physical
since lateral facies changes are gradational

‘A’ Sand
‘B’ Sand
‘B’ Sand

‘X’ Nonmarine Member

‘X’ Member
non-marine
‘A’ Sand
‘Z’ Shale ‘Z’ Shale
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY

• Units defined based on time-equivalent stratal

surfaces, natural stratigraphic subdivisions
• Chronozones vary in space but not time
• Correspond to physical boundaries, which can
generate reflections

Time Unit 1
Unit 3 Time Unit 2
Unit 2
Time Unit 3
Unit 1
QUESTION ???

What Do We Observe on Seismic Sections?

– Lithostratigraphic Units, or
– Chronostratigraphic Units?
A Thought Experiment:
– What geometry would we observe for a prograding
system

‘B’ Sand Unit 3

‘X’ Nonmarine Member Unit 2

Unit 1
‘A’ Sand
‘Z’ Shale

Lithostratigraphic? Chronostratigraphic?
ANSWER !!!

In a prograding depositional system, reflections

parallel stratal surfaces and therefore have time or
chronostratigraphic significance.
TERMINATIONS: BASE OF A SEQUENCE

Older
Older
Beds
Beds

Onlap
A base-discordant relationship
in which younger strata
terminate progressively against
a surface of greater inclination
Downlap
A base-discordant relationship
in which younger inclined strata
terminate progressively against
a surface of lower inclination

NOTE: These definitions are based on observed geometric relationships, not

on inferred depositional processes
TERMINATIONS: TOP OF A SEQUENCE
Younger Younger
Beds Beds

Erosion
A top-discordant relationship in
which strata terminate along an
unconformity surface due to
post-depositional erosion
Toplap
A top-discordant relationship in
which strata terminate against a
surface mainly as a result of
non-deposition (bypass)

NOTE: These definitions are based on observed geometric relationships

AND some inference about depositional processes
SEISMIC SEQUENCE
Mitchum et al., 1977a

Overlying Truncation
Toplap Unconformity

Underlying
Unconformity
Onlap

Downlap Internal
Convergence
AAPG©1977reprinted with permission of the AAPG whose permission is required for further use.

A depositional sequence is a relatively conformable succession of

genetically related strata bounded at its top and base by
unconformities or their correlative conformities.

A seismic sequence is a depositional sequence identified on a

seismic section
WHAT IS SEISMIC FACIES ANALYSIS?
Input: Seismic Data (2D or 3D)

Seismic Stratigraphic Analysis

– Define key stratigraphic intervals
• Seismic Sequence Analysis

– Determine the rock types within each interval

• Seismic Facies Analysis

Product: Prediction of Rock Types

– Sand within reservoir intervals
– Shale in overlying seal intervals & source intervals
DEFINITIONS
• Seismic Facies Unit
• a mappable, three dimensional seismic unit composed of
groups of reflections whose parameters differ from those of
adjacent facies units.

• Seismic Facies Analysis

• the description and geologic interpretation (environmental
setting, lithofacies, etc.) of seismic reflection parameters.

Mitchum et al., 1977a

REFLECTION FEATURES USED IN MAPPING

Feature Significance
Seismic • Impedance Contrasts
Amplitude (significant stratal surfaces)
• Bed Spacing / Tuning
• Fluid Content

Reflection • Depositional Processes

Geometry

Reflection • Lateral Stratal Continuity

Continuity • Depositional Processes

Wavelet • Bed Thickness

Frequency • Fluid Content
SEISMIC FACIES ANALYSIS

Seismic Sequence Analysis Mitchum et al., 1977b

Key Stratigraphic Units AAPG©1977reprinted with permission of the AAPG
whose permission is required for further use.
Are Broken Out

Seismic Facies Analysis

Geometric Relations Other Seismic Features

are Captured through are Extracted as
ABC Mapping Seismic Attributes

Carb.
Interpretation/Prediction Slope Shelf
Edge
• Patterns are used to Interpret EODs Reef Carbonate
• Lithologies / stacking are predicted Shelf
POSTING GEOMETRIC OBSERVATION

The ABC Method

Tr = Truncation On = Onlap

A - B
Tp = Toplap Dn = Downlap
C = Concordant C = Concordant

C
p = parallel m = mounded ob = oblique progradation
sub = subparallel w = wavy sig = sigmoid progradation
div = divergent rf = reflection free sh = shingled

A = Termination Pattern at the Upper Sequence Boundary

B = Termination Pattern at the Lower Sequence Boundary
C = Internal Reflection Pattern
INTERNAL REFLECTION PATTERNS

Stratified Unstratified

Simple Progradational Complex

• Parallel • Sigmoid • Mounded • Chaotic

• Subparallel • Oblique • Hummocky • Reflection
• Divergent • Combination • Deformed Free
• Shingled

For examples, see AAPG Memoir 26

SIMPLE STRATIFIED INTERNAL CONFIGURATIONS

Parallel - Even
Stratified

Simple Progradational Complex

Subparallel Divergent
PROGRADATIONAL INTERNAL
CONFIGURATIONS
Shingled
Stratified

Simple Progradational Complex

Sigmoid Oblique

Upbuilding (Aggradation) Outbuilding

(Progradation)
 COMPLEX INTERNAL CONFIGURATIONS
Courtesy of ExxonMobil L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis

Mounded

Stratified

Simple Progradational Complex

Hummocky Deformed
THE CLASSIC METHOD - AN EXAMPLE

C -On T -C T -Dn C -Dn C -C

P Ob Ob P P

Line B

Each Line is Subdivided into Seismic Facies Units

where Each Unit Differs from its Neighbors
Here Facies Units are based on Reflection Geometries
ABC CODES POSTED ON A MAP

Line A
C -C
P
10
Line B
10 20 30 40 50
C -On T -C T -Dn C -Dn C -C
P Ob Ob P P
20

T -C
Div
Line C 30

10 20 30 40 50
C -On T -C T -Dn C -Dn C -C
P Ob Ob P P
40
FACIES SYNTHESIS

Line A
C -C
P
10
Line B
10 20 30 40 50
C -On T -C T -Dn C -Dn C -C
P Ob 20 Ob P P
Wedge

T -C
Div
Zone of
Line C 30Progradation Sheet
10 20 30 40 50
C -On T -C T -Dn C -Dn C -C
P Ob Ob P P
40
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

Line A
10
Line B
10 20 30 40 50

Non-Marine 20
Marginal
Marine Slope
Line C 30 Basin
10 20 30 40 50

40
INFERRED LITHOLOGY - PREDICTION

Facies Model Prediction

Crevasse Splay
Sea Level
Channel Fill
Proximal
Distributary
Mouth Bar

Delta Front Sandstone Distal

Distributary
Delta Front Siltstone Mouth Bar
Pro-Delta Shales
Delta Front
Offshore Clay
Prodelta
TIME FOR ANOTHER EXERCISE

Woodbine: Onshore East Texas

Line 1a
Line 1

OTC©1979 reprinted with permission of the OTC

Ramsayer, 1979
whose permission is required for further use.
LINE 1
Well C Well D

OTC©1979 reprinted with permission of the OTC Ramsayer, 1979

whose permission is required for further use.
ABC-CODED MAP

Well C

Well D

OTC©1979 reprinted with permission of the OTC Ramsayer, 1979

whose permission is required for further use.
ABC SYNTHESIS

Well C

Well D

OTC©1979 reprinted with permission of the OTC Ramsayer, 1979

whose permission is required for further use.
Courtesy of ExxonMobil L 11 – Stratigraphic Analysis

INTERPRETED DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

OTC©1979 reprinted with permission of the OTC Ramsayer, 1979

whose permission is required for further use.
TERIMA KASIH, SAMPAI BERJUMPA DI KULIAH
BERIKUTNYA