EASC 612: Seismic Stratigraphy

Lecture 1&2

University of Ghana
Second Semester 2015
 EASC612 - Syllabus
• The aim of this course is to introduce students to seismic stratigraphy, which involves identifying and
interpreting unconformities and other reflector terminations such as offlaps and onlaps.
• Topics covered in the lectures include:
• (i) the stratigraphic significance of seismic reflectors
• (ii) identification of depositional sequences
• (iii) age determination of depositional sequences
• (iv) recognition and analysis of the seismic facies present in terms of reflector geometry, continuity
and amplitude and mapping their distribution, and
• (v) Application of seismic stratigraphy in oil industry
• Hands-on exercises provide practice in:
• (i) identifying examples of reflection terminations (onlap, downlap, toplap)
• (ii) identifying depositional sequence boundaries on seismic sections on the basis of reflector
terminations,
• (iii) How to recognize stratigraphic surfaces from seismic section
• (iv) identifying different seismic facies on seismic sections,
• (v) making plots of coastal onlap and constructing chronostratigraphic summary chart from suitable
seismic sections or geological cross-sections
 Scope of Sequence Stratigraphy
• It is essential to our understanding of the marine sedimentary processes which
produce hydrocarbon source rocks, reservoirs, and seals.

• It gives us a well-defined methodology for analyzing sedimentary strata and

predicting subsurface lithologies. This methodology integrates data from a variety
of exploration disciplines and tools.

• Sequence stratigraphy is often confused with seismic stratigraphy, which

represents only one of the tools used by the sequence stratigrapher.
• Seismic stratigraphy, however, represents the most important step in the
development of sequence stratigraphy, and without it sequence stratigraphy
could not have evolved to its present state.

• We use the term seismic sequence stratigraphy to emphasize an integrated

approach to the interpretation of sedimentary strata that incorporates seismic,
well log and biostratigraphic data.
 Principles of Seismic Stratigraphy
• Seismic stratigraphy is a technique for interpreting
stratigraphic information from seismic data

• The fundamental principle of seismic stratigraphy is

that within the resolution of the seismic method,
seismic reflection follow gross bedding and as such
they approximate timelines

• Main Point: Correlative impedance contrasts

represented on seismic data come from bedding
interfaces and not lateral facies
 Seismic Stratigraphy
1. Seismic stratigraphy was based on the assumption that
seismic reflectors follow bedding surfaces across facies
boundaries

2. Seismic reflectors represent time lines or isochrons.

3. Seismic stratigraphy also assumed that unconformities are

surfaces along which major seismic reflections terminate.
 Seismic reflections follow gross bedding surfaces. Impedance
contrasts are abrupt across bedding planes and gradual across
facies boundaries
 Seismic Data and Stratigraphic Information

• In the past, nearly all stratigraphic targets were

defined by stepping downdip from an oil or gas seep
on the surface or stepping updip from an oil or gas
show (an indication that oil and/or gas is in the
vicinity) indicated on well logs or in well cuttings.
• Although in the past explorationists had at least
some information to base their prospect on, it was
still a risky proposition; the wildcatter did not know
how far down- or updip to drill to find the trap, or
even if there was a trapping mechanism at all.
Seismic Data and Stratigraphic Information

• The best tool we have to explore for stratigraphic

traps today is seismic data, although geochemical
surveys or remote sensing techniques can
provide additional sources of information.
•
• We use seismic data not only to map structure,
but also to predict lateral facies and porosity
changes, fluid type changes, the presence of
fractures, etc.
Seismic Data and Stratigraphic Information
• There are two different methods for extracting stratigraphic
information from seismic data.
•
• The first method, called sequence, or seismic, stratigraphy, uses a
geologic approach

• It relates seismic reflection patterns, or sequences such as onlap and

offlap, to regional and worldwide depositional or erosional events.

• This method is the result of work done by P. R. Vail and his

colleagues and is directed to large-scale interpretations and studies,
such as basin analyses.
Seismic Section
SEISMIC INTERPRETATION
Seismic Data and Stratigraphic Information
• We can also use seismic data to extract stratigraphic information for small-
scale interpretations, like prospect evaluation.

• This method, called seismic stratigraphic modeling, has two approaches.

• In the first approach, called forward, or direct, modeling, seismic data serve
as guides for comparison of output from seismic simulations of geologic
models.

• In the second approach, called inverse, or indirect, modeling, we use seismic

data as the input to models which simulate geologic and well log data.
• We can also use stratigraphic modeling to estimate lithology or lithologic
parameters in structural settings as well.
Regional Line-Offshore Ghana
 Stratigraphic Acquisition

• In order for us to interpret our seismic sections for stratigraphic objectives, the
data must be exceptional.

• When we are looking for lateral facies changes, porosity changes, fluid
contacts, thickness changes, etc., the seismic data must be of such high quality
that we can observe and measure the slightest change in amplitude,
waveform, and traveltime.

• The wavelet is the dominant factor in obtaining the high-resolution seismic

data we require for stratigraphic interpretation.

• Therefore, any seismic acquisition and processing programs for stratigraphic

purposes should focus on the wavelet, and should consider both its shape and
frequency.
Stratigraphic Acquisition
 Stratigraphic Processing

• When processing seismic data, we are concerned

with maximizing not only the vertical resolution- i.e.,
retaining the higher frequencies-as we were during
acquisition, but also the horizontal resolution.

• We improve vertical resolution using deconvolution,

filtering and wavelet processing

• We improve horizontal resolution using migration.

Stratigraphic Processing
 Resolution

• In order for us to see our stratigraphic trap on our

seismic section, the dimensions (width and thickness)
of the trap must exceed the limitations of both the
reflection method and the acquisition and processing
parameters we are using.

• Resolution is the ability to observe the slightest changes

in seismic response.

• These subtle changes may indicate stratigraphic traps.

 Resolution

• We express resolution in two directions:

– the lateral direction (x-direction, horizontal, or plan view, i.e.,

width) and

– the vertical direction (z-direction, time, or depth, i.e., thickness).

• There are several ways we can improve the resolution of

our seismic data and better image our stratigraphic target.
Resolution
 Resolution

• If, prior to data acquisition, we know that we are exploring for stratigraphic
traps, we can modify our routine acquisition parameters accordingly.

• For example, we can increase the lateral resolution of our data if we simply
decrease the shot interval and record more traces per horizontal unit of
measure.

• Or we can move the receiver arrays closer together.

• In a 3-D seismic program, these procedures decrease the bin size.

• Similarly, we can improve the vertical resolution of our seismic data by

reducing the sample rate or reducing the size of the charge if we are using
dynamite.
 Crossline 470 (East)

N S
Seal (unconformity)

Reservoirs

Source
Vertical Resolution
 Vertical Resolution

• Vertical resolution is a function of the thickness of the subject layer, the frequency of
the source wavelet as it propagates through the layer, and the velocity of the layer.

• These three parameters help define the two criteria we use to describe the limitations
of vertical resolution: tuning thickness and critical resolution thickness.

• Tuning thickness is the thickness of a bed at which reflections from its upper and lower
interfaces interfere constructively and form one reflector.

• This one reflector is characterized by having a greater amplitude than if the two
reflectors had occurred separately.

• We must be careful not to mistake this increased amplitude associated with tuning as a
bright spot, a local increase in amplitude on a seismic section that may indicate a
hydrocarbon accumulation, causing us to drill a dry well.
Vertical Resolution
EXAMPLE
 Improving Resolution of Seismic Data
• Resolution is a measure of our ability to see two
closely spaced objects as separate;

• Ability to see separate reflections from the top and

base of a rock layer; detect the presence of small
channels, faults etc.

• It increases our ability to detect zones of porosity

within a rock layer, see fluid contacts, delineate
permeability barriers etc.
 Seismic Resolution
– 3D seismic Data
Aids in :
• Reservoir facies mapping - reservoir distribution :
lithology,
• isopach etc– Reservoir properties mapping - porosity
• Locating / define fluid contacts
- 4D Seismic
• – Monitoring fluid fronts – Structure & stratigraphic
interpretations
 Lateral Resolution
• Lateral (Horizontal) Resolution: It is separation
of features along a seismic reflection.

• It is the Ability to see small lateral changes-

faults, channels, carbonates mounding, local
zones of porosity etc.
Levee Channel on Seismic
What do you see?
What do you see?
What do you see?
What do you see?
What do you see?