Business Communication Full Note PDF

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Business Communication
Unit I
The Communication Process
The communication process comprises the following steps and is shown below:
Encoding – The sender has an idea and wants to share it. He/she selects words and their order for a
message.
Message channel – The sender transmits the message. To physically transmit a message to a
receiver, you select a communication channel, which is the medium that will carry a message from
the sender to the receiver.
Noise – Literally or figuratively, anything that interfaces with a message.
Decoding – The receiver decodes he message. The receiver must decode (absorb and understand)
the message. The translation of a message by a receiver.
Feedback – The receiver sends feedback. After decoding the message, the receiver responds in some
way and signals that response to the sender, verbally or non-verbally.
Communication Process
The Linear Concept

o Passive communication/one-way communication.
o This is the earliest conceptualization of communication.
o A receiver passively receives the message and acts as directed or desired by the sender
o Assumed that the message reaches the receiver without any distortion or change
o There is no response from the receiver of the message.
o audio tapes and CDs; videotapes; manuals; printed materials; faxes; radio and TV broadcasts
are some examples.
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Shannon Weaver Model
o Communication is a reciprocal process and a mutual exchange of messages
o The two-way concept involves receiver as an active agent in the construction of meaning of
the message
Methods of Communication
1. One way communication: Where only ‘sending messages’ is possible in an organization.

Some examples of one way communication tools employed in an organization are:
a. Memo
b. Fax
c. E-mail
d. Voice Mail
e. Letters
2. Two-way communication: Here sending and receiving messages between people is possible
simultaneously, for example by:
a. Telephone
b. In Person
3. Collaborative Communication: This is when multiple parties are involved in the

communication process and ideas can be exchanged, as in:
a. Team meetings
b. Consulting
c. Consensus
d. Decision making
e. Group problem solving
f. Video conferencing
g. Audio conferencing
h. Chat
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Goals of Communication
1. Making the receiver understand

2. Receiver’s response
3. Favourable relationship
4. Organizational goodwill
The Seven Cs of Effective Communication
All seven Cs apply to both oral and written communication. They are based on a common
concern for the audience.
1. Completeness
A message is complete when it contains all the facts the reader or listener needs for the
desired reaction. Message receivers, either listeners or readers, require complete
information to their questions.
Guidelines for complete messages:
a) Provide all necessary information: Answer all the Ws – Who, What,
Where, When and Why for thorough and accurate understanding.
b) Answer all questions asked: Look for questions buried within paragraphs.
Locate them and answer them precisely.
c) Give something extra when desirable: Use your judgement in offering
additional material if the sender’s message was incomplete.
2. Conciseness
Conciseness is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing
the other C qualities. This saves time and expense for both sender and receiver and shows
respect for recipients.
3. Consideration
Consideration means preparing every message with the receivers in mind, try to put you in
their place. Do not lose your temper, do not accuse and do not charge them without facts.
4. Concreteness
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite and vivid rather than vague and
general.
5. Clarity
Clarity means giving the correct meaning to the readers.
6. Courtesy
Courtesy is awareness, not only of others’ perspective, but also their feelings.
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7. Correctness
Correctness comprises proper grammar, punctuation and spelling.
4Ss
The 4Ss are as follows:
Sincerity: The sincerity shows up in the tone of communication and the language used in writing.
Shortness: Shortness means the ability of the sender to draft his message in a crisp and simple style.
Long sentences or paragraphs make reading difficult for readers.
Simplicity: The sender’s ability to make a message as simple as possible. The ability to understand
and explain even the most complex issues in a simple way is one of the essential skills of
communication.
Strength: The strength of any message comes from the fact that it conveys the meaning intended
and does not distract itself from the central theme.
Types of Communication Skills
Good communication is essential to succeed in business. The process is supported by various skills of
communication such as oral presentations, memo writing, basic grammar, informal report writing
and analytical report writing. The skills required have been agreed upon by a hundred randomly
selected executives from Fortune 500 companies.
1. Visual Skills
Studies of comprehension endorse the value of visual support. When spoken and visual
stimuli are combined, enhanced learning occurs. Research shows that there is a speed
advantage of learning from pictures, as pictures evoke mental images. However, despite
knowing the importance of the visual element of communication, it is often learning occurs.
The distinction between forms of visual communication is extended to four basic intellectual
skills: literacy, numeracy, articulacy and graphicacy. Now with technological advancement,
technical literacy will determine one’s ability to communicate through the other four kinds
of literacy.
2. Written Skills
The ability to write with clarity, precision, brevity and force of logic is now regaining
importance. Even with technological literacy, the ability to write and the power of the
written word has emerged and importance of written communication tops the table.
3. Spoken Skills
Spoken communication is very vital and demands more training. A study of engineering
graduates found that oral skills are more frequently used than written skills at the initial
corporate levels. Employers lay a much heavier emphasis on oral communication than
educators, who stress the importance of written communication and the theoretical aspects
of communication. Equally important is listening.
4. Reading Skills
Business persons should read books, industry magazines, financial newspapers, etc
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Characteristics of Oral Communication
Oral communication can be broadly classified into two types. They are formal oral communication
and informal oral communication. When a person speaks to people in an official environment, such
as addressing a meeting, participating in a group discussion then the person is practising formal oral
communication.
No-verbal communication takes place through body language, attire, eye contact etc. while a person
conversing with a colleague or talking to someone over lunch.
The following are the characteristics of oral communication:
It is an instant process: Oral communication is an instant process. There is no delay in message

delivery as the person speaks directly to the person concerned. However, a challenge may come up
when the audience is virtually connected to you through videoconferencing. There may be poor or
no network.
It has at least two parties involved in it: Oral communication is affected strongly by the non verbal
cues that are consciously or unconsciously sent along with it. Non-verbal cues, such as body
language, voice pitch, tone etc., affect oral communication to a great extent.
It usually has no proof: Probably the biggest disadvantage or oral communication is that it leaves
behind no proof and either of the parties involved in the conversation may deny it later, unless it is
recorded, or it has occurred in the presence of a number of people. If done without consideration,
oral communication can also be very damaging, as the message once sent can hardly be retrieved.
Principles of Oral Communication
There are four basic principles of effective oral communication. They are as follows:
1. Accuracy: When communicating orally, the speaker should make sure what is being
transmitted. Speaker should refrain from disclosing information that was not checked or
confirmed by the competent authority.
2. Preciseness: It is necessary to be precise in what is being communicated. Being precise
would keep the listeners engaged.
3. Clarity: Organize and deliver. Be clear in what has to be said.
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4. Courtesy: It is very important to be courteous while speaking. Speaker must be courteous to

people and be sensitive to their opinions. It is highly unprofessional to speak with a lack of
courtesy.
Types of Oral Communication
Oral communication can be for formal or informal occasions, as we have discussed earlier. It can be
further classified into two:
Formal communication is practised amongst two or more individuals and is official or work related,
whereas informal oral communication takes place amongst two or more individuals and is casual or
not work-related.
For example, formal oral communication with individuals occurs on occasions such as a one-to-one
performance appraisal with boss or a discussion on a project with a colleague, or a meeting on an
official issue that may not require involving all the people within a team. Formal oral communication
amongst a group takes place at formal meetings, discussions or videoconferencing, or during formal
presentations.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication
Advantages Disadvantages
1. It is an effective way to communicate to 1. It has no proof: The biggest

larger audiences: If we send emails to disadvantage of oral communication is
large groups, all persons may not read that it does not leave behind any
the emails at the same time or may not evidence of its occurrence. Although
pay the same attention. both the parties may agree on a certain
2. It saves time: Drafting and composing issue, there are chances of one of them
messages can take time. The best way to backing out at any time.
avoid delay is to talk to people or over 2. It can lead to misunderstand: As oral
phone. communication takes place, face-to-face
3. It generates immediate feedback in or over the phone, a difference of
almost all cases: Oral communication opinion could spark into a disagreement
allows immediate interaction with the and misunderstanding. This conflict
person or group concerned and thereby occurs because of miscommunication.
generates immediate feedback in most The ‘way of saying’ or the tone of
cases. speaker’s voice could also give cause for
4. It gives an opportunity to try to misunderstanding.
persuade a person: It is easier to 3. It cannot be used to pass on long
persuade someone through a one-on- messages effectively: If a message is
one conversation than through a written long – for example, the annual report of
message. In tough situations, it is better a company that needs to be discussed
to hold face-to-face conversations than with the employees or a new policy – it
to use any other mode to communicate. cannot be discussed effectively through
an oral medium. Some part of the
message or the whole message has to be
passed on through written
communication.
4. It will not be effective if distantly
located participants are involved:
Although companies are connecting to
their various stakeholders, across the
globe through teleconferencing and
videoconferencing, technical snags may
hinder communication.
Barriers to Effective Communication
Barriers act as circuit breakers in the process of communication and must be overcome as they
may act as hindrances and must, at all costs, be avoided for an effective communication process.
Broadly, Barriers to effective communication are classified as:
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1. Physical Barriers
2. Mechanical Barriers (Channel Noise)
3. Psychological Barriers
4. Linguistic Barriers (Semantic noise)
I. Physical Barriers
a. Noise. Noise is quite often a barrier to communication. In factories, oral communication is

rendered difficult by the loud noise of machines. Electronic noise like blaring often interferes in
communication by telephone or loudspeaker system. The word 'noise' is also used to refer to all
kinds of physical interference like illegible handwriting, smudged copies of duplicated typescript,
poor telephone connections, etc.
b. Time & distance. Time and distance also act as barriers to the smooth flow of communication. The
use of telephone along with computer technology has made communication very fast and has, to a
large extent, overcome the space barrier. However, sometimes mechanical breakdowns render
these facilities ineffective.
In such cases, the distance between the transmitter and the receiver becomes a mighty barrier.
Some factories run in shifts. There is a kind of communication gap between persons working in
different shifts. Faulty seating arrangement in the room can also become a barrier to effective
communication, for whichever seats the employees may be occupying, they definitely want an eye
contact with one another.
1. Semantic barriers
a. Interpretation of words. Most of the communication is carried on through words, whether
spoken or written. But words are capable of communicating a variety of meanings. It is quite
possible that the receiver of it message does not assign the same meaning to a word as the
transmitter had intended. This may lead to miscommunication. Murphy and Peck in their
book Effective Business Communications mention that in an abridged dictionary, the little
word 'run' has 71 meanings as a verb, another 35 as a noun, and 4 more as an adjective. If
this word occurs in a message, the receiver is at liberty to interpret it in any of the 110
senses, but if communication is to be perfect, he must assign to it the same meaning as
existed in the sender's mind when he used it.
What is the meaning of the word 'value'? What do we exactly mean when we say, "Radium
is a valuable metal"? Do we refer to its utility or its price? Or both? Peter Little in
Communication in Business asks us to consider the following six sentences:
(i) What is the value of this ring?
(ii) What is the value of learning about communication? (iii) I value my good name.
(iii) I got good value for my money.
(iv) There is something wrong with the tone values in all his paintings.
(v) A crochet* has twice the value of the quaver.*
There is no need to refer to Economics and economic interpretations to understand that in
these six sentences, the word 'value' has a series of meanings, or more accurately, a series of
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areas of meaning. It is only from the context that we can determine which area of meaning
is to be assigned to a particular word. But on account of different social, economic, cultural
and educational backgrounds, people interpret even the contexts differently. The result is
miscommunication.
2. Bypassed instructions. Bypassing is said to have occurred if the sender and the receiver of
the message attribute different meanings to the same word or use different words for the
same meaning. Murphy and Pack have given a classic example of how bypassed instructions
can play havoc with the communication process:
An office manager handed to a new assistant one letter with the instruction, "Take it to our
stockroom and burn it." In the office manager's mind (and in the firm's jargon) the word
"burn" meant to make a copy on a company machine which operated by a heat process. As
the letter was extremely important, she wanted an extra copy. However, the puzzled new
employee, afraid to ask questions, burned the letter with a lighted match and thus
destroyed the only existing copy.
3. Denotations and connotations. Words have two types of meanings: denotative and
connotative . The literal meaning of a word is called its denotative meaning. It just informs
and names objects without indicating any positive or negative qualities. Words like 'table',
'book', 'accounts', 'meeting' are denotative.
In contrast, connotative meanings arouse qualitative judgments and personal reactions.

'Honest', 'competent', 'cheap', 'sincere', etc., are connotative words.
Some of these words like 'honest', 'noble', 'sincere“ are favorable connotations; others like
'cowardly', 'slow', 'incompetent' have unfavorable connotations. But there also exist a large
number of troublesome words that have favorable connotations in certain contexts and
unfavorable connotations in others. One such word is 'cheap'. Look at the following two
sentences:
They gave us cheap stuff.
At this shop, they sell things cheap.
In the first sentence 'cheap' refers to quality and has an unfavorable connotation, in the
second one it refers to prices and is used favorably.
The reality of an object, an event, or a person is different to different people. Reality is not a fixed
concept; it is complex, infinite and continually changing. Besides, each human being has limited
sensory perceptions and a unique mental filter. No two persons perceive reality in identical
manners. On account of different abstractions, inferences, and evaluations, they comprehend reality
in a different way. This may sometimes lead miscommunication.
1. Abstracting. Abstracting may be defined as the process of focusing attention on some details
and omitting others. In numerous cases, abstracting is both necessary and desirable, for it
may save us valuable time, space and money .
But abstracting poses a grave barrier to communication, for details which look pertinent to
one reporter may look insignificant or trivial to another. We do not make allowances for
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these differences, and misunderstandings arise. Very often, we yield to the 'allness' fallacy.
We believe that whatever we know or say about an object or event is all that is worth
knowing or saying about it. And unfortunately the less we know, the more sure we feel that
we know it all. We can overcome this barrier if we constantly keep in mind that an abstract
can never be the whole story:
(i) While abstracting, we should try to make our abstract as fairly representative of the
whole situation as possible.
(ii) We should realize that others can pick different ideas and facts from the same situation
and we should be mentally prepared to consider what they have to say about it.
2. Slanting: 'Slanting' is giving a particular bias or slant to the reality. In a way, slanting is similar to
allness. In allness, we know only a part and are ignorant of the rest, but we think that we know the
whole. In slanting, we are aware of the existence of other aspects, but we deliberately select a few
and make them representative of the whole. Unfortunately, the aspects that we select are usually
unfavorable.
If a man is accustomed to heavy drinking, we dub him as a drunkard and tend to forget that he might
also be a good friend, a loyal employee and a kind-hearted man. If one executive of a firm is held
guilty of fraud, we begin to suspect every other executive and the image of the firm is spoiled. The
overcome this barrier, we should try to be objective in our observations and assessments and we
should try to avoid the mistake of judging the whole by what might be only a fraction of it.
3. Inferring. What we directly see, hear, feel, taste, smell or can immediately verify and confirm
constitutes a fact. But the statements that go beyond facts and the conclusions based on facts are
called inferences. When we drop a letter in the post box, we assume that it will be picked up and
carried to the post office. If rains fail, we can infer that prices will go up. Some of these inferences
are fairly reliable.
While drawing inferences, we should carefully distinguish between facts and assumptions and make
sure that our inferences are based on verifiable facts.
III. Socio-psychological barriers
1. Attitudes and opinion: Personal, attitude and opinion often act as barriers to effective
communication. If an information agrees with· our opinions and attitudes, we tend to
receive it comfortably. It fits comfortably in the filter of our mind. But if an information
disagrees with our views or tends to run contrary to our accepted beliefs; we do not react
favorably. If a change in the policy of an organization proves advantageous to an employee/
he welcome it as good; if it affects him adversely, he rejects it as the whim of the Director.
2. Emotions. Emotional states of mind play an important role in the act of communication. If
the sender is perplexed, worried, excited, afraid, nervous, his thinking will be blurred and he
will not be able to organize his message properly. The state of his mind is sure to be
reflected in his message. It is a matter of common observation that people caught in a
moment of fury succeed only in violent gesticulation. If they try to speak, they falter and
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keep on repeating the same words. In the same way, the emotions of the receiver also affect
the communication process. If he is angry, he will not take the message in proper light.
3. Closed mind. A person with a closed mind is very difficult to communicate with. He is a man
with deeply ingrained prejudices. And he is not prepared to reconsider his opinions. He is
the kind of man who will 'say, "Look, my mind is made up. I know what I know. And I do not
want to know anything else. So just don/t bother me." You approach such a man with a new
proposal to improve his business and he will immediately retort, "Look here gentleman, do
you presume that you know my business better than I know? I have been in this line for the
last twenty years. What can you teach me?" Such a person is not open to conviction and
persuasion. And in all likelihood, he has not learnt anything in the twenty years he has been
in business.
If closed-minded people can be encouraged to state their reasons for rejecting a message or
a proposal, they may reveal deep-rooted prejudices/' opinions and emotions. Perhaps, one
can make an attempt to counteract those prejudices, opinions, etc. But if they react only
with anger and give a sharp rebuff to anyone who tries to argue with them, they preclude all
possibility of communication.
4. Status-consciousness. Status consciousness exists in every organization and is one of the

major barriers to effective communication. Subordinates are afraid of communicating
upward any unpleasant information. They are either too conscious of their inferior status or
too afraid of being snubbed. Status-conscious superiors think that consulting their juniors
would be compromising their dignity.
Status-consciousness proves to be a very serious barrier to face-to-face communication. The
subordinate feels jittery and nervous, fidgets about where he is standing, falters in his
speech and fails in communicating what exactly he wanted to say. The officer, on the other
hand, reveals impatience and starts giving comments or advice before he has fully heard his
subordinate. Consequently, there is a total failure of communication; the subordinate
returns to his seat dissatisfied and simmering inside, while the officer resumes his work with
the feeling that his employees have no consideration for the value of his time and keep on
pestering him for nothing.
5. The source of communication. If the receiver has a suspicion about or prejudice against
the source of communication, there is likely to be a barrier to communication. People often
tend to react more according to their attitude to the source of facts than to the facts
themselves. Think of an executive in the habit of finding fault with his employees. If once in
a while he begins with a compliment, the employees immediately become suspicious and
start attributing motives to the compliment. If a statement emanates from the grapevine,
the manager will not give credence to it, but the same statement coming from a trusted
supervisor will immediately be believed.
6. Inattentiveness. People often become inattentive while receiving a message in particular,

if the message contains a new-idea. The human mind usually resists-change, for change
makes things uncertain. It also threatens security and stability. So the moment a new idea is
presented to them, they unconsciously become inattentive.
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7. Faulty transmission. A/message is never communicated from one person to another in its
entirety. This is true in particular of oral messages. If a decision has been taken hy the Board
of Directors, it must be in the form of a lengthy resolution. This resolution cannot be passed
on to the factory workers in the same form. It has to be 'translated' in simple language so
that they may easily understand it. But translation can never be perfect. In the process of
interpretation, simplification and translation, a part of the message gets lost or distorted. A
scientific study of the communication process has revealed that successive transmissions of
the same message are decreasingly accurate. In oral communications, something in the
order of 30 per cent of the information is lost in each transmission.
8. Poor retention. Poor retention of communication also acts as a barrier. Studies show that
employees retain only about 50 per cent of the information communicated to them. The rest
is lost. Thus if information is communicated through three or four stages, very little reaches
the destination, and of that very little also only a fraction is likely to be retained. Poor
retention may lead to imperfect responses, which may further hamper the communication
process.
9. Unsolicited communication. Unsolicited communication has to face stronger barriers than

solicited communication. If I seek advice, it should be presumed that I will listen to it. But if a
sales letter comes to me unsolicited, it is not very sure that I will pay much attention to it.
Understanding Business Communication
The Importance of Communication in Management
Communication skills constitute an important aspect of effective management. Management is a

complex process. In simple terms, it can be described as the organization of capital, labour, and
material to achieve production and distribution of particular goods or services.
First, the management determines its objectives – what it must do and how it must do it. Then,
there has to be a system through which the production and distribution processes can be guided,
coordinated and controlled to ensure that the management objectives are achieved. Communication
is the system by which production and distribution operations are controlled and coordinated and
the results correlated to the objectives.
The success in business depends not only on what you communicate bt also on how well you
communicate. The success and failure of the individual employee and the organization will depend
on your interaction with internal and external customers. Internal customers of a company refers to
its employees, whereas external customers refer to suppliers, government, shareholders and the
media.
Effective business communications helps in multiple ways. The primary benefits of effective
communication are as follows:
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Better interpersonal relationships
It is extremely essential to maintain good understanding with internal and external customers. This
is essential to run the daily operations in the organization efficiently. Good communication
translates into better relationships with employees and customers. It is a vital pre-requisite to
becoming a good leader.
Better information availability
Information flowing smoothly across the organization is critical and so is the availability of
information at the right time and place. The information flow becomes smooth with effective
communication. It is extremely crucial in almost all business functions and departments. Many
problems can be quickly resolved by efficient dissemination of information. It also results into strong
feedback mechanisms.
Better decision-making
Better communication means better information flow and, therefore, decision-making becomes
easy. Decision-making becomes relevant and easy when decisions are made on the basis of facts
rather than assumptions. Better decision-making helps in solving problems faster. Better
communication helps to build a better company image, recognize and remove bottlenecks, improve
productivity amongst employees, and ensure high level of employee satisfaction.
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Communication in an Organization
The need for communication in any organization can be divided into three basic types. They are:
communicate to inform, to convince and or to request.
Communicate to inform
When we communicate to convey information or knowledge then its communicate to inform

category. For example, when a company informs its shareholders about how the company is doing
or the progress.
Communicate to convince
The second type of communication is what is said when we are trying to convince about our ideas or
products. Example, when we try to convince a buyer to buy our product or when we try to convince
our team regarding a new idea or proposal.
Communicate to request
The third type of communication is what is conveyed when we are requesting for some information
or data. For example, when we have to report the figures of sales, we request the concerned sales
team for data.
These messages when summed up flow within and outside an organization in multiple ways or
mediums. Any message that flows within the organization is internal communication and anything
that moves outside is called external communication.
Internal Communication (Formal)
Internal communication is called formal when the communication happens within an organization in
a planned and systematic manner. It may be from the top management to the junior-level
employees, or it might also cut across horizontals, such as the communication between the
production manager and the human resources manager for the recruitment of employees on the
production floor. Internal formal communication can be through emails, conference calls, telephone,
messaging services, intranet, and corporate blogs.
Internal Communication (Informal)
Internal communication is called informal when employees meet over lunch or have short
discussions in the washroom or at lunch. It can also happen through emails, messenger chats, blogs
face-to face talks, and phone calls. It could be over the latest trend in office, the recent New Year
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Party etc. Informal communication network may also be on office-related issues. Informal internal
communication helps reduce stress at work and also gives a good breather from everyday work.
Managers should ensure that the formal communication demonstrates the qualities that he wants
his unit to possess, such as openness, clarity, and professionalism. As a result, the informal
communication will also become more productive. However, rigid rules, policies and hierarchies that
prevent employees from discussing their grievances, result in gossiping.
Grapevine
A phenomenon called the grapevine is present in every organization. The grapevine is a way of
expressing ourselves, venting out our emotions, and reinstating the fact that humans are social
beings. It is an informal communication channel that exists across organizations and cuts across all
boundaries. The popular belief that grapevine passes on rumours and gossips, is only a part of the
truth. Grapevines sometimes pass on critical and vital information, which when tapped can give very
important clues and understanding the state of affairs. It is bound to be present and cannot be
controlled. The grapevine is an essential part of the workplace for the following reasons:
1. It helps release stress: A lot of work-related stress and frustrations can be eased out
through the grapevine. The opportunity for employees to share their grievances enables
them to cope with the work pressures in a better fashion.
2. It provides feedback: The grapevine provides feedback on the overall quality of the
workplace. The feedback can be utilized to introduce the changes required.
3. It provides a lot of new ideas: A lot of new, innovative and valuable information can be
filtered from the grapevine. This information can be validated and used appropriately.
4. It helps in planning: A lot of planning can be done by foreseeing what may be coming up.
For instance, arrangement to deal with a possible strike or resignation in the future cen be
made by the management in time.
Characteristics of Grapevine
The grapevine has the following characteristics:
1. A lot of information passes through the medium (credibility needs to be verified)

2. Everywhere in the organization the grapevine exists. It can never cease to exist.
3. Grapevine is an informal mode of communication, the message spreads fast.
The disadvantages of grapevine are as follows:

a. It can cause damage to the organizational image – If uncontrolled it causes a lot of
damage to the organization. Rumours can cause great deal of problems and
misunderstandings, resulting in the damage to the company’s image.
b. It may not always be reliable – One cannot blindly accept the information obtained from
the grapevine. The facts should be validated before taking action.
c. The grapevine can be counterproductive – The grapevine cannot be the primary and the
only source of information. Too much reliance on rumours may waste resources and
time.
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d. The original source cannot be traced – Some people may purposely raise a noise on the
basis of some perception and therefore, it may require the attention or action on behalf
of the management. The information should always be validated.
Effective managers do not try to stop the grapevine; instead, they use it to their advantage
in tapping useful information and taking necessary steps to check issues that may need
attention. For example, if there is a rumour that a lot of employees are going to quit this
quarter, managers should take proactive steps in understanding whether this actually is
true. The grapevine in a controlled state can give fruitful results. However, if the grapevine is
left unchecked, it can cause severe damage to the reputation and culture of the
organization.
External Communication
External communication can be divided into two. Formal and Informal.
Formal
External formal communication takes place when official interaction occurs with outsiders
(customers, vendors, and suppliers), for example, on the occasion of shareholder’s meet,
advertisements of products and services, meeting with suppliers and governmental
agencies. This interaction is an important part of business, especially because companies are
dependent on external parties for business. Besides, with reference to the various business
processes and decisions, the organizations are also responsible to the government, in
particular, and to society, at large. Hence proper communication channels must be
maintained with them.
Informal
External informal communication is a casual conversation with external vendors such as

suppliers, employees in another organization, contractors and even customers.
The content and type of informal communication reflect on the work culture of the organization and
its relationship with its employees. Therefore, informal communication, whether internal or
external, must not be taken for granted.
External communication, formal or informal, can be through various mediums, such as face-to-face
conversation, emails, telephones calls and instant messages.
Flow of Information within an Organization
Messages that flow within an organization are primarily of four types. They are as follows:
1. Upward
2. Downward
3. Horizontal or lateral
4. Diagonal or cross-communication
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Upward Communication
Upward communication happens when a subordinate is trying to send a message or information to

his manager. It moves from bottom to top, and is mostly a source of information that becomes a key
input in decision-making for the top management of the company. In addition, employees can have
grievances regarding various issues. Upward communication helps improve loyalty amongst
employees. When employees are heard and their suggestions are incorporated, they feel happy and
enthusiastic at work. The challenge, however, in upward communication is that many managers do
not accept genuine feedback and, therefore, subordinates hesitate to give feedback. Open-door
policies fail in such an environment.
How to improve upward communication?
Do not discourage subordinates from giving feedback

Listen to new ideas. Do not kill them at inception
Have jump-a-level meets where employees get to meet their immediate manager’s manager
Address immediately any issues confronting employees
Downward Communication
Downward communication is a type of communication that moves from the managers to their
subordinates primarily with instructions. This communication moves down a typical hierarchical
chain that is present in every company. Organizations that are rigid or are family-oriented businesses
and are yet to embrace openness in their organizational structure lay too much focus on the
‘instruction’-based communication. Open organizations, however, do not focus too much on
hierarchy while communicating. However, instructions and preparation of vision and goal settings
are done top down.
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The challenge one may encounter in this type of communication is that the message sent by the
managers to their subordinates may not be understood in the way it is intended. Information can be
distorted. It is better to ensure that a feedback mechanism is put in place in cases of critical
instructions so that the effectiveness of the instruction can be captured and any corrections can be
made.
Another challenge that is often cited is the delay in communicating to down. Owing to the increasing
span of control and increased responsibility, decisions that need intervention are often kept pending
at the manager’s desks. This delay can be effectively controlled if there is sufficient delegation of
responsibility. Although this delegation may seem simple, managers often do not want to give up
their powers and wish to retain the pleasure of getting the work done by themselves even at the
expense of efficiency.
How to improve downward communication?
Make employees familiar with the company’s policies at the time of joining. Keep them
aware of the various policy decisions
Hold regular meetings with the employees at lower levels
Organize open forums where employees can discuss work and personal issues
Work towards an open-door policy for the organization
Communicate with the subordinates on their performance on a regular basis
Horizontal or Lateral Communication
Horizontal communication happens when you are communicating with another person at the same
level. It could be between two sales executives sitting in the same cubicle or two managers in
different departments such as marketing and production. This communication happens throughout
the organization and in many cases, communication takes place among colleagues in different
departments. The reasons for communication could be related to work, such as sharing information,
coordinating, and technical support and resolving issues that may arise.
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Prepared by: Rajadhani Business School, Rajadhani Institute of Engineering & Technology, www.rbsmba.in 2019 Batch
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Diagonal or Cross Communication
Diagonal communication or cross-communication happens when employees may not have direct
reporting relationships. For example, the accounts executive interacts with various departments and
people for filing their returns. There could be other reasons for communication, such as the human
resources teams’ need for constant interaction with various other teams and people ate various
organizational hierarchies.
The above-graphic is indicative. The arrows that have been shown are indicative and there could be
plenty of permutations and combinations that can work in one form or another. Communication
could be in the upward, downward, horizontal and diagonal channels. Almost everyone is
communicating with someone in the organization through some means or the other. Interaction
with the top management may be difficult for the junior employees on a daily basis, but many
organizations try to keep this channel open in the present-day business scenario. Today, the
emphasis is on making sure that there is no restriction on the free flow of information and
irrespective of ranks and designations, employees can be contacted. This is essential in today’s
knowledge economy.
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Challenges in Organizational Communication
People in organizations face many challenges while communicating. These challenges often act as
bottlenecks in the free flow of information. Some of the primary challenges that are faced by
organizations are as follows:
1. Organizational Structure and Outlook

Every organization has a ‘pattern’ or way of communication. Organizations that are ‘tall’ or
having lot of hierarchical levels to the top, often face the issue of distorted communication
as information finds it difficult to move up or down without it getting distorted. This
happens because of our innate ability to interpret the message the way we want to. While
passing the information to subordinates, we pass information that we believe would be
essential to them. Similarly, organizations that are relatively flat or have a matrix design
have more complicated structures, owing to a greater span of control and due to multiple
reporting.
Situations where an employee would like to write to someone very senior in the hierarchy
and can do only through the manager and finally it reaches the director after months passing
through many levels above him. This typically is a characteristic of family-owned businesses
and sometimes even in multinational companies.
2. Environment of Mistrust
In companies where Managers do not assign important tasks to their subordinates and even,
if they do so, they indulge in micromanagement. Even for the simplest of issues, they insist
that permission has to be taken. Freedom becomes virtually non-existent. Trust will be zero
as subordinates come to have virtually very little freedom to think and act out of the box.
3. Wrong Time and Medium
Choosing the right time and medium of communication is an area organizations do not
concentrate upon. For example, during times of recession, when business is down and
organizations want the employees to work even on weekends, it is essential for them to
communicate this message in the right way. Sometimes, in such cases, the head office
passes on a circular to employees without justifying the decision or providing any valid
reasons. In addition, in many organizations, mails float around every day reminding
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employees of policies and dos and don’ts. The frequency of such mails is so high that many
people auto set the inbox so that these mails are auto forwarded to the junk folder.
4. Issues of Ethics
The issues of ethics concern both internal and external communication. It is important for
companies to be tactful while communicating, but the line of difference between tactfulness
and ethics often get blurred.
Organizational communications face many challenges and probably the biggest issue is that efforts
are not made to resolve them. When the culture of a company is characterized by poor internal and
external communication, it is the biggest barrier to organizational growth.
What is effective Business Communication?
1. Being to-the-point: Business messages need to be to-the-point. They should neither be

overloaded nor be lacking in information. Unnecessary long sentences can be a hurdle to
effective communication.
2. Sending practical messages: The messages that are sent need to be practical. Unrealistic
expectations, suggestions, or solutions do not serve any purpose.
3. Sending the right information: Always send the right information. It is always better to
check and re-check to avoid sending the wrong information. Similarly, while making
presentations, if you are unsure of the answer, it is better to admit the fact than providing
the wrong information.
4. Setting the tone of the message: This can be done by making the expectations clear. Be it a
meeting, corporate presentation, or a training session, it is essential that we start by setting
the expectation or the tone. Before a meeting it could be, “we are here to discuss about
1,2,3,4 points or if it is a meeting with a client, you can specifically mention what is going to
be discussed.
5. Being Persuasive: Another characteristic of effective business communication is to be
persuasive without becoming pushy. Whether you are in a discussion on selling your product
or conducting a training session or need an approval from your manager, the message must
clearly highlight the positives.
Expectation from Employees to make Business Communication Effective
Communicating effectively and efficiently is indispensable to employee’s performance in an

organization. While at work, every employee is expected to do the following:
1. Express ideas (verbal and written) accurately and completely.

2. Possess good listening skills
3. Possess the ability to work in groups and teams and communicate to them effectively.
4. Be sensitive to cross-cultural issues.
5. Have an understanding of the basic business etiquettes.
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Impact of Technology on Communication
Technology has impacted our lives and business environment. The new age cellular communication,
desktops, laptops, iPADS and Smart phones replaced typewriters, fax machines, pagers etc.
Businesses are moving towards paperless offices, video conferencing, emails, live chats. The old-age
tradition of writing letters and making simultaneous copies have been replaced with the Send, Cc
and Bcc options in emails. These changes have dramatically affected the way we do business.
Information and data is no more for the privileged. It is available in the search engines such as
Google. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software and Radio Frequency Identifiers (RIFD) have
helped in giving real-time information to customers and vendors.
Technology has impacted our business and the way we communicate. The major advantages are as
follows:
Death of Distance: Distance is no longer a barrier. Emails and other modes of communication have
provided alternative ways of reaching people globally.
Real-time information: Today, managers and decision makes have access to real to real-time
information, thanks to ERP software that helps business with real-time data and makes decision-
making fast and efficient.
Customers closer to business: Customers have come closer to business, and it is possible for
manufacturers and service providers to interact directly with their customers and listen to them.
The disadvantages are as follows:
1. Overload of information: Too much information is available, and there is a virtual overload
of information. We are often cluttered with too many messages and too much information.
The management of information becomes a challenge.
2. Lack of personal touch: Even if there is a meeting of a medium-sized group, with the
members sitting in two buildings, they prefer to have the meeting on teleconferencing than
a face-to-face interaction. This has reduced the personal touch and things are becoming
more mechanical. It is also possible that you and your manager are at different locations.
3. Connected to work 24 x 7: With technology, employees cannot disconnect themselves from
work at any moment. With offices open in different geographies at different times, you are
expected to reply at any time of the day or night. It affects work-life balance.
4. Emails as time killers: The time spent on work is little, and the focus is on replying to emails.
Emails block the mail box once you are back from leave or even when you are away from the
office for a day. The actual time left to be spent on your work is very little.
Current technology advances and trends have the following characteristics:
1. Portability: Wireless technology and tiny, high capacity computer chips enable on-the-go
communication and provide portability for speaking, writing, listening to or viewing
messages via wireless technology and the ability to send or receive messages anywhere. A
global positioning system uses satellite technology and wireless communication to provide
directions to specific destinations.
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2. Selectivity: Technology advances allow individuals to select the topic, media, time and place
for receiving and sending messages.
3. Convergence: This means bringing together the features of video, music, camera, telephone
and instant messaging into a single handheld device to create an on-go multimedia
communication.
Importantly, though technology enables business communication and increases its efficiency, it
can never be a substitute for good-quality writing, speaking, presentation, or listening skills.
Business communication is very crucial for your success in the world of business today.
Communication is an extremely crucial skill for your future. The importance of business
communication will be essential in every walk of life. The need of communicating is different for
employers and employees.
What is Conflict?
Conflict is a state of disagreement, argument and opposition or hostility between groups,

people, countries or sets of ideas, beliefs, interests and loyalties etc. Conflict can be professional,
personal, social, political, ethnic or job related.
Professional conflict/issues can be over the job related settlement of the minimum wage
payment to the unskilled labor.
Social conflict between age groups of people may be because of generation gap and the
opposition between tradition and modernity.
Armed Conflict
Conflicts can be armed and violent. Uprising against dictatorship or ethnic cleansing.
Conflict of Loyalties
This arise when you need to select between two or more opposite needs of equal importance
for you.
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For example, a conflict between the demand of one’s family and one’s work. A married lady may
be faced with the demands of her family and her work. As both are equally demanding and
influencing her life, a conflict of loyalties arises before her.
Conflict of Interest(s)
The conflict of interest occurs when you are not sure what to do as your decision would affect
your other aspects of life.
For example, there is an increasing conflict of interest between the position as a minister of
tourism and the management of his son’s chain of five star hotels.
Common entrance/Water sharing
Conflict of Ideas/Opinions/Views
A situation in which two opposing opinions, views, ideas or beliefs crop up, but both cannot exist
together or both cannot be held as correct.
When Minister for Railways say that the accident occurred due to sabotage, while Railway issues
a statement that it was a human error.
Characteristics of Conflict
Conflict as a state is dynamic. Its intensity usually grows, if left unresolved.
Children playing cricket
Car parking
Management of conflict through communication is a process of managing conflict by choosing

the most suitable solution to the situation of conflict. It assumes that there are a number of
possible solutions to the problem. But we should choose the most appropriate solution. And this
whole process of conflict management is done through communication between both the
parties involved in the conflict.
For instance, the boys and residents could together choose a different spot for cricket, if
persuaded by the inmates.
Characteristics of Negative Conflict
The conflict is negative when the communication and actions are personalized. Instead of
discussing the behavior or idea of a person, the criticism is directed against the individuals as
persons.
“Hate the sin but not the sinner”.
Me-centered Approach
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Both the adversaries see only their side of the problem. They fail to realize that the other person
also has some reasons to feel hurt or aggrieved.
Either or Neither Attitude
Both the parties insist on having either their way of deciding the issue or they will have no
decision. No compromise attitude.
With such fixed minds conflicts can never be resolved or changed into positive situations.
Characteristics of Positive Conflict
Positive conflicts are characterized by:
• Both parties are interested to resolve the problem
• Looking for mutual satisfaction
• Objectivity in understanding that each part has genuine reason for disagreement.
• Facts, not feelings form the basis of discussion.
Conflict Management through Communication
This process requires you to have two sets of skills:
1. Management skills
2. Communication skills
3. Management Skills
Identification of Problem and the Goal
In conflict management through communication, you need only to identify the problem and the
goal.
Problem Identification
The first step in conflict management is to understand the cause of conflict. Major reasons for
conflict are ideas or interests, or beliefs, or hurt egos, or fear of losing job etc.
The existing or present position is the problem position to start the process of management. Let
us call it position P1. Now we want to resolve the conflict and change it into position P2. P2 is
the targeted goal of conflict management. And the change from P1 to P2 is the task to be
achieved by communication.
Communication Skills
While managing conflict, the person should know what ought to be said and how it should be
said. Both speaking and responding need to be precise and exact.
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The communicators should have “communication competence’, which according to Brian H.

Spitzberg and Michael L. Hecht, is the ability that enables the communication to be effective and
successful in achieving the goal of communication and makes the successful process repeatable.
To achieve the above-mentioned purpose, communication should be:
Clear: In simple words and uncomplicated ideas.
Specific: Exact, precise not vague.
Factual: Facts, not impressions or opinions, beliefs or assumptions convince the other person.
Sincere: To be accepted by others, speak with sincerity, and honest and conviction.
Credible: Communication is successful only when it is credible, other persons are willing not only
to understand it, believe it, accept it as true but also follow it in action.
The Language of Discussion
It is significant to note that the normal rule of using second person “you” before the first person
“I” is changed in the conflict discussion.
For example, normally we say, “you have done well, so have I”. We praise the second person
“you” first, then only praise ourselves.
In positive situations, grammar and culture go together in shaping the language structure.
The change in the position of “you” and “I” creates a corresponding change in the listener's
perception of relative degree of responsibility of both the persons.
To resolve the conflict you should be willing to own the share of responsibility for the on-going
conflict. This “I statement’ , “I ordered it” or “I did not like to do it” is a personal statement that
states responsibility.
If you want express your disagreement with some point, do not say “I do not agree with you.”
Better say, “I do not agree with what you say”.
The general rule in this regard is that you disagree with an idea of a person, but not the person
who holds that idea.
Managing the Process of Communication in Conflict
The interpersonal transactional communication in conflict should be psychologically planned for

a collaborative approach to conflict resolution. First of all, consider that the other person is
sensitive to whatever is said, and non-verbally communicated. Therefore, to respond to conflict,
we should follow the S-TLC system – before communicating we should stop, think, and listen.
Ruth Anna Abigail and Dudley D. Cahn call this process S-TLC system of managing conflicts over
intangible issues.
By following these four steps, we can generally resolve our interpersonal conflicts.
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The S-TLC Strategy Conflict Management
This system is based on the understanding that conflict is a creation by two persons and that its
resolution can be done only by the combined efforts of both the persons.
Stop: It is a common saying that when you are annoyed or angry, do not respond immediately.
Take your time and respond.
Think: “Look before you leap” is a wise piece of advice for acting in a perilous situation. It says
that is sensible to think about the possible dangers or difficulties of something before doing it, or
not doing it.
Listen: To be able to have a meaningful and fruitful dialogue, you should first listen to what the
other person has to say. Do not start speaking on the basis of your assumptions about the
thoughts and feelings of the other person involved in the situation of conflict. Hear him/her out.
Half of his/her grievance would be over if you listen to her/him patiently.
Communication: Finally, you decide how you want to say it all. Persuasively, aggressively, or in
submissive way of reconciliation and give and take attitude.
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Communications in business
• Occur constantly
• Are formal and informal
• Are written and spoken
• Are internal (stay within the business) and external (sent outside the business)
• Are essential for business success
The importance of internal communications
To achieve business aims, functional areas must support each other, eg
• Operations and sales must agree delivery dates
• Finance must know what has been sold
• Sales staff must know credit limits
• Customer service must know about problems and delays
• Human resources must know about training requirements
The importance of external communications
External communications are critical to sales, eg
• Customer enquiries must be handled promptly
• Product/service information must be accurate/attractive
• Customer invoices must be correct
• Customer and supplier problems must be resolved quickly
Methods of communication
• Oral, eg telephone, face-to-face, meetings, telephone conferencing
• By video, eg video conferencing and Internet video link
• Written, eg letter, memo, financial documents, advertisements, emails and attachments
• Graphical, eg production drawings, computer graphics
Choosing the most appropriate method
Depends upon:
• The reason (eg important = written)
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• The recipient (eg internal/external)
• The technology available
• The urgency of the message (eg fast = courier or ICT)
• The complexity of the message (eg very complex = written)
• Whether instant feedback needed
Use oral if . . .
• You need an instant response
• You want to use your tone of voice or body language to show feelings
• You want to keep checking the other person’s reaction
Use video conferencing if . .
• The person is some distance away
• Travel costs would be saved
• Seeing the person would help the communication
• You have the technology
Use written if . . .
• It is important there is a permanent record
• The information is important
• The information is complex
If urgent – use email or fax
If non-urgent – write letter or send memo
NOTE: good writing skills are vital!
Use graphical if . . .
• It would save words or explanations
• It would help understanding
• It would provide essential additional information
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Communication Flow in Organizations
Formal Network Flow
– Follows a company’s formal organization chart created by management.
– Controls individual and group behavior.
– Achieves the organization’s goals.
– Dictated by the cultural, technical, political, and economic environment of the organization.
Formal Network Flow in an Organization
• Downward Communication
– Supervisor to employee
• Upward Communication
– Feedback to downward communication
• Horizontal Communication
– Interaction between organizational units on the same hierarchical level
Informal Network Flow
Develops as people interact within the formal communication system and certain behavior
patterns emerge—patterns that accommodate social and psychological needs.
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Barriers to Intercultural Communication
• Ethnocentrism – judging other cultures based on one’s own
• Stereotypes
• Chronemics - Interpretation of time
• Proxemics - Personal space requirements
• Haptics – Touching
• Kinesics - Body language
• Translation limitations
• Common Sense Approach – ability to use good judgment and make sensible decisions
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Negotiation
The word "negotiation" originated in the early 15th century from the Old French and Latin
expressions “negociacion” and “negotiationem.”
By the late 1590s negotiation had the definition, "to communicate in search of mutual agreement."
With this new introduction and this meaning, it showed a shift in “doing business” to “bargaining
about”
business.
Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more people or parties intended to reach a mutually
beneficial outcome, resolve points of difference, to gain advantage for an individual or collective,
or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests.
Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, and government branches, legal

proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and
everyday life. The study of the subject is called negotiation theory. Professional negotiators are often
specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage
negotiators, or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.
Distributive Negotiation & Integrative Negotiation
Distributive negotiation is also sometimes called positional or hard-bargaining negotiation.

Distributive negotiation is also sometimes called win-lose because of the assumption that one
person's gain results in another person's loss.
It tends to approach negotiation on the model of haggling (bargaining) in a market.
The term distributive implies that there is a finite amount of the thing being distributed or divided
among the people involved. Sometimes this type of negotiation is referred to as the distribution of a
"fixed pie." There is only so much to go around, but the proportion to be distributed is variable.
A distributive negotiation often does not involve people who have never had a previous interactive
relationship, nor are they likely to do so again in the near future. Simple everyday examples would
be buying a car or a house.
Integrative negotiation
Integrative negotiation is also sometimes called interest-based or principled negotiation. It is a set

of techniques that attempts to improve the quality and likelihood of negotiated agreement by
providing an alternative to traditional distributive negotiation techniques.
While distributive negotiation assumes there is a fixed amount of value (a "fixed pie") to be divided
between the parties, integrative negotiation often attempts to create value in the course of the
negotiation ("expand the pie").
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It focuses on the underlying interests of the parties rather than their arbitrary starting positions,
approaches negotiation as a shared problem rather than a personalized battle, and insists upon
adherence to objective, principled criteria as the basis for agreement.
Integrative negotiation often involves a higher degree of trust and the forming of a relationship. It
can also involve creative problem-solving that aims to achieve mutual gains. It is also sometimes
called win-win negotiation. Example business alliances.
There are many different ways to categorize the essential elements of negotiation.
One view of negotiation involves three basic elements: process, behavior and substance.
The process refers to how the parties negotiate: the context of the negotiations, the parties to the
negotiations, the tactics used by the parties, and the sequence and stages in which all of these play
out.
Behavior refers to the relationships among these parties, the communication between them and the
styles they adopt.
The substance refers to what the parties negotiate over: the agenda, the issues (positions and - more
helpfully - interests), the options, and the agreement(s) reached at the end.
Another view of negotiation comprises four elements: strategy, process, tools, and tactics.
Strategy comprises the top level goals - typically including relationship and the final outcome.
Processes and tools include the steps that will be followed and the roles taken in both preparing for
and negotiating with the other parties.
Tactics include more detailed statements and actions and responses to others' statements and
actions. Some add to this persuasion and influence, asserting that these have become integral to
modern day negotiation success, and so should not be omitted.
Cherry picking, suppressing evidence, or the fallacy of incomplete evidence is the act of pointing to
individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position, while ignoring a significant
portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position.
It is a kind of fallacy of selective attention, the most common example of which is the confirmation
bias. Cherry picking may be committed intentionally or unintentionally. This fallacy is a major
problem in public debate.
The term is based on the perceived process of harvesting fruit, such as cherries. The picker would be
expected to only select the ripest and healthiest fruits. An observer who only sees the selected fruit
may thus wrongly conclude that most, or even all, of the fruit is in such good condition. A less
common type of cherry picking is to gather only fruit that is easy to harvest, ignoring quality fruit
higher up the tree. This can also give a false impression of the quality of the fruit (since it's only a
sample).
Cherry picking is a tactic used in negotiation.
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Salami tactics, also known as the salami-slice strategy, is a divide and conquer process of threats
and alliances used to overcome opposition. With it, an aggressor can influence and eventually
dominate a landscape, typically political, piece by piece. In this fashion, the opposition is eliminated
"slice by slice" until one realizes (too late) that it is gone in its entirety. In some cases it includes the
creation of several factions within the opposing political party and then dismantling that party from
the inside, without causing the "sliced" sides to protest. Salami tactics are most likely to succeed
when the perpetrators keep their true long-term motives hidden and maintain a posture of
cooperativeness and helpfulness while engaged in the intended gradual subversion.
Another negotiation tactic is bad guy/good guy. Bad guy/good guy is when one negotiator acts as a
bad guy by using anger and threats. The other negotiator acts as a good guy by being considerate
and understanding. The good guy blames the bad guy for all the difficulties while trying to get
concessions and agreement from the opponent.
Negotiation styles
Kenneth W. Thomas identified 5 styles/responses to negotiation. These ﬁve strategies have been
frequently described in the literature and are based on the dual-concern model. The dual concern
model of conflict resolution is a perspective that assumes individuals' preferred method of dealing
with conflict is based on two themes or dimensions.
1. A concern for self (i.e. assertiveness), and
2. A concern for others (i.e. empathy).
Based on this model, individuals balance the concern for personal needs and interests with the
needs and interests of others.
1. Accommodating: Individuals who enjoy solving the other party's problems and preserving
personal relationships. Accommodators are sensitive to the emotional states, body
language, and verbal signals of the other parties. They can, however, feel taken advantage of
in situations when the other party places little emphasis on the relationship.
2. Avoiding: Individuals who do not like to negotiate and don't do it unless warranted. When
negotiating, avoiders tend to defer and dodge the confrontational aspects of negotiating;
however, they may be perceived as tactful and diplomatic.
3. 3. Collaborating: Individuals who enjoy negotiations that involve solving tough problems in
creative ways. Collaborators are good at using negotiations to understand the concerns and
interests of the other parties. They can, however, create problems by transforming simple
situations into more complex ones.
4. 4. Competing: Individuals who enjoy negotiations because they present an opportunity to

win something. Competitive negotiators have strong instincts for all aspects of negotiating
and are often strategic. Because their style can dominate the bargaining process,
competitive negotiators often neglect the importance of relationships.
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5. 5. Compromising: Individuals who are eager to close the deal by doing what is fair and equal
for all parties involved in the negotiation. Compromisers can be useful when there is limited
time to complete the deal; however, compromisers often unnecessarily rush the negotiation
process and make concessions too quickly.
Types of negotiators
Three basic kinds of negotiators have been identified by researchers involved in The Harvard
Negotiation Project. These types of negotiators are: Soft bargainers, hard bargainers, and principled
bargainers.
• Soft. These people see negotiation as too close to competition, so they choose a gentle style
of bargaining. The offers they make are not in their best interests, they yield to others'
demands, avoid confrontation, and they maintain good relations with fellow negotiators.
Their perception of others is one of friendship, and their goal is agreement. They do not
separate the people from the problem, but are soft on both. They avoid contests of wills and
will insist on agreement, offering solutions and easily trusting others and changing their
opinions.
• Hard. These people use contentious strategies to influence, utilizing phrases such as "this is
my final offer" and "take it or leave it." They make threats, are distrustful of others, insist on
their position, and apply pressure to negotiate. They see others as adversaries and their
ultimate goal is victory. Additionally, they will search for one single answer, and insist you
agree on it. They do not separate the people from the problem (as with soft bargainers), but
they are hard on both the people involved and the problem.
• Principled. Individuals who bargain this way seek integrative solutions, and do so by
sidestepping commitment to specific positions. They focus on the problem rather than the
intentions, motives, and needs of the people involved. They separate the people from the
problem, explore interests, avoid bottom lines, and reach results based on standards (which
are independent of personal will). They base their choices on objective criteria rather than
power, pressure, self-interest, or an arbitrary decisional procedure. These criteria may be
drawn from moral standards, principles of fairness, professional standards, tradition, and so
on.
Flipism, sometimes written as "Flippism," is a pseudophilosophy under which all decisions are made
by flipping a coin. It originally appeared in the Disney comic "Flip Decision" by Carl Barks, published
in 1953. Barks called a practitioner of "Flipism" a "Flippist" (with two P's).
An actual coin is not necessary: dice or another random generator may be used for decision making.
Flipism can be seen as a normative decision theory, although it does not fulfill the criteria of
rationality
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In game theory, the Nash equilibrium is a solution concept of a non-cooperative game involving two
or more players, in which each player is assumed to know the equilibrium strategies of the other
players, and no player has anything to gain by changing only their own strategy. If each player has
chosen a strategy and no player can benefit by changing strategies while the other players keep their
unchanged, then the current set of strategy choices and the corresponding payoffs constitutes a
Nash equilibrium. The reality of the Nash equilibrium of a game can be tested using experimental
economics method.
Stated simply, Amy and Will are in Nash equilibrium if Amy is making the best decision she can,
taking into account Will's decision while Will's decision remains unchanged, and Will is making the
best decision he can, taking into account Amy's decision while Amy's decision remains unchanged.
Likewise, a group of players are in Nash equilibrium if each one is making the best decision possible,
taking into account the decisions of the others in the game as long the other party's decision
remains unchanged.
Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA)
BATNA is a term coined by Roger Fisher and William Ury in their 1981 bestseller, Getting to Yes:
Negotiating Without Giving In.[1] It stands for "Best ALTERNATIVE TO a negotiated agreement."
Said another way, it is the best you can do if the other person refuses to negotiate with you--if they
tell you to "go jump in a lake!" or "Get lost!" So it is not necessarily your ideal outcome--unless your
ideal outcome is something you can get without the cooperation of the other person. It is the best
you can do WITHOUT THEM.
BATNAs are critical to negotiation because you cannot make a wise decision about whether to
accept a negotiated agreement unless you know what your alternatives are. If you are offered a
used car for $7,500, but there's an even better one at another dealer for $6,500--the $6,500 car is
your BATNA. Another term for the same thing is your "walk away point." If the seller doesn't drop
her price below $6,500, you will WALK AWAY and buy the other car.
Your BATNA "is the only standard which can protect you both from accepting terms that are too
unfavorable and from rejecting terms it would be in your interest to accept."[2] In the simplest
terms, if the proposed agreement is better than your BATNA, then you should accept it. If the
agreement is not better than your BATNA, then you should reopen negotiations. If you cannot
improve the agreement, then you should at least consider withdrawing from the negotiations and
pursuing your alternative (though the relational costs of doing that must be considered as well).
Having a good BATNA increases your negotiating power. If you know you have a good alternative,
you do not need to concede as much, because you don't care as much if you get a deal. You can also
push the other side harder. If your options are slim or non existent, the other person can make
increasing demands, and you'll likely decide to accept them--because you don't have a better option,
no matter how unattractive the one on the table is becoming. Therefore, it is important to improve
your BATNA whenever possible. If you have a strong one, it is worth revealing it to your opponent.
If you have a weak one, however, it is better to keep that detail hidden.
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Determining Your BATNA
BATNAs are not always readily apparent. Fisher and Ury outline a simple process for determining
your BATNA:
1. develop a list of actions you might conceivably take if no agreement is reached;
2. improve some of the more promising ideas and convert them into practical options; and
3. select, tentatively, the one option that seems best.[4]
BATNAs may be determined for any negotiation situation, whether it be a relatively simple task such
as finding a job or a complex problem such as a heated environmental conflict or a protracted ethnic
conflict.
Arbitration, a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR), is a technique for the resolution of
disputes outside the courts. The parties to a dispute refer it to arbitration by one or more persons
(the "arbitrators", "arbiters" or "arbitral tribunal"), and agree to be bound by the arbitration decision
(the "award"). A third party reviews the evidence in the case and imposes a decision that is legally
binding on both sides and enforceable in the courts.
Arbitration is often used for the resolution of commercial disputes, particularly in the context of
international commercial transactions. In certain countries such as the United States, arbitration is
also frequently employed in consumer and employment matters, where arbitration may be
mandated by the terms of employment or commercial contracts.
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Unit V - Case Method of Learning
What is a case?
A case is a scenario that gives the opportunity to identify problems and recommend a course of
action in a business situation. The case may be real or fictional, but will usually represent a complex
situation with no ready solutions.
Understanding the Case Method of Learning
The case method applies the Socratic technique of teaching people how to think and ask questions.
It develops skills in diagnosing situations, defining problems, analyzing the sources and constraints of
problems, developing alternative courses of action and deciding on a particular course of action.
The Student’s Role as an Analyst
In analyzing a case your task is to:
• Identify the problem(s) in the situation presented in the scenario
• Analyze the key issues within context of the theory presented in your course
• Develop and compare alternative solutions to the problems
• Consider the advantages and disadvantages of various possible solutions
• Select the best solution and make recommendations for action
• Write up your case analysis in appropriate case analysis report format.
Reasons for Writing Case Analyses
• Apply conceptual frameworks from the course to real situations
• Integrate topics in your analysis
Case analyses also enable the student to improve his/her
• Critical thinking and analytical abilities
• Ability to evaluate sources of information
• Written communication skills.
Case analyses are also sometimes used in employment interviews to assess
• How you think?
• How you structure problems?
• Your ability to conceptualize
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• How you draw clarity from ambiguity?
• How you form views?
• How you make recommendations?
Different Types of Cases
1. Formal Case:
A formal case describes a simulated or real life situation faced by management. It may deal
with a specific problem experienced by one company or by an industry as a whole. The problems
and events are not identified as good or bad. The cases can often involve complex financial data and
can cover 15-20 pages. At times a single best solution may or may not exist.
2. The Case Story
A case story is usually a written document, much like a news story of the chronological
history of a decision made by the management. The outcome and analysis is presented and a little
excess information is given, this type of case is 2-3 pages long. It follows the form of a good
magazine article that has one or two point thesis and lots of narrative to describe actions taken by
individuals or company.
3. The Critical incident
The critical incident case gives little background information and usually presents a situation where
the impact is on interpersonal relationships rather than on the organization itself. The main feature
of a critical incident case is that it focuses on immediate decisions rather than long-term decisions.
Such a case can lead to a dilemma.
Overcoming the Difficulties of the Case Study
1. Conquering a different learning style:
A case study is not suited for individuals who find it difficult to operate in an environment of
ambiguity and uncertainty or who must have a final or correct solution of a problem. The case
approach demands extensive preparation outside the classroom.
2. Overcoming the fear of writing and speaking:
This method proves to be difficult for those who have a fear of public speaking or writing. One must
overcome the shortcomings and develop ability.
3. Developing a personal system of case analysis:
One must work on developing one’s personal system of thinking and decision-making.
How to Read a Case Properly?
There are four basic steps to reading a case properly.
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1. Previewing: One must try to obtain some information from the title and subtitles. One must
size up the case by looking at each page and checking the main headings and subheadings.
Most of the cases have two parts, namely the text and the supporting exhibits. One must try
to highlight key names of individuals and businesses and any proper nouns, which will give
valuable information from the exhibits.
2. Skimming: Skimming entails previewing the matter in detail. Avoid underlining during
skimming. Look for details like ideas, problems and potential solutions. The chief objective
of skimming should be to determine the key problems or issues in the case.
3. Reading: During the first reading, read at a comfortable pace and look for answers to the
questions, facts or details that you will need in deciding on solutions. Never underline or
highlight during the first reading. Underline during the second reading. This helps in saving
time and avoids underlining unwanted information. During the second reading, analyze the
case from the standpoint of problems, major issues and potential solutions.
4. Scanning: Scanning the highlighted points and attached notes allows one to review the
names and facts pertinent to the case. One must learn to look for unexpected items along
with common information in the case that will give an edge in solving the case.
Different Types of Approaches to Case Analysis
1. The Systems Approach
In this approach, organizations are viewed as systems engaged in the process of converting
inputs into outputs. Here, you can see problems, opportunities and actions if you can understand
the components of the system and ways in which those components relate to each other.
2. Behavioral Approach
This approach focuses on the people within the organization and their behavior. The way
individuals are managed within an organizational setting is often the best approach for an analysis.
In addition, we should analyze how case protagonists relate to environments that are external to the
organization. In addition, one must find out what norms, values and social structures the
protagonists embody and bring to their organizations.
3. Decision Approach
Here, one or more decision-making theories or models are employed. It is very important to
apply the appropriate theory by making sure that one is addressing the problem stated.
4. Strategy Approach
This approach is often used with formal cases. The objective is to help the managers develop
strategic thinking abilities. Normally a SWOT analysis is done when the strategic approach is used.
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The Stages in Preparing a Case Analysis
1. Understanding the Case
2. Identifying the core problem in the case
3. Analyzing the issues in the context of a theoretical framework
4. Exploring alternative solutions with reference to a theoretical framework
5. Choosing the best solution
6. Making recommendations for action
Steps to Understand the Situation
The following questions can guide one in this:
1. What is the mission of the organization?
2. Who are the “stakeholders” within the organization?
3. Who are the “stakeholders” or target groups outside the organization?
4. What is the formal decision making process in the organization?
5. What are the informal decision making processes in the organization?
6. What is the process of production or service delivery?
7. Who are the competitors?
8. What external factors impact on the organization?
9. What is the major problem?
10. What are the subsequent problems and implications?
11. What is the role of production/service providers in relation to the problem?
These questions serve only as a starting point. Your task is to be decide on the key issues and
how they can best be addressed.
The Structure of a Written Case Analysis
The writing of a case analysis follows a sequence of steps. Like a project report or an
investigative report, a case report presents the process, findings, and recommendations of the
analysis in an organized form, under distinct headings and sub-headings.
The main parts of the written analysis are:
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1. The title of the case: The title reflects the central problem of the case.
2. The statement of the problem: The statement of the problem describes the objective of the
case and what is to be achieved through the proposed solution.
3. The Case Summary: The case is a brief narration of the situation or problem. It provides the
context for the various issues to be investigated.
4. The scope of the analysis: The scope defines the limits of the analytical study of the case
clearly. It also describes the assumptions that have been made for the purpose of the
analysis.
5. The alternative solutions and their evaluation: Each possible solution is an alternative
answer to the problem and should be fully considered in relation to the company’s
objectives and goals and evaluated in terms of its merits and demerits. Sub-sections can be
created for each solution, listing its merits and demerits.
Here is an example:
Solution 1: Fire the employees who engaged in violence during

the strike.
Merits: The company will be justifiably free for trouble-

makers.
Demerits/Limitations: They might be some of the most productive workers

otherwise; this might also further escalate the
s ituation.
6. The Recommended Solution: The recommended solution is the final suggestion for action. It
is backed by the principles of management that are relevant to the case under
consideration. At this stage, the logical framework developed to interpret the case helps
justify the decision to recommend a particular solution.
7. The Conclusion: The conclusion gives a plan of action to overcome the problem by
implementing the solution. The recommended action is fully analyzed in terms of its
viability, feasibility, cost and benefit to the company. Any other inherent limitation or
weakness in implementing the plan is also clearly discussed and indicated as a point for
caution and further consideration.
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Analysis of Communication Breakdown at City Hospital
Why did the situation worsen?
Answers to the first question (“Why did the situation worsen with the rumors of lay-offs?”
include the following common points:
• Slow decision-making and poor coordination by the management.
• Lack of initiative by the management – it did not anticipate the confusion and protests.
• Excess attendees and too many meetings regarding layoffs.
• Inability of management to take the staff into confidence from the very beginning.
• Lack of proper planning and incompetent execution of retrenchment process.
• Presence of a clear communication gap and increasing anxiety of concerned staff.
• Fear of the fifth-floor staff.
• Inclusion of Lily Joe in the initial meetings.
• Popular belief that management was behind the rumors.
Here are some examples of answers to the first question:
Example 1: Prima facie it seems that the inclusion of Lily Joe in the meetings was the primary reason
for the spread of rumors. However, it cannot be said with certainty that other members in the
meeting would not have spread the news, since the decision would affect a number of fifth-floor
employees. The very fact that members were sworn to secrecy would be enough to fan the flames.
Example 2: The reasons for the worsening of the situation due to widespread rumors could be:
(a) Rumors were spread with the intent of generating fear and agitation among employees, in the
hope that they would do something illegal or untoward, which would help the management justify
closure of the fifth floor.
(b) The hospital had a policy of reassignment, but talk of the layoffs must have been leaked. The crux
of the matter is that the management did not involve the staff in the decision-making process and
the staff was resistant to changes.
Example 3: The reasons for the rumors regarding layoffs of the observation ward employees could
be:
(a) The series of meetings involved too many people and led to the rumors.
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(b) There were differences among management regarding the process and procedure of decision-
making. There were last minute objections put forth by the chief medical officer (CMO) and he chief
accounts officer. Both demanded specific numbers and significant changes in the announcement
letter drafted by the group before they would allow the plan to move forward.
(c) Negative news spreads very quickly via the grapevine.
(d) Lily Joe refused to accept the decision.
(e) The execution of plans was delayed, which led to the spreading of rumors.
Was it Correct to Include Lily Joe in the Meeting?
Answers to the second question, “Was it correct to include Lily Joe in the initial discussion
meetings?”, can follow two directions. One view is that it was right to include Lily Joe in the initial
meeting because the management was taking a decision affecting the staff of the fifth floor, so
involving those whom the decision affected was crucial. Lily Joe, being their head, could contribute
to the decision. Protocol demanded that she be involved in meetings. In addition, including her
would send her the message that her opinion was still valuable.
According to this view, her attending the meeting is a perfect example of participative management,
where employees are called to put forward their views. This approach helps the management obtain
a holistic view of the situation.
However, an opposing view is that it was incorrect to include Lily Joe in the layoff meetings, even at
the initial stage, because she was directly affected by the layoff plan. She did not contribute to the
discussion. In fact, her participation created further problems because she herself was part of the
problem, but made no contribution to the discussion.
How Should the Situation Have Been Handled?
The case study does not illustrate the dilemmas of an individual. It presents problems that an
organization faces because of the failure of its systems.
The closure of the observation ward seems to be an easy solution to the problem, but it is
misdirected. The executive director should have first prepared a plan to reduce staff across the
hospital, instead of abolishing the fifth-floor unit. And after deciding on the number of employees to
be dropped, after “reassignments” at the hospital level, general options should have been asked for
from all the employees of the hospital and not of “observation ward” employees only.
The executive director should also have kept in mind that the hospital had a policy of reassignment
rather than layoff, and thus had a commitment to placing the fifth-floor staff in other positions for
which they were qualified.
In addition, new recruitment should have been stopped for sometime. The action plan should have
involved the following steps:
a) The executive director should have appointed a committee made up of the director of personnel,
the director of public relations, the head of nursing and the labor relations consultant to discuss the
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retrenchment plan. When the hospital management decided that. Since her floor was being closed
entirely, Lily Joe would no longer be needed, the management should not have included her in the
planning process.
b) This committee should have developed a report on the reassignment and layoff of the fifth-floor
staff.
c) Then, the plan of action should have been placed before the CMO and CAO for their approval.
d) After its approval, the plan should have been shared with the nursing heads in a formal meeting.
e) Finally, the heads of nursing should have met the staff of the fifth floor to announce the plan for
reassignment and layoffs; after this, the press should have been informed.
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UNIT III
Characteristics of Good Writing
The hallmarks of good writing, then, are the hallmarks of all good communication. The ABCs of both
are these:
• accuracy, appropriateness, attentiveness to your audience, avoidance of ambiguity.
• brevity or conciseness, brightness or buoyancy
• correctness (of usage and grammar), clarity, consistency, concreteness.
Successful business leaders are master communicators, whether in oral or written form. The digital
age has transformed how businesses communicate with consumers, vendors and partners. Written
business communication should be professional, clear and concise.
Why is written communication important in business?
1. Creates a Permanent Record
All forms of written communication become a permanent record of ideas, incidents, proposals and
other facts.
The record helps business owner’s access information quickly, especially if it is written in a digital
medium.
Written communication is also used in legal proceedings, and can become the only defence for
adverse legal actions taken against the company.
For example, a former employee could say there were no grounds for his firing and he might sue
you. If his employee files clearly documented complaints and code of ethics violations over the
course of his employment, you can demonstrate cause.
2. Defines the Brand
Written communication is part of your brand. In general, most letters should have a professional
tone, as well as proper English and solid grammatical skills. Without these, readers might think that
the company is filled with illiterate people, who are unable to do a good job.
After all, with all the help that computer programs offer in spelling, grammar and style, there is no
reason for a writer to be unprofessional in communication.
Although most communication should be professional in tone, certain written formats such as social
media and email, allow you to add some corporate personality to your brand. This is important in
developing and establishing your brand. For example, Millennials have their own slang, and the way
in which they create posts and respond to emails could benefit a company if they use the slang for
this target group. Don't get carried away, keep slang to a minimum. Slang is there to relate to the
group. Using too much slang, however, can detract from your message.
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3. Establishes Loyal Relationships
Communication is about building relationships by conveying messages.
Clear messages help build trust and integrity between the writer and the reader. Well-written
communication helps define goals, identify problems and arrive at solutions. This is important in
every aspect of business.
Executives must clearly write memos so that staff understands the directives without confusion.
Sales representatives must explain features and benefits in a way that excites the prospect. Human
resource managers must objectively note any incidents and make reports.
4. Offers Ease of Distribution
When you need to get information distributed to a large number of people, written communication
is very efficient. This could be a company memo outlining a new policy or process that everyone
needs to be aware of and comply with. Using digital distribution methods makes the process faster
so that implementation can start sooner.
Clarity in Writing
Clarity is a characteristic of a speech or a prose composition that communicates effectively with its
intended audience. Also called perspicuity. In general, the qualities of clearly written prose include a
carefully defined purpose, logical organization, well-constructed sentences, and precise word choice.
Clarity is critical in business communication, where messages are continuously conveyed over
different media to many audiences. Technology and globalization makes business communication
more complex, even for a small business that might be challenged to control internal and external
messaging.
A small business might view communication as a problem only for large corporations with many
employees, but effective communication is vital for success in businesses of every size and scope.
Clarity in business communication requires an intentional approach to communication in its many
forms.
Importance of Clarity
Lack of clarity in business communication causes misinformation, mistakes, unhappy customers,

frustrated employees, and information lags that make companies look bad and affect profits. If a
supervisor assumes that workers know the proper way to ship products, the company might
discover that it pays more than it should for shipping.
A customer letter that is full of jargon and long, convoluted sentences will probably not be read
completely, and might put the customer off.
An occasional warning to be mindful of safety is not as effective as providing workers with a detailed
manual for achieving zero-tolerance requirements concerning accidents in the workplace.
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The Basics of Written Communication
Business communication that is written with clarity makes the content easy to read and understand.
Readers get what you are trying to say with little work. Sentences are short, engaging and
grammatically correct.
Documents display information in formats that help readers follow along and make sense of the
content. Writers vary the words and phrases in communication that is sent frequently to the same
recipients. Clear statements of intent, along with questions and requests, help readers zero in on the
appropriate response or action.
Best Foot Forward
Clarity in business communication can’t be left to chance. Poorly written documents that include
misspellings and bad grammar send the wrong message about your business.
Company literature such as brochures and website content also create impressions about your
business, so it’s important to pay close attention to what your documents are saying about your
company. Determine the message you wish to send, and structure any business communication --
from an internal memo to marketing materials to a business proposal -- so it clearly and accurately
conveys that message.
Control the content and appearance of your business communication by implementing policies and
protocols that ensure the best standards, including clarity.
Basic Principles of Effective Written Communication
Principle 1: Write coherent sentences
Make sure each sentence is complete and devoted to one topic. Do not include information that is
not related to the main topic of the sentence.
Example:
Incorrect: I like reading, horse riding, and I also work as a security guard.
The sentence above is about one’s hobbies. Yet, the last part, “I also work as a security guard”,
seems to be related to one’s occupation
(and not hobbies). Therefore, this last part does not belong to this sentence. A new sentence should
be created to discuss one’s occupation.
Correct: I work as a security guard. In my spare time I like reading and horse riding.
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Principle 2: Write coherent paragraphs
One paragraph is one unit of thought. Do not include sentences that are not related to the main
thought into the paragraph.
Example:
Incorrect: My hobbies are reading and horse riding. I like reading novels and science fiction. I read at
least one book every month. Riding horses is another hobby that I enjoy. Every weekend I jump on
my horse and steer it into the desert. The desert in Arizona is quite different from the desert in New
Mexico.
The paragraph above discusses one’s hobbies. This is the main topic or theme of the paragraph. The
last sentence (“The desert in Arizona is quite different from the desert in New Mexico”) deviates
from this main topic. This sentence has to be removed from the paragraph.
Principle 3: Use short sentences

Using short sentences makes it easier for the reader to understand the intended message. Every
long sentence can be broken down into several short, simple sentences.
Example:
Incorrect: I like riding horses since horses are very energetic yet, at the same time, caring animals.
While the sentence above is quite simple, it can be made even simpler and easier to understand by
splitting it into shorter sentences.
Correct: I like riding horses. They are very energetic animals. Horses are also very caring.
Principle 4: Be specific
If one mentions something in writing, the reader needs to know exactly what is being discussed.
Otherwise, do not mention this at all. Being specific does not mean increasing the length of the
writing by adding many details. It is more about using precise terms and being factual.
Example:
Incorrect: Several organizational units are currently facing certain issues with respect to the new
managerial approaches implemented by the new leadership.
There is much ambiguity in this message. The sentence above should be rewritten to include specific
details.
Correct: The new President decreased budgets for the IT and Marketing departments. As a result,
both departments laid off people and cancelled all new projects.
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Principle 5: Omit redundant words
Delete words that do not convey any valuable information. It is very easy to “bury” the intended
message in the clutter of words and expressions that are not necessary for transmitting the
message. Declutter writing to reduce its length and make it easier for a reader to understand the
message.
Example:
Incorrect: Based on what I have read in the book and my understanding of the material, I think it can
be recommended that ABC Corporation should consider acquiring and implementing a new
enterprise system.
Correct: ABC Corporation should implement an enterprise resource planning system.
Principle 6: Keep it simple
If one wants to make his or her message easy to understand, then simple sentence structures and
simple vocabulary should be used.
Example:
Incorrect: This system is designed with the aim of helping improve the efficiency and effectiveness
with which people find parking spots in the central business district of Chicago.
Correct: This system will make parking in Chicago downtown easier.
Principle 7: Use active voice
Use active voice to make the message simple and direct.
Example:
Incorrect: Active voice should be used in sentences.
Correct: Use active voice in sentences.
Note that the second sentence is shorter and has a simpler grammatical construction.
Principle 8: Avoid jargon, idioms, acronyms, and cultural references
Avoid jargon, idioms, acronyms, and cultural references to make the intended message easy to
understand for a broader audience.
In some situations, jargon, idioms, and cultural references can make the message easier to
understand.
They can also make the message more vivid and memorable. All this happens under the condition
that the writer and his or her audience share a common professional, linguistic, and cultural
background.
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Principle 9: Structure the writing
Any written message should have a simple and clear logical structure. A well-structured message has
a “built-in” roadmap for the reader to follow. This roadmap has enough signs and clues that help a
reader to travel from start (no understanding of writer’s ideas) to finish (complete understanding of
the writer’s ideas).
One should always put some thought into the structure of a paragraph or a report.
Example:
Question: Why do you like living in Murray?
Answer:
Thesis Statement: I like living in Murray because of (sub-point 1) great weather and (sub-point 2)
wonderful people.
Explain the thesis statement by breaking it down into two sub points and discussing each of the sub
points in more detail. For each of the sub-points, you can provide additional details to make your
sub-points more understandable.
Explanation of sub-point 1:
It is (1.1) sunny and (1.2) warm in Murray all year around.
Murray has clear skies 300 days a year. Murray’s average annual temperature is 20 degrees Celsius
Explanation of sub-point 2:
People are (2.1) friendly and (2.2) helpful in Murray.
People smile at me whenever I go out. People in Murray are always ready to help if I get lost in the
city.
Conclusion:
Weather and people make Murray a perfect place to live in
I like living in Murray because of (1) great weather and (2) wonderful people.
First of all, the weather is great in Murray. It is (1.1) sunny and (1.2) warm in Murray all year around.
Murray has clear skies 300 days a year. Murray’s average annual temperature is 20 degrees Celsius.
Secondly, people are (2.1) friendly and (2.2) helpful in Murray. Strangers on the street smile at me
whenever we make an eye contact. When I get lost, people on the street are always willing to give
me directions. Weather and people make Murray a perfect place to live in. Everyone should visit
Murray.
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Principle 10: Put important things first
The essence of the message should be stated upfront. The first part of the message should contain
not only the main idea, but also a brief justification as to why the message is important. Clearly
articulating the importance of the message can motivate the readers to understand and remember
the message. All the details, clarifications and examples should follow the main message, not
precede it.
Example:
Incorrect: It is easy to “bury” the main message among the numerous details. A reader may not have
time or may not be patient enough to cut through a lengthy introduction. Thus, the main message
will never be delivered. That is why the essence of the message should be provided upfront.
This paragraph should be revised so that the central message (“put the essence of the message
upfront”) and the motivation behind this central message (“otherwise the message will never be
delivered”) should be moved to the beginning of the paragraph.
Correct: The essence of the message should be provided upfront.
Otherwise, the main message may never be delivered. It is easy to “bury” the main message among
the numerous details. A reader may not have time or may not be patient enough to cut through a
lengthy introduction.
Principle 11: Avoid strong claims and hype
Avoid strong claims and hype in formal writing. Any kind of extreme position is usually wrong by
definition. Moreover, hype language may make the reader doubt whether the message can be
trusted. Give the reader facts and let him or her decide whether this is “without any doubt the most
effective solution.”
Example:
Incorrect: Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems are, without any doubt, the most
effective solution for improving customer service.
“Without any doubt” and “the most effective solutions” are very strong claims that need to be
backed up by strong evidence. In the absence of such evidence, these claims should be removed
from the sentence.
Correct: Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems can improve customer service.
Principle 12: Be factual
In order for writing to be effective in transmitting useful information, one needs to concentrate on
facts. Try to separate facts from emotions and interpretations of those facts.
Example:
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Incorrect: Being the wise man he is, Warren Buffet quickly bought the stock of Goldman Sachs.
In this sentence, only the fact that Warren Buffet bought stock of Goldman Sachs is a real-world fact.
Whether he bought stock
quickly (as opposed to putting a lot of thought into this) and whether he is a wise man are both
personal judgements or interpretations. Judgements and interpretations are often subject to
debate. Therefore, unless expressing personal opinion is the goal, try to avoid them in formal
writing, especially if there are no data or convincing arguments to support the opinion. Thus, this
sentence can be modified as follows:
Correct: Warren Buffet bought the stock of Goldman Sachs.
Principle 13: Pay attention to spelling
Spelling mistakes can lead to two problems.
First, it makes a literate reader “stumble”: the reader pauses for a moment to register a misspelled
word and figure out the correct spelling of the intended word.
Second, spelling errors also make it less likely that the reader will take the written message seriously
or remember it.
Why should anyone pay attention to a message from someone who does not know correct spelling
of the words he is using or simply does not care enough to proofread his or her text?
Principle 14: Pay attention to grammar
It is important to master some of the most important rules of grammar. These rules are useful
conventions that aid in delivering a message. Violating these conventions may not constitute a fatal
flaw, yet may seriously distort the intended message or simply distract the reader from
understanding the intended message.
Capitalization
Capitalization is meant to show that a particular word or a group of words is special. Typically,
capitalization is used to show that certain words are proper nouns or adjectives derived from those
proper nouns. Proper nouns are names of people, places, concepts, and phenomena. Proper nouns
refer to a specific entity rather than a general category of people or things.
For example, if one says, “I’m having dinner with Michael today,” the word Michael is capitalized. It
is capitalized because it is a name of a person. This sentence refers to a specific person with this
name.
But if one says, “I’m having dinner with a friend of mine today,” the word friend is not capitalized.
The reason it is not capitalized is that it does not refer to a specific friend. It is implied that the
person has many friends and he or she is having dinner with one of them. The person does not want
to be specific as to who the person is.
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Definite and indefinite articles: “the” and “a/an”
An article is like an adjective that gives additional information about the noun it precedes. English
language has two articles: “the” and “a/an”. “The” is the so-called definite article.
“A/an” is the indefinite article.
“The” is used to indicate a specific member of a group.
For example, “On Monday I went to the zoo to see the giraffe.” This is what this statement is
implying. First of all, because “the” is in front of the word “zoo”, one is talking about a specific zoo
(out of all zoos that exist in the world).
Perhaps, the writer is talking about the zoo that is located in the city where the writer lives (and
there is only one zoo in the city or the intended recipient of this message which zoo the writer is
referring to).
Also, the writer is talking about a specific giraffe. Perhaps somebody
mentioned this giraffe before to the writer, and now the writer is reporting that he or she went
there and saw the giraffe. Or, perhaps, there is only one animal in the city zoo. That is why one uses
“the” – to show reference to that specific animal.
“A/an” is used to refer to a non-specific entity within a group. If one writes, “In order to see a giraffe,
one needs to visit a zoo,” the implied meaning of the two words (zoo and giraffe) is different due to
the indefinite article “a” being in front of both words.
This is the meaning of this sentence: if one wants to see a giraffe
(meaning any giraffe of the many giraffes that exist on Earth, with no preference as to which specific
animal to see), one needs to go to any zoo (meaning any zoo out of the many zoos that exist in the
world, with no indication as to which specific zoo needs to be visited). In other words, no definite
giraffe or zoo is implied by this sentence.
Grammatical parallelism
When listing things (e.g. using sentences in a paragraph or bullet points), the items in the list are
expressed in the same grammatical forms.
For example, all items in a list need to be nouns (or noun phrases) or verbs (or verb phrases). Nouns
or noun phrases should not be used in a list where most items are verbs or verb phrases.
Example:
Incorrect: I like lakes, mountains and I like to ride horses.
The problem with the sentence above is that the last item in the list,
“I like to ride horses,” is expressed in a way that is not grammatically parallel to the first two items:
“lakes” and “mountains”.
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The last item is a verb phrase while the first two items are nouns. Because of that, the sentence
needs to be revised:
Correct: I like swimming in lakes, hiking in mountains and riding on horses.
Singular vs. plural
In English, nouns can be classified into two groups: countable and non-countable.
Countable nouns are the ones that can be counted. Examples of countable nouns include:
Dog, airplane, house, dish
Countable nouns can have a singular (one item) and plural (more than one item).
The plural form of count nouns is formed by adding an s or es to the end of the word.
Add es (instead of s) when words end with -s, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z. Thus, the plural forms of countable
nouns are expressed as follows:
Dogs, airplanes, houses, dishes
Please note that there are some irregular plurals:
Non-countable nouns represent entities that cannot be counted (e.g. a substance such as milk).
Thus, nouns that cannot be counted do not have a plural form:
Research, milk, happiness (and not researches, milks, happiness’s).
If in doubt, check a dictionary for a plural form of a particular word.
Tense
One should use present tense when describing things (e.g. writing a literature review or explaining
how a particular software algorithm works). This makes text sound more current and, perhaps,
makes it easier to understand:
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Example:
Incorrect: In this article I will demonstrate how to use genetic algorithms for finding solutions to
profit maximizations problems. Genetic algorithms were used by both researchers and practitioners
to find an approximate solution to an optimization problem. This article extends genetic algorithms
to the economics context.
Note the first sentence contains future tense. The second one is in the past tense. And the third one
is in the present tense. All sentences need to be converted to present tense.
Tense
Correct: This article demonstrates how to use genetic algorithms for finding solutions to profit
maximizations problems. Genetic algorithms are used by both researchers and practitioners to find
an approximate solution to an optimization problem. This article extends genetic algorithms to the
economics context.
Principle 15: Use proper punctuation
Proper punctuation divides the written message into meaningful parts or shows the relationships
among those parts. This makes it easier for a reader to understand the message.
Correct usage of a comma
The rules below explain when commas should be used.
Rule 1: When three or more items are listed.
Example: He ate a sandwich, a bag of chips, and a banana.
Rule 2: When two adjectives are used in front of a noun and the order of these adjectives is not
important.
Example: He was a shrewd, experienced businessman.
Principle 15: Use proper punctuation
Rule 3: When two independent clauses are connected by a connector word, such as “and”, “but”,
etc.
Example: Joan did not know why the numbers in her tax returns did not add up, and she blamed her
accountant for that.
But please note that if a subject does not appear in the second clause, then it is not necessary to use
a comma.
Example: Joan did not know why the numbers in her tax returns did not add up and could not come
up with any reasonable explanation.
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Rule 4: When a sentence starts with a dependent clause or an introductory sentence, put a comma
after it to separate it from the independent clause.
Example: If you are not sure about your future career plans, then do not declare your major in the
first year.
When an introductory sentence is short, it is not necessary to put a comma after it.
Example: When you are ready we can go and shop for a good used car.
It is usually not necessary to have comma after a dependent clause when it follows the independent
clause:
Example: Do not invest your money into stock if you cannot afford to lose it.
Rule 5: Use commas to separate the so-called nonessential words. These words are typically used for
clarifying things within a sentence.
Example: John, who was an experienced accountant, knew that creative accounting could lead to the
downfall of the entire company.
Rule 6: Use commas after short words that introduce a sentence. These words include well, yes,
hello, why, yet, etc.
Example: Hey, but you knew what you were getting into when you signed the contract!
Example: Well, this is a totally different story.
Rule 7: Use commas around expressions that interrupt the flow of a sentence.
These words include by the way, after all, however, nevertheless, etc.
Example: This is, by the way, one of our best football players.
Rule 8: Use commas to set off a phrase that addresses or references a person.
Example: Yes, my friend, you are also invited.
Example: I can assure you, Mom, that this will not happen again.
Example: And you, John, should have produced much better results by now.
Rule 9: A comma should be used to separate the day of the month from the year.
Example: He visited Cuba on June 5, 2005.
Please note that there is no comma if only month and year are used.
Example: He visited Cuba in June 2005.
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Rule 10: A comma should be used to separate a question from a statement.
Example: This is a nice town, isn’t it?
Rule 11: A comma should be used to separate two parts of sentence that are contrasted.
Example: These nachos are mine, not yours!
Rule 12: Use commas to set off certain introductory words, such as for instance, that is, i.e., e.g.,
namely, when these words are followed by a list of items.
Example: His backpack contained several essential items, namely, a bottle of water, a pack of
chewing gum, and a cellphone.
Rule 13: A comma should be used before “etc.”
Example: Examples of healthy snacks include carrots, nuts, yoghurt, bananas, etc.
A comma should also be used after etc. when the word is used in the middle of a sentence.
Example: Please bring bananas, apples, grapes, etc., to keep your carbs level up between the races.
Correct usage of a semicolon
If one writes using short, simple sentences, then semicolons are not needed. In fact, semicolons
often play a role identical to that of a period: to separate two sentences.
The only difference is that a semicolon is used to show that the two sentences are closely related.
Example: Martha worked very hard on her golf swing; the results were immediate and impressive.
Yet, it can be argued that the same effect can be achieved by separating the two sentences with a
period and then indicating that the sentences are closely related using the wording within those
sentences to link them.
Example: Martha worked very hard on her golf swing. Her hard word produced immediate and
impressive results.
Principle 16: Use text formatting to aid understanding
Font type
Different fonts can be used to separate visually different text sections.
For example, subheadings may use font type and size different from the main text. Similarly, tables
and mini-cases may use a smaller font.
Conservative uses of different font types can be a great way to improve visual separation within the
text and to make it easier for the reader to understand what type of text he or she is reading.
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Unless the goal is to decorate a promotional brochure or a flyer, one should stick to one or two
commonly used fonts for the text. These fonts should be familiar to the reader and easy to read.
Once the number of fonts is greater than three, the text may look cluttered. This may diminish the
aesthetic appeal of the text and may distract the reader.
Emphasis in-text
One may use in-text formatting to emphasize certain words or phrases within a sentence. Using
italics instead of bold is preferable.
Italics can be easily spotted by the reader, yet it does not look as intrusive as bold font. The use of
bold font should be limited to titles only. Regardless of whether choosing italics or bold for
emphasis, try to use emphasis as little as possible.
A text with a lot of emphasis is irritating to the eye and hard to read.
Spacing
Use spacing to provide a visual structure to the written message. For example, one should leave a
space (after a period) between two sentences. Also, use spacing to separate paragraphs.
This is usually done either by indenting the first line of each paragraph or by leaving a blank line
between two paragraphs.
Principle 17: Use tables and figures to aid understanding
Tables and Figures are very valuable for organizing and communicating data in a way that makes it
easy for a reader to understand, analyze and interpret. Both tables and figures should be
accompanied by text that introduces a table or a figure and provides analysis. Analysis should not
duplicate the information provided by a table or a figure. For example, if a table lists annual sales
data of a company for the last five years, it will be redundant to list those sales figures in a
paragraph as well. Instead, the related paragraph should be used to provide some highlights, point
to trends or patterns, and provide interpretations for those patterns.
ABC Enterprises' sales vary throughout the year. By plotting sales figures on a line graph, you can see
the main fluctuations during the course of a year. Here, sales drop off in June and July, and again
towards the end of the year.
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3 x 3 Writing Process
In terms of the 3 × 3 writing process, prewriting belongs to phase one of the writing process.
Prewriting focuses on how to properly convey the information in a message by analyzing its
purpose, anticipating the audience's reaction and adapting the content of the message to that
audience.
The 3 × 3 writing process is divided into three different phases.
Phase 1 which involves analyzing, anticipating and adapting.
Phase 2 requires research, organization and composition.
Finally, Phase 3 includes revising, proofreading and evaluating.
In the case of short messages, writing can be done relatively quickly by spending a small amount of
time on each phase. However, for longer documents, it is better to spend a good amount of time
working through each phase of the writing process. It is also possible to rearrange the steps in the
process and even repeat some steps if necessary.
The writing process is recursive rather than linear so the writer is free to revise the text at any point.
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Business writing often involves collaborating with others, such as when working in teams.
Generally, team members get together in the beginning, during Phase 1, to exchange ideas. During
Phase 2, each member can work separately to do some writing. Once that's done, members can
meet again for Phase 3 to revise the document as a team.
Phase I
1) Analyze
Analyzing, which is the first step of the prewriting process, focuses on both detecting the main goals
of the business message and choosing the most effective way to express the information to the
audience.
Finding out the main goals of business writing requires considering and summarizing the needs of
the audience, would all be conveyed by: email, instant message, business letters, memos, reports,
etc.
Only when the information presented through the writing matches the demands of the audience will
it attract the audience's attention.
Generally, most business writing can be devoted to informing and persuading the audience.
However, it is just as necessary to establish a good relationship with the audience.
Choosing the most appropriate way of conveying information is fairly significant for improving
efficiency of expression.
Delivering a message in the proper way depends on a few factors. It is helpful to note the
importance of the message, the feedback needed and the cost of the method of delivery.
2) Anticipate
Anticipating includes profiling the audience and learning to adjust the message according to its
recipients. Profiling the audience helps the writer establish the proper tone and language of the
message.
It also helps with choosing the right method to deliver the message.
Another benefit of profiling the audience is identifying the possibility of a secondary audience.
More information might be needed if the message is also intended for a secondary audience.
https://www.wikihow.com/Conduct-Audience-Analysis
3. Adapt
Adapting involves using certain techniques to tailor the message to the intended audience.
When writing a message, it is essential to pay attention to the tone because it is a good indicator of
how the reader will feel while reading the message.
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Words that are chosen improperly can contribute to an overall negative tone and can make the
message sound unpleasant. Therefore, it is a good idea to choose words that will have a positive
impact on the tone of the message.
One technique involves putting the focus of the message on the receiver.
This can be achieved by using second-person pronouns throughout the text and it shows that the
writer has empathy towards the reader.
Another technique involves using bias-free language which means the message should be free from
gender, race, age and disability bias so as to not offend anyone.
It is also recommended to use a professional yet friendly tone to make the writer sound professional
and approachable at the same time.
It is a good idea to use positive words and avoid words that have negative connotations.
Finally, it is in the writer's best interest to be polite, use simple language and words that are precise.
It is the responsibility of the writer to use language that is ethical for the purpose of avoiding
litigation.
When writing messages about stocks or financial services, it is important to follow the laws that
protect investors. Also, regarding safety information, it is essential to write warnings on dangerous
products as clearly and succinctly as possible.
Messages that are used in sales and marketing should not have any false or misleading information.
The messages should not be written in a way that will deceive customers.
The use of proper language is also helpful regarding employee evaluation. In letters of
recommendation, it is best to use positive language and stick to information that is related to the
job.
Phase 2 requires research, organization and composition.
Here is where you are ready to actually write your piece using formal sentences and paragraphs.
Follow your prewriting and make sure you accomplish the goal of each section or paragraph.
Use your prewriting as a checklist, and further develop your ideas and content as you write. Be sure
to write using proper sentence and paragraph structures and use transitions for flow. Think about
what you are writing and if it makes sense.
Expand upon and explain your thoughts clearly and thoroughly so the reader knows exactly what
you mean; never assume the reader knows what you are presenting.
Insert your research, support, facts, and details (with citations, if necessary) to accomplish your goal.
Get it all down on paper, from introduction to conclusion. At this point, just get the content down, as
when you get to the rewriting part of the process, you can perfect how it reads.
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Rewriting:
If possible, take a break before completing this final step of the writing process so you can approach
it with fresh eyes and a clear mind.
First, read through with a focus on your content. Does it achieve your goal and maintain a focus?
Have you properly executed the MLA (Modern Language Association) style or another style required
for research citations and format?
Rewrite, edit, and delete content as necessary, then read through it again to check your
organization, transitions, word choice, and sentence and paragraph structure. Make sure it flows
and is easy to read. Finally, proofread for punctuation, spelling, grammar, and usage errors. If you
can, have another person proofread it a final time.
https://www.referencepointsoftware.com/how-to-write-an-mla-style-bibliography/
Writing is a process that involves at least four distinct steps: prewriting, drafting, revising, and
editing. It is known as a recursive process. While you are revising, you might have to return to the
prewriting step to develop and expand your ideas.
Prewriting
1. Prewriting is anything you do before you write a draft of your document. It includes thinking,
taking notes, talking to others, brainstorming, outlining, and gathering information (e.g.,
interviewing people, researching in the library, assessing data).
2. Although prewriting is the first activity you engage in, generating ideas is an activity that
occurs throughout the writing process.
Drafting
1. Drafting occurs when you put your ideas into sentences and paragraphs. Here you
concentrate upon explaining and supporting your ideas fully. Here you also begin to connect
your ideas. Regardless of how much thinking and planning you do, the process of putting
your ideas in words changes them; often the very words you select evoke additional ideas or
implications.
2. Don’t pay attention to such things as spelling at this stage.
3. This draft tends to be writer-centered: it is you telling yourself what you know and think
about the topic.
Revising
1. Revision is the key to effective documents. Here you think more deeply about your readers’
needs and expectations. The document becomes reader-centered. How much support will
each idea need to convince your readers? Which terms should be defined for these
particular readers? Is your organization effective? Do readers need to know X before they
can understand Y?
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2. At this stage you also refine your prose, making each sentence as concise and accurate as
possible. Make connections between ideas explicit and clear.
Editing
1. Check for such things as grammar, mechanics, and spelling. The last thing you should do
before printing your document is to spell check it.
2. Don’t edit your writing until the other steps in the writing process are complete.
Coherence
Coherence in writing is the logical bridge between words, sentences, and paragraphs. Coherent
writing uses devices to connect ideas within each sentence and paragraph. Main ideas and meaning
can be difficult for the reader to follow if the writing lacks coherence.
Coherence Between Words
Between each word, coherence can be created by parallelism. Parallel structure means using similar
grammatical constructions between words in sentences.
Parallelism is particularly important for words in lists. If you're writing a list of things someone likes
to do, then each activity in the list should take the same grammatical form. For instance, if one verb
in the list takes on the '-ing' gerund form, like 'running,' then the other verbs in the list should also
be in the gerund form.
An incoherent structure would be to say:
Sarah likes to jump, running, and skate.
Instead, the list should be parallel like this:
Sarah likes jumping, running, and skating.
Coherence Between Sentences
Coherence can be created between sentences through repetition and transitional devices.
Repetition of words across sentences helps to reiterate the same ideas between sentences. One way
to use repetition to create coherence is to repeat the same word or phrase at the end of one
sentence and the beginning of the next sentence to show how the ideas connect.
Here is an example of sentences that create coherence through repetition:
The most important part of an essay is the thesis statement. The thesis statement introduces the
argument of the essay. The thesis statement also helps to create a structure for the essay.
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In this example, the repetition of the phrase 'thesis statement' helps to unify the three sentences. It
is a phrase that ends the first sentence and transitions into the next sentence by starting with that
same phrase.
Another way to create coherence between sentences is through transitional devices.
There are many types of transitional devices that show time and help ideas flow smoothly.
Transitional words, such as 'first', 'later', and 'then', are a few examples of transitional devices that
show time to help ideas flow more smoothly. Transitional devices are like signposts that tell the
reader what is coming up ahead and where the discussion is going.
Coherence Between Paragraphs
Transitional words can also be used between paragraphs. Words such as:
Therefore
However
Yet
Thus
First
Later
Then
can not only be used between sentences, but between paragraphs to connect them. Other ways to
create coherence between paragraphs include having a consistent paragraph structure and point of
view.
The structure of a coherent paragraph includes a topic sentence, which focuses on the main idea.
The topic sentence usually comes first in a paragraph. The topic sentence is followed by supporting
sentences that develop the idea, and finally, a concluding sentence to tie it all together. Transitional
words then bridge the gap between paragraphs, and the structure starts anew with another topic
sentence for the next paragraph.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Electronic Communication
Communication is needed for decision making, coordination, control, and planning.

Communication is required for processing information in the accounting department, finance
department, personnel department, establishment, of public relations, sales department, market
research, production department, purchase department etc.
Communication with the government, shareholders, and prospective investors, customers etc. is
also required for the day to day functioning of the business concern.
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The conventional process of communication is not sufficient to meet the multidimensional needs of
the business enterprises. So, the need for modern communication technology emerges to meet the
desired need of modern business enterprises.
Worldwide communication has been facilitated by the electronic transmission of data which
connects individuals, regardless of geographic location, almost instantly.
Advantages of Electronic Communication
The following points highlight the advantages of electronic communication:
1. Speedy transmission: It requires only a few seconds to communicate through electronic media
because it supports quick transmission.
2. Wide coverage: World has become a global village and communication around the globe requires
a second only.
3. Low cost: Electronic communication saves time and money. For example, Text SMS is cheaper
than the traditional letter.
4. Exchange of feedback: Electronic communication allows the instant exchange of feedback. So

communication becomes perfect using electronic media.
5. Managing global operation: Due to the advancement of electronic media, business managers can
easily control operation across the globe. Video or teleconferencing e-mail and mobile
communication are helping managers in this regard.
Disadvantages of Electronic Communication
Electronic communication is not free from the below limitations:
1. The volume of data: The volume of telecommunication information is increasing at such a fast
rate that business people are unable to absorb it within the relevant time limit.
2. The cost of development: Electronic communication requires huge investment for infrastructural
development. Frequent change in technology also demands further investment.
3. Legal status: Data or information, if faxed, may be distorted and will cause zero value in the eye of
law.
4. Undelivered data: Data may not be retrieved due to system error or fault with the technology.
Hence required service will be delayed
5. Dependency: Technology is changing every day and therefore poor countries face the problem as
they cannot afford the new or advanced technology. Therefore poor countries need to be
dependent towards developed countries for sharing global network.
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Transactional Analysis
Transactional Analysis (TA) was developed by Dr. Eric Berne. The theory is based on two notions:
• A human being has “ego states” attached to his or her personality.
• These ego states talk to each other as ‘transaction’.
Dr. Berne mentions three ego states:
Parent: This ego state is of two types. The first is a nurturing parent, who is caring and concerned
about other people. The second is the critical parent, who wants his child or her child to do as told.
Adult: The adult is the rational person within us, who is reasonable and assertive but avoids
aggressiveness.
Child: The child is open and a person who is willing to try new things. The child tries to change his or
her situation by rebelling.
Ego states are not a function of age. A person may be at the same or different ego stages during the
same conversation.
Complementary transactions occur when both persons engaged in a conversation are at the same
ego level. In such cases, communication is effective.
When the communication becomes a crossed transaction, such as the communication between a
parent and a child, conflicts starts. The best way is to adopt the mature adult-adult relationship.
Conversation control – Reflection and Empathy
Conversations
One-to-one oral communication, including conversation, is a valuable business tool. It occurs in both
structured and unstructured social business settings, it is essential to good customer service and it
forms the foundation for workplace interactions among employees. More critical business decisions
are made during conversations between two people than in any other forum.
The Conversation Process
Greeting: Through gestures, tone and words provide information about the relationship with the
receiver.
Introduction: During this stage, the person initiating the conversation previews what will follow.
Instructions should be brief and informative. It alerts the receiver to the topic of conversation and
helps frame the context for his or her role in it.
Exchange: As the word exchange implies, the business of a conversation is conducted in a give-and-
take format. During this stage of the process, the purpose of the conversation comes to the
forefront.
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Summary: The fourth stage in the conversation process, the summary, allows the parties to reflect
on the exchange, to recap the items discussed during along complex exchange and to indicate that a
conversation is ending.
Closing: The closing is the cordial conclusion to the conversation. Depending on the situation, the
closing may be verbal, non verbal, or a communication of both.
Conversation Control
Conversation Control refers to the skills of listening and talking in a positive and meaningful way at
an appropriate time. It calls upon the ability to listen with concentration and respond well.
It includes:
• The techniques of changing the direction of conversation smoothly and
• The ability to allow a discussion to develop along key issues in an uninterrupted way towards
the desired end.
Broadly speaking conversation control helps the participants conclude their conversation
(dialogue/discussion) effectively and satisfactorily with mutual understanding and agreement.
Conversation Control
In business, the following situations require the application of conversation control skills:
• Selling and buying
• Negotiating
• Interviewing
• Participating in meetings
• Disagreeing without being rude
• Protesting without offending
• Complimenting/praising
• Responding to personal criticism
Controlling the Direction of Conversation
• There are three possible directions a conversation can take .
• It can move against you, towards you, or away from you.
• The other person could disagree with you and wholly reject your viewpoint (i.e., the
conversation moves against you) or he or she could agree with you and support your
statement (i.e., the conversation moves towards you) or he or she could also without
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rejecting what you say, suggest changes before accepting your statement (i.e., the
conversation moves away from you).
• A skilled conversationalist knows in which direction the conversation is moving.
Controlled response to conversational attacks: When an individual is charged with

negative feelings, it is natural for him or her to attack and say unpleasant things. If the
other person happens to be a client, customer or supervisor, a controlled response is
necessary because larger business interests and long-term personal career interests are
at stake.
Conversation control will help manage situations of aggressive communication

successfully.
Negotiating through conversation: Negotiation is an important activity in

communication. Effective negotiation requires the skills of managing and controlling the
interaction between two sides. Both sides try to present a case tactfully and achieve
their goals. The strategy of using conversation control for negotiation basically involves
showing an understanding of the other party’s position without necessarily agreeing
with it. The entire verbal exercise of give and take to reach a win-win end is skillfully
managed by conversation control.
Feedback
Feedback can generally be of two types. They are constructive feedback and destructive
feedback. Feedback in which someone is trying to improve the current situation, with the
right tone and message, is constructive and feedback that is derogatory and harms or hurts
more than it helps a situation is destructive. Giving and receiving feedback occur many
times during the course of our work at office.
Audience Analysis
Understanding one's audience is one of the most important elements of effective

communication.
Audience analysis can help you gain valuable insight about your listeners, and readers which
can help you to choose and develop a relevant, meaningful topic.
It can also help you to create a writing plan that is tailored effectively to your reading
audience, with appropriate tone, style, language and content.
Communication is complete only when the receiver understands the message in the same
sense and spirit that sender intends to convey.
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Without analyzing audience, the chances of effectiveness of the communication decrease.
Understanding the audience is fundamental to the success of any message. The sender
needs to analyze the audience and then adapt the message to their goals, interests and
needs. Audience like to listen the message that suits their interests, familiar with their level
of knowledge and understanding, and seems true and credible.
Types of Audience:
1. Primary Audience
2. Secondary Audience
3. Initial Audience
4. Gatekeeper Audience
5. Watch dog Audience
Primary Audience: The primary audience is the audience who have to decide whether to
accept the sender's message and his recommendations and to act on the basis of that
message.
For example - in case of advertisement campaign of interior decoration, the primary

audience is prospective customers.
Secondary Audience: The secondary audience consists of people who may be asked to
comment on the message after it has been approved.
For example - in case of advertisement campaign of interior decoration, the existing users
are the secondary audience as the potential buyers ask them about their opinion.
Initial Audience: is the audience that receives the message first and routes it to other
audiences. Sometimes, the initial audience guides the sender regarding designing of the
message.
For example, Censor Board which has to permit to broadcasting of films act as the initial
audience. The editors of the newspapers also act as the initial audience as they edit the
message before publishing in the newspaper.
Gatekeeper Audience: has power to stop the message before it reaches the primary
audience.
For example - the secretary to the minister acts as gatekeeper audience as he scrutinizes the
letters before minister's approval.
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Watch dog Audience: is the audience that has political, social and economic power to
influence the primary audience's decision to act upon the sender's message. Though such
type of audience has power to stop the message yet they influence a lot on primary
audience's action.
For example, the Auditor, who attests the authenticity and accuracy of financial statements,
act as Watch dog audience when he gives his expert opinions.
Importance of Audience Analysis:
Audience is centre to the communication process. The purpose of communication is to

transfer the message with transmission of understanding among the audience. Therefore,
good communication is always audience-centered. It is the audience that determines how
one achieves the objectives of communication.
If the communicator fails to analyze the attitude, interests and knowledge of the audience,
he is likely to be failure. Why certain politicians with bad records can grab the votes? it is
because their message strict to the waves of that time as well as wavelength of the public
and consequently they can manage to manipulate public sentiments to their advantage.
Therefore, an audience analysis is essential before designing the message. Communication

can take place only when the message is received in the same sense and spirit that sender
intends to carry.
Therefore, the sender has to devise some common ground between him and the audience.
He has to choose the information that audience needs and finds interesting.
He should encode the message in words and other symbols that audience will understand
easily.
Lastly, he should transmit the message along a channel that the audience will attend to.
Meetings
Meeting – Definition
Formal or informal deliberative assembly of individuals called to debate certain issues and
problems, and to take decisions.
Formal meetings are held at definite times, at a definite place, and usually for a definite
duration to follow an agreed upon agenda.
In a corporate setting, they are divided into two main groups
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(1) Organizational meeting: normally a regular meeting involving stockholders

(shareholders) and management, such as a board meeting and annual general meeting
(AGM).
(2) Operational meeting: regular or ad hoc meeting involving management and employees,
such as a committee meeting, planning meeting, and sales meeting.
A meeting is typically headed by a chairperson, and its deliberations are recorded in a

written form called minutes.
Under corporate legislation, two main types of meetings are general meetings and special or
extraordinary meetings. Such meetings must have a minimum number of members (called
quorum) present to make the legally operative. Decisions (called resolutions) are made on
the basis of number of votes the assenting and dissenting parties can muster.
Why we call for Meetings?
3M company inputs
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Management of Meetings
Effective management of meetings is an essential business communication goal. Several

types of meetings are common to most organizations. Planning meetings, staff meetings
and annual meetings bring together groups of employees or stakeholders to share
information and update them on the direction the group and the organization as a whole
are taking. These meetings are scheduled regularly and have set agendas that are the basic
issues are discussed in every meeting.
For example, production schedules and budget control might be discussed at every weekly
editorial staff meeting at a publishing company, but each week the group will have new
developments and information to share and learn.
Annual meetings present a similar situation. The basic activities – election of officers, a
state-of-the-company address, voting on various referenda and so on – take place every
year, but each year the nominees are different, the company’s performance varies to some
degree, and new referenda are proposed.
Agenda
Importance of an Agenda
An effective agenda should include:
• Time of meeting
• Length of meeting
• Location of meeting
• List of participants
• Subject of meeting
• Background information
• Items to be covered
• Pre-meeting preparation
Some agendas specify the time that the item will be addressed or the amount of time to be
devoted to each item during the meeting.
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Meeting Agenda
Meeting Called By: Date:
Meeting Place: Starting Time:
Please Bring: Ending Time:
Attendees:
Purpose of Meeting:
Desired Outcome:
Description Presenter Goal/Outcome Time Allotted
A formal agenda for a meeting is as follows:
• Without a quorum (eg. 50 percent, two-thirds or three-fourths of the members), the

meeting cannot proceed.
• Reading the minutes summarizes what took place in previous meetings of the group.
If this is the first (or only) meeting, this step is omitted. Often, the leader of a group
dispenses with a reading of the minutes and simply asks if anyone has additions. In
cases where formal approval of minutes is required, some members must “move”
that the minutes be accepted and someone must “second the motion”.
• After the minutes, the leader reviews the topics as discussed. If a group member
wishes to add a topic to the list, it is done at this point, not later.
• Communications to be read include messages from people not present at the

meeting that have to be considered during discussions. Many agendas present this
information as an “overview” given at the start of a meeting.
• Committee reports often form the bulk of formal meetings. Special committees are
temporary subgroups created to look into short-term or specific problems. Standing
committees are permanent subgroups that concentrate on long term developments
in broad areas such as budgeting, personnel, and purchasing. These committees
meet on their own time and regularly report back to the complete group. In less
formal meetings, an individual member may report on findings or update the group
on developments in a particular area.
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• Unfinished business and new business include topics that were not agreed on at
earlier meetings and new issues that have to be addressed. Committees may be
formed to look into these areas. In problem-solving meetings, addressing such issues
takes up most of the time.
• Closing concerns and adjournments round off the meeting, giving a summary of
what has been accomplished and where the group may go next. Informal agendas
may simply include a “wrap-up” or “summary” to provide closure to the meeting.
If possible, all participants should receive a copy of the agenda before the meeting. The
agenda can be mailed, e-mailed, hand-delivered or participants can pick up a copy.
Proper advance planning is important for the success of a meeting. Participant’s schedules
and other environmental issues can affect a meeting.
Documentation of meetings
Many meetings take place in business and an effective meeting is an efficient tool in the
communication process. Meetings provide a useful opportunity for sharing information,
making suggestions and proposals, taking decisions and obtaining feedback. The success of
any meeting depends on essential preparatory work. Part of this work involves making sure
that all the documentation is in order.
Notice and Agenda
The notice and agenda are usually combined in one document. The portion at the top is
known as notice – this gives details of the type, place, date and time of the meeting. The
agenda is the list of topics to be discussed at the meeting. It is important to send out the
notice and agenda prior t the meeting so that all members have notice of what is to be
discussed. They can then make necessary preparations for each discussion point.
Minutes of the Meeting
Minutes are a written record of what took place at a meeting. An accurate written record is
essential not only for those who attend the meeting but also for those who were absent.
Minutes should be written in the past tense using person and reported speech.
Types of Minutes
• Minutes of resolution: Only the main conclusions that are reached are recorded, not
a note of the discussions that took place. These are usually used for minutes of
AGMs and other statutory meetings. It is important to note the exact wordings of
any resolutions that are passed.
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• Minutes of narration: These minutes are a concise summary of all the discussions
that took place, reports received and action to be taken.
• Verbatim Minutes: These are used primarily in court reporting, where everything
needs to be recorded word by word.
Terminology Used
Some of the terminology used in meetings and preparation of agenda and minutes are:
• Quorum: The number of people needed to be in attendance for a meeting to be

legitimate and so commence
• Seconder: One who supports the proposer of a motion or proposal by seconding it
• Ultra Vires: Beyond the authority of the meeting to consider
• Intra Vires (in-truh vahy-reez): Within the power of the committee or meeting to
discuss, carry out
• Sine Die (sahy-nee dahy-ee ): From Latin, meaning “without a day”, that is to say
indefinitely, eg: adjourned sine die
• Secret Ballot: A system of voting in secret
• Ex Officio: Given powers or rights by reason of office
• Nem con (nemine contradicente ): From the Latin, meaning ‘no one speaking against’
• Guillotine (gil-uh-teen ): Cut short a debate – usually in parliament
• Motion: The name given to a proposal when it is being discussed at a meeting
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UNIT IV
Fundamentals of Business Communication
Developing Words
Principle 1: Choose understandable words
Choosing understandable words will make a communication simpler and easier. Adhere to
following principles:
Choose words that the receiver will understand. These are words that exist in the
receiver’s vocabulary. Consider the receiver’s knowledge about the topic and
educational level.
Use understandable words rather than complicated ones. Consider the following
examples:
Less Understandable More understandable

Abdicate Resign
Palpable Obvious
Prerogative Right or privilege
Zealot Fanatic
Avoid use of jargon
Principle 2: Use specific, precise words

Use words that are precise and clear in meaning. Using vague or abstract words creates
ambiguity in the receiver’s mind and may be perceived differently by different people.
Vague Specific
Many Thousand
Early 5 a.m.
Most 93%
Very rich A millionaire
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Principle 3: Choose strong words

A strong word is one that creates a vivid image in the receiver’s mind. In the English
language, verbs are the strongest words, followed by nouns. Use action words for emphasis.
These power words help create a strong picture in the receiver’s mind. At the same time,
eliminate unnecessary words in a sentence to keep it from losing impact.
Weak nouns and verbs Strong nouns and verbs

The conflict is ongoing The war rages on
Weak adjectives and adverbs Strong adjectives and adverbs
The contract expires in a few years The contract expires in five years.
Unnecessary prepositions Simple, direct statement
Did you pay the rent for the office space? Did you pay the office rent?
Principle 4: Emphasize important words

Effective communicators have a positive, can-do attitude. Positive words convey optimism
and confidence. Negative words trigger unpleasant emotions in receivers. Avoid using
negative words and phrases such as accuse, blame, wrong, etc.
Negative Phrasings Positive Phrasings

Your understanding was wrong Let us review the facts
Your order cannot be shipped until Friday Your order will be shipped on Friday
Principle 5: Avoid overused words

The more you use certain words, the impact of the sentence is less and the message is dull
and difficult to understand. Examples include phrases as like, you know, bottom line,
actually, it goes without saying etc.
Principle 6: Avoid Obsolete Words and phrases
Obsolete word/phrases is one that is out-of-date, pompous, dull or stiff.
Examples:
Enclosed herewith;
Permit me to say;
Regret to advise;
Your kind favour;
Thanking you in advance
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Developing Sentences
Principle 1: Compose clear sentences
A clear sentence uses understandable, precise, strong and positive words. It uses words
which the receiver will understand and keeps in mind his knowledge and background.
It is complete in itself. It contains one main idea and is unambiguous. If there are two main
thoughts, break them into two separate sentences.
Principle 2: Use short sentences
A short sentence is more effective than a long sentence and is also easier to understand. It
should have a length of around 15-20 words. Using sentences of variable length helps
eliminate the dull effect of too many short sentences. However, lengthy sentences should
not be made too complicated. Sentences should always be complete and convey a complete
thought.
Principle 3: Choose the active voice in sentences
Active sentences convey the idea more clearly, concisely and forcefully than passive ones. In
the active voice, the subject does the work, in the passive voice, the subject is acted upon.
At times, however, the passive voice has to be used. For example, the passive voice can be
used to add variety or to de-emphasize an idea, it is appropriate when a customer’s order is
more important than who shipped it.
Active: The department store delivered the clothing on time.

Passive: Your clothing was delivered on time.
At times, the passive voice reduces the negativity of the sentence, e.g:
Active: The department store delivered your clothing late.
Passive: Your clothing was delivered late.
Principle 4: Give sentences appropriate emphasis

Giving emphasis to sentences means stressing or emphasizing the important ideas and de-
stressing or de-emphasizing the less important one. Use length as a toll to emphasize the
ideas in a sentence. Short sentences emphasize content; long sentences de-emphasize
content.
Eg: Larry received a raise because of his outstanding performance.
Instead,
The company awarded Larry with a hike in his monthly salary just because he could produce
a better performance appraisal report.
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Forming Paragraphs
Organizing sentences into meaningful paragraphs is an important part of composing a
message. The following principles help form clear, concise, logical, coherent and effective
paragraphs.
Principle 1: Use short Paragraphs
Short paragraphs are easier to understand. In letters and memos, paragraphs should
average four to five lines, whereas in reports, each paragraph should average six to seven
lines. The first and last paragraphs are usually shorter for greater emphasis.
Principle 2: Give paragraphs unity
Paragraph unity means that all sentences in the paragraph should relate to one topic. The
topics should be adequately covered; however, if the paragraph becomes too long, it should
be divided into two or more logical parts.
Principle 3: Organize paragraphs logically
Paragraphs must be organized logically using a direct or indirect plan. An indirect plan is one
that mentions the details before presenting the main idea. A direct plan mentions the main
idea before elaborating the details. Normally, positive news is conveyed using the direct
plan and the indirect plan is used to present bad news. A topic sentence is used in
paragraphs to point to the main idea. In a direct plan the topic sentence is placed at the
beginning, in the indirect plan the topic sentence comes later, in the body of the paragraph.
Principle 4: Give paragraphs appropriate emphasis
Use the paragraphs effectively to emphasize or de-emphasize ideas.
Principle 5: Provide paragraph coherence
Ensure a smooth flow of ideas to form a coherent paragraph.
Emphasize your ideas
Length
Location
Repetition
Explicitness (unambiguous)
Format
Mechanics (workings, procedure)
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Transitional words bridge ideas

Transitional words are helpful in bridging one idea to the next. They are used to denote
contrast , examples , emphasis, sequence, conclusions, exclusions and additions. Words like
furthermore, also, in addition serve the purpose.
Use unbiased language
Using unbiased language is the final and most important consideration in composition of
messages. It includes fair and unbiased treatment of individuals regardless of race, gender,
culture, age, ability, religion or socioeconomic status. Eg: use chairperson instead of
chairman or chairwoman.
Compose with style
The most important factor of communication is that any form of communication must
reflect your personality. Induct your own style into the sentences. Style also includes the
purpose of your communication. The same meaning may be conveyed in two different ways
– one simple and one powerful. Consider the example below:
Simple: If I can’t have freedom, I would rather not live,
Stylized: Give me liberty, or give me death!
Negative Messages
A negative message is one that conveys unpleasant, disappointing or unfavourable
information to the receiver. It may be given to refuse a request from a customer or an
employee, provide information about an unfavourable policy change, and notify job
applicants that they were not hired, or inform customers of a product recall. An effective
negative message is a challenge to compose; the receiver must understand and accept the
information without a loss of friendship or goodwill towards the sender.
A negative message is any message to which the reader will have an unpleasant emotional
reaction. Readers find negative messages disappointing or threatening in some way. Such
messages require special care to avoid damaging the quality of the relationship because the
negative message – the bad news – will hurt the reader’s feelings or cause him or her to lose
face.
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How to organize a Negative Message
Negative Letters Negative memos to Negative memos to peers

Superiors and subordinates
1. When you have 1. Describe the 1. Describe the
reasons that readers problem. problem.
will understand and
accept, give them
before the refusal.
2. Give the negative 2. Explain how it 2. Present an
information or happened. alternative or
refusal clearly, just compromise, if
once. available
3. Present an 3. Describe options 3. Ask for input or action if
alternative or for fixing it. possible
compromise, if
available
4. End with a positive, 4. Recommend a
forward-looking solution; ask for
statement action
Circulars and Notices

A circular is a communication meant to convey information of a business firm to customers,
business partners, etc. In the course of business, occasions will arise where it is necessary to
send out circular letters. The sender aims to give certain information to the public. There are
also other ways to communicate or advertise in newspapers or journals. A circular letter is
prepared once only and it may then be duplicated for distribution to the various recipients.
Names, addresses and individual salutations my be inserted after duplication in order to
personalize the letter.
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Circulars vs Letters
Circulars Letters
A circular letter is one that carries A letter is meant for only one person.
communication to a number of addresses.
They are to be read by a large number of Generally, letters are personal and private in
people. nature.
In writing a circular, the writer has a choice In writing a letter, the writer has no choice
of using a personal salutation. but to use the personal salutation.
Instead of: our customers will appreciate.... e.g., in a letter welcoming visitors:
Preferred: you will appreciate.... Correct: Dear Mr. James
Incorrect: Dear Visitors
Types of Circulars
Circulars announcing changes in business organization

Change of company name
Opening of a new store
Expansion of existing business
Opening of a new business
Establishment of a new branch
Death of a colleague
Circulars announcing changes in business partnerships
Appointment of the new partner
Conversion of a partnership to private company
Letters announcing change of representatives
Dismissal of firm’s representative
Appointment of new representative
Internal circulars to staff
Announcement about new working hours
Notice about new car park
Information about store discount
Security information to HODs
Letter regarding outstanding holiday entitlement
Reminder about health and safety policy
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Business Letters
A business letter has seven standard parts viz., the heading, inside address, salutation, body,
complimentary close, signature block and reference initials.
Standard Parts of a letter
Heading
The heading consists of a letter head or return address and date.
Supplementary Parts of a letter

These parts include the attention line, subject line, company name in the signature block,
enclosure notation, copy notation and postscript.
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Memos
A business memo helps, members of an organization communicate without the need for
time consuming meetings. It is an efficient and effective way to convey information within
an organization. Use memos rather than letters when you are communicating within your
organization, including members of your department, upper management, employees at
other company locations, etc.
MEMORANDUM
TO: (readers’ names and job titles)
FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE:
SUBJECT: (specifically what the memo is about)
Key features of memos, letters and e-mails
Sr. No. Memoranda Letter E-mail

1. Tends to get down to A letter spreads the Tends to get down to
business more quickly message effectively but business more quickly than a
than a letter not as fast as a letter as it is sent instantly
memoranda
2. To, From, Subject and There is a prescribed Content receives more
Date are important format for a letter emphasis than appearance
streamlines for the
reader and create a
different visual impact
3. Tends to be informal Perceived to be most Tends to be informal
formal
4. Vary in length and Letters are usually of Vary in length and
distribution one page distribution
5. They are often Letters typically go to They are often distributed to
distributed to entire certain individuals entire departments or
departments or groups groups
6 E-mail messages have the
additional distinction of
being able to have
attachments
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Writing Business Letters

General Guidelines
If writing a business letter takes you much longer than in your own language,
here are a few guidelines that you may find helpful.
Plan before you write.

Look up words you need before you start.
Note the points you want to make, and order them into logical paragraphs.
Tone
Write as you would speak in a business conversation.
The tone should be friendly and polite.
Names
Make sure you check the gender of the addressee (the recipient),
as well as the correct spelling of the person's name and title.
Use Ms. for women and Mr. for men.
You can use Mrs. for a woman if you are 100% sure that she is married.
Dates
To avoid any confusion, write the month instead of using numbers
(e.g. January 15th, 2012 or 15 January 2012).
Be concise and clear. The easier it is to read a letter the better.

Keep sentences and paragraphs short and simple.
Use straightforward vocabulary to avoid any misunderstanding.
Ask direct questions.
Rewrite any sentence that does not seem perfectly clear.
If the recipient is not a native English-speaker, it is preferable to avoid
words or expressions that are too technical or complicated.
Remember this word order principle
Subject Verb Object Manner Place Time
Who Does What How Where When
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Example :
Mr. Brown will travel by plane to London on Monday, June 5th.
A technician will install the equipment in your office on Tuesday.
Avoid old-fashioned words
Although they are used in legal documents and contracts, words like
'herewith', 'herein', 'aforementioned', etc. are rarely used in letters.
The following style of sentence is preferable :

"You will find more information on our products in the enclosed brochure."
Useful phrases and vocabulary for writing business letters.
• Dear Mr. Brown

• Dear Ms. White
• Dear Sir
Salutation • Dear Madam
• Dear Sir or Madam
• Gentlemen
• We are writing
- to inform you that ...
- to confirm ...
- to request ...
- to enquire about ...
Starting • I am contacting you for the following reason...
• I recently read/heard about ..... and would like to know ....
• Having seen your advertisement in ..., I would like to ...
• I would be interested in (obtaining / receiving) ...
• I received your address from ----- and would like to ...
• Thank you for your letter of March 15.

• Thank you for contacting us.
• In reply to your request, ...
Referring to • Thank you for your letter regarding ...
previous • With reference to our telephone conversation yesterday...
contact • Further to our meeting last week ...
• It was a pleasure meeting you in London last month.
• I enjoyed having lunch with you last week in Tokyo.
• I would just like to confirm the main points we discussed
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on Tuesday.
• We would appreciate it if you would ...

• I would be grateful if you could ...
• Could you please send me ...
• Could you possibly tell us / let us have ...
Making a request • In addition, I would like to receive ...
• It would be helpful if you could send us ...
• I am interested in (obtaining / receiving) ...
• I would appreciate your immediate attention to this matter.
• Please let me know what action you propose to take.
• Would you like us to ...?

• We would be happy to ...
Offering help • We are quite willing to ...
• Our company would be pleased to ...
• We are pleased to announce that ...

Giving good news • I am delighted to inform you that ..
• You will be pleased to learn that ...
• We regret to inform you that ...

• I'm afraid it would not be possible to ...
Giving bad news • Unfortunately we cannot / we are unable to ...
• After careful consideration we have decided (not) to ...
• I am writing to express my dissatisfaction with ...

• I am writing to complain about ...
• Please note that the goods we ordered on ( date )
have not yet arrived.
Complaining • We regret to inform you that our order n° ------ is now
considerably overdue.
• I would like to query the transport charges which seem
unusually high.
(page 2)
Apologising We are sorry for the delay in replying to ...

(US: Apologizing) I regret any inconvenience caused (by) ...
I would like to apologise for the (delay, inconvenience)...
Once again, please accept my apologies for ...
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Orders Thank you for your quotation of ...

We are pleased to place an order with your company for..
We would like to cancel our order n° .....
Please confirm receipt of our order.
I am pleased to acknowledge receipt of your order n° .....
Your order will be processed as quickly as possible.
It will take about (two/three) weeks to process your order.
We can guarantee you delivery before ... (date)
Unfortunately these articles are no longer available /
are out of stock.
Prices Please send us your price list.

You will find enclosed our most recent catalogue and price
list.
Please note that our prices are subject to change
without notice.
We have pleasure in enclosing a detailed quotation.
We can make you a firm offer of ...
Referring to payment Our terms of payment are as follows ...

Our records show that we have not yet received
payment of ...
According to our records ...
Please send payment as soon as possible.
You will receive a credit note for the sum of ...
Enclosing I am enclosing ...

documents Please find enclosed ...
You will find enclosed ...
Closing remarks If we can be of any further assistance, please let us know.

If I can help in any way, please do not hesitate to
contact me.
If you require more information ...
For further details ...
Thank you for taking this into consideration.
Thank you for your help.
We hope you are happy with this arrangement.
We hope you can settle this matter to our satisfaction.
Referring to future We look forward to a successful working relationship in the

business future.
We would be (very) pleased to do business with your
company.
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I would be happy to have an opportunity to work with

your firm.
Referring to future I look forward to seeing you next week.

contact Looking forward to hearing from you, ...
Looking forward to receiving your comments,
I look forward to meeting you on the (date).
I would appreciate a reply at your earliest convenience.
An early reply would be appreciated.
Ending business ◊ Sincerely, }

letters
◊ Yours
for all customers / clients
sincerely,}
◊ Sincerely
yours,}
◊ Yours faithfully, in more formal letters
for those you already know and/or with whom

◊ Regards,
you have a working relationship
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Sample Letters for Every Occasion
1. Salary Increase Request and Reply Letters
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A Typical Corporate Communication

Denying Strategic Partnership
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Day to-day Trading Letters

Submission of Reports to a Client
Quotation Format
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Handling Customer Complaints
Explaining Delay in Sending Components
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Registering Complaints
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Sales Letters
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Follow-Up Letters
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Follow-up Re. New Responsibilities and Salary Increase
Follow-up Letter from Manager to Employee
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Asking for Pay Hike
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Dismissal Letter
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Letter on Lay-Offs (Downsizing)
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Resignation Letters/Notice
Job Application Acknowledgement
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Job Reference Check Letter
Interview Call Letter
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Covering Letter Post Interview
Writing Job Reference Letter
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Regret Letters
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Welcome Letter – Job Induction
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BUSINESS ENGLISH VOCABULARY

Abbreviations and Acronyms
Word Meaning
@ at
a/c account
AGM annual general meeting
a.m. ante meridiem (before noon)
a/o account of (on behalf of)
AOB any other business
ASAP as soon as possible
ATM automated teller machine (cash dispenser)
attn for the attention of
approx approximately
cc copy to
CEO chief executive officer
c/o care of (on letters: at the address of)
Co company
cm centimetre
COD cash on delivery
dept department
e.g. exempli gratia (for example)
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EGM extraordinary general meeting
ETA estimated time of arrival
etc et caetera (and so on)
GDP gross domestic product
GNP gross national product
GMT Greenwich mean time (time in London)
i.e. id est (meaning : 'that is')
Inc incorporated
IOU I owe you
IPO initial public offer
Jr junior
K thousand
lb pound (weight)
£ pound (money/currency)
(page 2)
Word Meaning
Ltd limited
mo month
N/A not applicable
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NB Nota Bene (it is important to note)
no number
PA personal assistant
p.a. per annum (per year)
Plc public limited company
pls please
p.m. post meridiem (after noon)
p.p. per pro (used before signing in a person's absence)
PR public relations
p.s. post scriptum
PTO please turn over
p.w. per week
qty quantity
R&D research and development
re with reference to
ROI return on investment
RSVP repondez s'il vous plait (please reply)
s.a.e. stamped addressed envelope
VAT value added tax
VIP very important person
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Advertising
Word Meaning
advertisement Item of publicity to promote a product or service in newspapers,

magazines, on TV, etc.
advertising agency Marketing services firm that assists companies in planning

advertisements.
AIDA Attention, Interest, Desire, Action - the aim of all advertising.
benefit Advantage of a product or service.
billboard Signboard for advertising posters.
broadsheet Newspaper printed in a large format.
campaign organised course or plan of action.
circulation Average number of copies of newspapers or magazines sold over a

period of time.
classified ads Small advertisements in newspapers or magazines, divided into

categories.
commercial Advertisement on radio or television.
coupon Part of a printed advertisement to be used to order goods or

samples.
direct mail Advertisement sent by post to prospective customers.
double-page spread Advertisement printed across two pages in a newspaper or

magazine.
editing Reviewing or rewriting in order to make suitable for publication.
eye-catcher Something that particularly attracts one's attention.
features Special characteristics of a product.
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generic advertising Advertising for a whole sector, such as tourism, rather than a
specific product.
hoarding Wooden structure or signboard, used to carry advertisements.
hype Excessive or intensive publicity; exaggerated claims made in

advertising.
jingle Catchy tune, with a short simple rhyme, used to promote a product.
key words Informative words chosen to indicate the content of a document.
launch To start an action in order to introduce something (e.g. a new

proeduct).
mailshot Piece of advertising material sent to potential customers by post.
mass media The main means of mass communication (newspapers, TV and

radio).
plug Favourable publicity in the media for a commercial product

(e.g. a book).
poster Large sheet of paper used in advertising.
prime time Hours on radio and TV with the largest audience, usually the
evening.
promote Use advertising and publicity to try to increase sales of a product.
roadside signs Large panels along roads and motorways used for outdoor
advertising.
slogan Phrase used to advertise a product, or to identify a company or

organisation.
slot Specific time in a broadcasting schedule allotted for a commercial.
soundbite Short extract from a recorded interview or speech.
spam Unsolicited advertising sent through the internet as an email

message.
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spot Position of a commercial in a radio programme or TV schedule.
tabloid Newspaper printed in small format, usually with a lot of

photographs.
target Objective; what is aimed at.
U.S.P. Unique Selling Proposition; a declaration of what makes a product

different.
write copy Write a text to be printed or spoken in an advertisement or a

commercial.
Business Reports and Proposals
Reports
A report is a systematic, well organized document which defines and analyzes a
subject or problem, and which may include:
The record of a sequence of events

Interpretation of the significance of these events or facts
Evaluation of the facts or results of research presented
Discussion of the outcomes of decision or course of action
Conclusions
Recommendations
Reports must always be:

Accurate
Concise
Clear
Well structured
Initial Presentation
Always analyze the brief carefully, making sure that researcher fully understand the
topic, question or case, the purpose of the report and who it is being written for. The
clearer these things are in the report writer, the easier the report will be to write and
the more effective it will be.
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During the research period, planning and eventual writing, students and researchers
should continually ask:
What is the main purpose of the report?
What is the objective for writing it: Is it to inform, argue, persuade or
evaluate?
What will the reader want to see in the report and what will they do with it?
Planning and Research

Principally, one should first decide on the basic framework or structure. The main
topic or question is the central focus, jot down initial thoughts and start up to group
these together.
Secondly, plan the research process. Identify what you need to determine, maybe in
the form of questions that need to be answered and then approach your reading
from the starting point. If the researcher is having specific information to look for, it
will make your reading easier and less time consuming. The quality of information is
paramount.
Never gather too much information.
Keep the topic or question in mind, reject anything that is not absolutely relevant.
Remember to make a comprehensive record of any sources consulted in order to be
able to correctly reference these. Make a record of the research methods used.
Report Structure
Below is a typical report sub-heading that a business report will include.
Title Page
Executive Summary
Introduction
Methodology
Data Collection & Analysis
Results
Conclusion
Recommendations
Appendices
References
Bibliography
Unlike essays, reports are written in sections with headings and sub-headings, which
are usually numbered.
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Title Page
This will include the title, researcher’s name, the name of the tutor to whom it is
being submitted, date of submission, course/department and if applicable, the name
of the person and/or organization who has commissioned the report. Avoid fancy
fonts and clipart.
Executive Summary
This is a very brief outline of the report to give the reader a general idea of what it is
about. It should include a statement of: (i) overall aims and specific objectives, (ii)
method /procedure used, (iii) key findings, (iv) main conclusion and
recommendations.
Introduction
This should show that the researcher has fully understood the task/brief and that
he/she are going to cover everything required. Indicate the basic structure of the
report. Include just a little background /context and indicate the reasons for writing
this report. Also we may include terms of reference and procedure/research
methods if not covered elsewhere.
Main body/Findings
This is the substance of the report. The structure will vary according to the nature of
the material being presented, with headings and sub headings used to clearly
indicate the different sections. A “situation > problem > solution > evaluation”
approach may be appropriate. It is not sufficient to simply describe a situation.
Charts, diagrams and tables can be used to reinforce arguments. Do not include
opinions, conclusions or recommendations in this section.
Results
This section records observations (in the past tense) and would normally include
statistics, tables or graphs.
Conclusion
The conclusion should draw out the implications of the findings, with deductions
based on the facts described in your main body. Do not include any new material
here.
Recommendations
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These should follow logically from the conclusion and be specific, measurable and
achievable. They should propose how the situation/problem could be improved by
suggesting action to be taken. Recommendations can be numbered.
Appendices
An appendix is detailed documentation of points that outline the findings, for
example, technical data, questionnaires, letters sent, tables, sketches, charts, leaflets
etc. It is supplementary information which the researcher considers to be too long or
complicated or not quite relevant enough to include in the main body, but which still
should be of interest to the readers. Each appendix should be referred to in the text.
Refrain from including documents, charts etc that is not discussed in the main body.
References
This is a list giving the full details of all the sources to which the reference is made in
the main body.
Bibliography
This either a separate list of sources which you have used during the research, but
have not actually made reference to in the writing, or this list may be put together
with the list of references.
Qualities of a Good Report
Adaptation Select symbols that carry the meaning in the readers mind.
Objectivity It should be unbiased. Seek the truth.
Tense Use one tense either past or present.
Viewpoint Must be consistent.
Transition Make good use of semantic markers and scheme
Arouse Interest It should be interesting.
Concreteness It should contain only facts
Types of Report
Reports can be formal or informal.
Formal Report
A formal report is written in the third person and uses headings. It may contain:
A title page
Table of contents
List of illustrations
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Abstract
Body
Glossary
Appendix
Reference List
Informal Report
Informal reports are used for internal use, particularly within departments and for
dealing with routine issues. The memorandum format is often used for these reports
and the structure is usually as follows:
Introduction
Main section – findings
Final section – conclusions and recommendations
It may be written with or without a title page, formatted as a letter or a
memorandum is written in first person and uses headings. Informal reports may be
of the following kind.
Progress: Informs readers of the status of a project
Periodic: Provides managers with updated information at regular intervals.
Technical: Convey specialized information
Steps in Conducting Research
Plan the research

Gather information
Analyze the information
Determine the solution
Write the report
Plan the research

State the problems
Set the boundaries
Scope
Time schedule
Budget
Determine and analyze the audience
Decide on the research procedures
Gather Information
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Primary sources of Information: Data and information not previously published are
available from company records or are gathered through:
Surveys
Focus Groups
Observations
Experiments
Personal interview
Secondary sources of information:
Published materials available in libraries and can be located through traditional or

computerized searches.
Analyze the information
Compare and contrast various parts of the information

Interpret facts and figures by explaining their significance.
Determine Solutions
Guidelines
Conclusion: An inference drawn from the facts

Recommendations: On which the solution is based
Write the Report
Plan
Draft
Finalize
The Research Process for Writing a Report
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Formal Written Reports
Preliminary Section
Title page
Letter or memo of transmittal
Table of contents
List of illustrations
Executive summary
Body
Introduction
Procedures
Findings
Analysis
Conclusion
Recommendations
Mechanics of formal reports
Cover
Margins
Spacing
Headings
Footnotes or citations
Page numbers
Proposals
A proposal encompasses suggestions about how to change things for the better, to improve
productivity and to enhance profitability. It is a persuasive message in which a writer
analyzes a problem and recommends a solution. Proposals take time to write and may often
be rejected. Persuasion lies at the heart of writing a proposal. It is immaterial whether the
proposal is a memo or a full document. Structure is very important.
Proposals can be internal or to another organization. When we respond to a tender by a

governmental agency, then we submit a ‘bid’ to claim that you are qualified to do the job for
a fee.
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Purpose of Proposals
Many groups and organizations solicit proposals. The request may appear in trade
publications or newspapers, or on occasion a request for a proposal (RFP) is directed
towards a company with specific expertise. In some cases, the company need to respond to
an Expression of Interest advertisement. Once pre qualified, you may submit the bid or
proposal.
Few topics for proposals are as follows:
To sell property, such as airplanes, machines, buildings

To survey water areas for possible oil fields
Improving engineering and just in time (JIT) performance within a company
Preparing international managers for work in US
Preparing first time job seekers from Kerala embarking a journey to Gulf
Kinds of Proposals
Proposals are sales presentations, easily classified into research proposals and business
proposals.
Research Proposals
Research proposal is usually academic in nature. Academic institutions submit most

research proposals. Normally, Professors write research proposals to obtain a grant in
response to a request or an announcement from the government or other agencies.
Business Proposals
Types of Business Proposals
Informal and formal proposals: Informal proposals are in the form of letters (for external
purposes) and memos (for internal purposes). Formal proposals are very structured and
contain many of the features of formal reports.
Internal and external proposals: Proposals sent in order to solve internal problems within
an organization are called internal proposals. Generally, these are sent to solve problems,
improve procedures etc.
External proposals are sent to outside parties. They go to clients, government agencies or
suppliers. Such proposals are sent for supply of products at given prices, to build roads or to
perform audits.
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Unsolicited and Solicited Proposals
Proposals which represent an independent analysis of another’s problems or need creation

of possible solutions are called unsolicited proposals. They may be internal or external. On
the other hand a solicited proposal is in response to a request.
Tips to write a winning Proposal
Few tips are as follows:
Use the outline and the same words that the agency has in its literature or
guidelines.
Avoid jargons
Convince the reader or review committee that you understand the organization’s
problem and that your company is qualified to solve it successfully.
Parts of a Proposal
Title Page
Most organizations specify the information to be included in the page. The title page should
include the title, the name of the person or company to whom the proposal is submitted,
the person submitting the proposal and the date.
Executive Summary, Abstract, Synopsis
Even the brief proposals should have an executive summary. Because you will be competing
with others for the same opportunities, some evaluators will read only the executive
summary.
Draft Contract
A draft contract allows the receiver to give a counter offer. In long proposals and if the
reader is not hostile, a draft contract may be inserted after the executive summary. Such an
early presentation gives an immediate overview, including financial information.
Table of contents
Long proposals require a table of contents, as well as a list of tables, figures and illustrations.
Introduction
Purpose: Do not assume that the reader of your proposal. Staff members often initially read
the proposal and even screen it before sending it to the concerned person. Hence you need
to write introduction as if you are addressing a non specialist.
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Problem: In a business proposal, show clearly that you understand the problem or
problems. You may show how you propose to overcome them.
Scope: Define the boundaries of your project. If your proposal is for service or
equipment you are selling, in what areas will it serve the prospective buyer?
Project Team: Even in short reports some proposals include a list of the individuals
who will work on the project, including the project director. In long proposals such
information is a must, including a brief vita on each individual.
Background
If your proposal is short, the background may be omitted. In longer version the
following information is usually included:
1. Previous work completed on identical or related projects

2. Literature reviews on the subject, particularly your evaluation of them
3. Statements showing how your proposals will build on already completed
projects and research
Procedures
How you are planning to conduct or manage projects.
Equipment and Facilities
For a research project, state what equipment and facilities you already have and assure the
reader that you procure the rest.
Personnel
Two topics should be addressed: the personnel arrangements and the company areas
involved, and their individual qualifications, expressed in complete biographic.
Budget
Sponsors or organization requesting proposals frequently specify how the budget should be
presented. The narrative portion of the budget is used to explain any unusual line items in
the budget and is not always needed.
Appendices
Support documents, pertinent letters and endorsements to be included.
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Write style and appearance
The first impression is very critical. The receiver will appraise the proposal in terms of:
1. General appearance
2. Neatness
3. Specific appearance
4. Consistency of style
5. Title
6. Completeness
7. Professionalism
Components of a Project Proposal
Executive Umbrella statement of your case and summary of the entire proposal
Summary 1 page
Statement of Why this project is necessary
need 2 pages
Project Nuts and bolts of how the project will be implemented and evaluated
Description 3 pages
Budget Financial description of the project plus explanatory notes
1 page
Organization History and governing structure of the organization and its primary
Information activities, audiences and services
1 page
Conclusion Summary of the proposal’s main points
2 paragraphs
A simple proposal formula
Here is a simple approach to help you cover all the bases in your proposal. You can use it like a
formula. For each section or requirement that you must address in the RFP, make sure you answer:
who, what, where, how, when, and why. Repeat it like a mantra, until it rolls off your tongue and
you have it memorized. Then use it to anticipate and answer all of your customer's questions. After
you have written your proposal, you can use the same formula to review it and help ensure you have
addressed everything you should have addressed. In each section of your proposal, simply ask
yourself if it answers "who, what, where, how, when, and why?
Who: who will do the work, who will manage the work, who does the customer call if there is a
problem, who is responsible for what.
What: what needs to be done/delivered, what will be required to do it, what can the customer
expect, what it will cost
Where: where will the work be done, where will it be delivered
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How: how will be work be done, how will it be deployed, how will it be managed, how will you
achieve quality assurance and customer satisfaction, how will risks be mitigated, how long will it
take, how will the work benefit the customer
When: when will you start, when will key milestones be scheduled, when will the project be
complete, when is payment due
Why: why have you chosen the approaches and alternatives you have selected, why the customer
should select you?
This simple little phrase (who, what, where, how, when, and why) can help you not only ensure that
your proposal says everything it should, but that it answers the customer's questions better than
your competitors.
Proposal from a non-profit organization to a funding agency
1. Executive Summary
1.1 The problem
1.2 The solution
1.3 Funding requirements
1.4 Details of the organization and its expertise
2. The statement of need
2.1 Decide which facts or statistics best support the project
2.2 Give the reader hope
2.3 Decide if you want to put your project forward as a model
2.4 Determine whether it is reasonable to portray the need as acute
3. The Project Description
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Staff / Administration
3.3 Evaluation
3.4 Sustainability
4. Organizational information and conclusion
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MBA 14

The Communication Process

Noise – Literally or figuratively, anything that interfaces with a message.

The Linear Concept

Shannon Weaver Model

o Communication is a reciprocal process and a mutual exchange of messages

1. One way communication: Where only ‘sending messages’ is possible in an organization.

3. Collaborative Communication: This is when multiple parties are involved in the

1. Making the receiver understand

The Seven Cs of Effective Communication

The 4Ss are as follows:

Types of Communication Skills

Characteristics of Oral Communication

The following are the characteristics of oral communication:

It is an instant process: Oral communication is an instant process. There is no delay in message

Principles of Oral Communication

4. Courtesy: It is very important to be courteous while speaking. Speaker must be courteous to

Types of Oral Communication

Advantages and Disadvantages of Oral Communication

1. It is an effective way to communicate to 1. It has no proof: The biggest

Barriers to Effective Communication

Broadly, Barriers to effective communication are classified as:

a. Noise. Noise is quite often a barrier to communication. In factories, oral communication is

In contrast, connotative meanings arouse qualitative judgments and personal reactions.

III. Socio-psychological barriers

4. Status-consciousness. Status consciousness exists in every organization and is one of the

6. Inattentiveness. People often become inattentive while receiving a message in particular,

9. Unsolicited communication. Unsolicited communication has to face stronger barriers than

Understanding Business Communication

The Importance of Communication in Management

Communication skills constitute an important aspect of effective management. Management is a

Better interpersonal relationships

Better information availability

When we communicate to convey information or knowledge then its communicate to inform

Internal Communication (Formal)

Internal Communication (Informal)

The grapevine has the following characteristics:

1. A lot of information passes through the medium (credibility needs to be verified)

The disadvantages of grapevine are as follows:

External communication can be divided into two. Formal and Informal.

External informal communication is a casual conversation with external vendors such as

Flow of Information within an Organization

Upward communication happens when a subordinate is trying to send a message or information to

How to improve upward communication?

Do not discourage subordinates from giving feedback

How to improve downward communication?

Horizontal or Lateral Communication

Diagonal or Cross Communication

Challenges in Organizational Communication

1. Organizational Structure and Outlook

What is effective Business Communication?

1. Being to-the-point: Business messages need to be to-the-point. They should neither be

Expectation from Employees to make Business Communication Effective

Communicating effectively and efficiently is indispensable to employee’s performance in an

1. Express ideas (verbal and written) accurately and completely.

Impact of Technology on Communication

The disadvantages are as follows:

Current technology advances and trends have the following characteristics:

Conflict is a state of disagreement, argument and opposition or hostility between groups,

Common entrance/Water sharing

Conflict as a state is dynamic. Its intensity usually grows, if left unresolved.

Children playing cricket

Management of conflict through communication is a process of managing conflict by choosing