Network Synthesis - R Singh

16
Network Synthesis
16.1 INTRODUCTION
In the study of electrical networks, broadly there are two topics: ‘Network Analysis’ and ‘Network
Synthesis’. Any network consists of excitation, response and network function. In network analysis, network
and excitation are given, whereas the response has to be determined. In network synthesis, excitation and
response are given, and the network has to be determined. Thus, in network synthesis we are concerned with
the realisation of a network for a given excitation-response characteristic. Also, there is one major difference
between analysis and synthesis. In analysis, there is a unique solution to the problem. But in synthesis, the
solution is not unique and many networks can be realised.
The first step in synthesis procedure is to determine whether the network function can be realised as a
physical passive network. There are two main considerations; causality and stability. By causality we mean
that a voltage cannot appear at any port before a current is applied or vice-versa. In other words, the response
of the network must be zero for t < 0. For the network to be stable, the network function cannot have poles in
the right half of the s-plane. Similarly, a network function cannot have multiple poles on the jw axis.
16.2 HURWITZ POLYNOMIALS

A polynomial P(s) is said to be Hurwitz if the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) P(s) is real when s is real.
(b) The roots of P(s) have real parts which are zero or negative.
Properties of Hurwitz Polynomials

1. All the coefficients in the polynomial
P ( s) = an s n + an 1s n −1 + + a1s + a0
are positive. A polynomial may not have any missing terms between the highest and the lowest order
unless all even or all odd terms are missing.
2. The roots of odd and even parts of the polynomial P(s) lie on the jw -axis only.
3. If the polynomial P(s) is either even or odd, the roots of polynomial P(s) lie on the jw -axis only.
4. All the quotients are positive in the continued fraction expansion of the ratio of odd to even parts or
even to odd parts of the polynomial P(s).
16.2 Network Analysis and Synthesis
5. If the polynomial P(s) is expressed as W (s) P1(s), then P(s) is Hurwitz if W (s) and P1(s) are Hurwitz.
6. If the ratio of the polynomial P(s) and its derivative P′(s) gives a continued fraction expansion with all
positive coefficients then the polynomial P(s) is Hurwitz.
This property helps in checking a polynomial for Hurwitz if the polynomial is an even or odd function
because in such a case, it is not possible to obtain the continued fraction expansion.
Example 16.1 State for each case, whether the polynomial is Hurwitz or not. Give reasons in each case.
(a) s4 4s3
4s 3s 2
(b) s 6
5
5s 5
4s4 3s 3 + 2 s 2 + s + 3
Solution (a) In the given polynomial, the term s2 is missing and it is neither an even nor an odd polynomial.
Hence, it is not Hurwitz.
(b) Polynomial s6 5s5 4 s 4 3s3 2 s 2 + s + 3 is not Hurwitz as it has a term (−3s3) which has
a negative coefficient.
Example 16.2 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s4 + s3 + 5 s 2 + 3 s + 4 is Hurwitz.
Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = s 4 + 5s 2 + 4

Odd part of P ( s) = n( s) = s3 + 3s
m( s)
Q ( s) =
n( s)
By continued fraction expansion,
s3 3ss) s 4 5s 2 + 4 ( s
s 4 + 3s 2
⎞ 3 ⎛1
2ss 2 s + 3s s
⎠ ⎝2
s3 + 2 s
s) 2 s 2 4 ( 2s
2
2s
⎞ ⎛1
4 s⎜ s
⎠ ⎝4
s
0
Since all the quotient terms are positive, P(s) is Hurwitz.
Example 16.3 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s3 + 4 s 2 + 5 s + 2 is Hurwitz.
Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = 4 s 2 + 2

Odd part of P ( s) n( s) = s3 + 5s
16.2 Hurwitz Polynomials 16.3
The continued fraction expansion can be obtained by dividing n(s) by m(s) as n(s) is of higher order than
m(s).
n( s)
Q ( s) =
m( s)
⎞ ⎛1
4s2 2 s3 + 5s s
⎠ ⎝4
2
s3 + s
4
9 ⎞ 2 ⎛8
s 4s 2⎜ s
2 ⎠ ⎝9
4s2
⎞ 9 ⎛9
2 s s
⎠ 2 ⎝4
9
s
2
0
Since all the quotient terms are positive, P(s) is Hurwitz.
Example 16.4 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s4 + s3 + 3 s 2 + 2 s + 12 is Hurwitz.

Odd part of P ( s) = n( s) = s3 + 2 s
m( s)
Q ( s) =
n( s)
⎞ ⎛
s3 2ss s 4 3s 2 + 12 s
⎠ ⎝
s4 + 2s2
⎞ 3 ⎛
s2 s + 2s s
⎠ ⎝
s3 + 12 s
⎞ ⎛ 1
−10 s s 2 + 12 − s
⎠ ⎝ 10
s2
⎞ ⎛ 10
12 −1010 s ⎜ − s
⎠ ⎝ 12
− 10 s
0
Since two quotient terms are negative, P(s) is not Hurwitz.
Example 16.5 Prove that polynomial P ( s) = s4 + s3 + 2 s 2 + 3 s + 2 is not Hurwitz.
Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = s 4 + s 2 + 2

Odd part of P ( s) = n( s) = s3 + 3s
m( s)
Q ( s) =
n( s)
s3 3ss) s 4 2s2 + 2 ( s
s 4 + 3s 2
− s2 ) s3 3s( s
s3 2s
⎞ ⎛ 1
5s s2 2⎜ − s
⎠ ⎝ 5
− s2
⎞ ⎛5
2 5s ⎜ s
⎠ ⎝2
5s
0
Since two quotient terms are negative, P(s) is not Hurwitz.
Example 16.6 Prove that polynomial P ( s) = 2 s4 + 5 s3 + 6 s 2 + 3 s + 1 is Hurwitz.
Solution Even part of P ( s) = m(s

m( s) 2s4 + 6 s2 + 1
Odd part of P ( s) = n( s) = 5s3 + 3s
m( s)
Q ( s) =
n( s)
⎞ ⎛2
5 3
3s 2 4
6s2 + 1 ⎜ s
⎠ ⎝5
6
2s4 + s2
5
24 2 ⎞ 3 ⎛ 25
s 1 5s + 3s s
5 ⎠ ⎝ 24
25
5s3 + s
24
47 ⎞ 24 2 ⎛ 576
s s + 1⎜ s
24 ⎠ 5 ⎝ 235
24 2
s
5
⎞ 47 ⎛ 24
1 s s
⎠ 24 ⎝ 47
47
s
24
0
Since all the quotient terms are positive, the polynomial P(s) is Hurwitz.
Example 16.7 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s4 + 7 s3 + 6 s 2 + 21s + 8 is Hurwitz.
Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = s 4 + 6 s 2 + 8

Odd part of P ( s) = n( s) = 7 s3 + 21s
m( s)
Q ( s) =
n( s)
⎞ ⎛1
7 3
21 4
6s2 + 8 ⎜ s
⎠ ⎝7
s 4 + 3s 2
2 ⎞ 3 ⎛7
3 8 7 21s s
⎠ ⎝3
56
7 s3 + s
3
7 ⎞ 2 ⎛9
s 3s 8 ⎜ s
3 ⎠ ⎝7
3s 2
⎞7 ⎛ 7
8 s s
⎠ 3 ⎝ 24
7
s
3
0
Example 16.8 Check whether P ( s) = s4 + 5 s3 + 5 s 2 + 4 s + 10 is Hurwitz.

Odd part of P ( s) = n( s) = 5s3 + 4 s
m( s)
Q ( s) =
n( s)
⎞ ⎛1
5 3
4s s4 + 5 2
10 ⎜ s
⎠ ⎝5
4 2
s4 + s
5
21 2 ⎞ 3 ⎛ 25
s 100 5 4s s
5 ⎠ ⎝ 21
250
5s3 + s
21
166 ⎞ 21 2 ⎛ 441
− s⎟ s + 10 − s
21 ⎠ 5 ⎝ 830
21 2
s
5
⎞ 166 ⎛ 166
10 − s −
⎠ 21 ⎜⎝ 210
s
166
− s
21
0
Since the last two quotient terms are negative, the polynomial P(s) is not Hurwitz.
Example 16.9 Test whether the polynomial s5 33ss3 2s is Hurwitz.
Solution Since the given polynomial contains odd functions only, it is not possible to perform a continued
fraction expansion.
d
P′′( s) = P ( s) = 5s 4 + 9 s 2 + 2
ds
P ( s)
Q ( s) =
P ′( s)
⎞ ⎛1
5 4
9ss 2 + 2
9 5
3ss3 + 2 s
3 s
⎠ ⎝5
9 3 2
s5 s + s
5 5
6 3 8 ⎞ ⎛ 25
2
s s⎟ 5 4
9s2 + 2 ⎜ s
5 5 ⎠ ⎝ 6
20 2
5s 4 + s
3
7 2 ⎞6 8 ⎛ 18
s 2 s3 + s s
3 ⎠5 5 ⎝ 35
6 3 36
s + s
5 35
20 ⎞ 7 2 ⎛ 49
4
s s + 2⎜ s
35 ⎠ 3 ⎝ 12
7 2
s
3
⎞ 20 ⎛ 10
2 s s
⎠ 35 ⎝ 35
20
s
35
0
Example 16.10 Test whether the polynomial P(s) is Hurwitz.
P ( s) = s5 s3 + s
Solution Since the given polynomial contains odd functions only, it is not possible to perform continued
fraction expansion.
d
P′′( s) = P ( s) = 5s 4 + 3s 2 + 1
ds
P ( s)
Q ( s) =
P ′( s)
⎞ ⎛1
5 4
3ss 2 + 1 s5
3 s3 + s s
⎠ ⎝5
3 3 1
s5 s + s
5 5
2 3 4 ⎞ ⎛ 25
s s⎟ 5 4
3s 2 + 1 ⎜ s
5 5 ⎠ ⎝ 2
4
5 10 s 2
⎞ 2 4 ⎛ 2
−7 2
1 s3 + s s
⎠ 5 5 ⎝ 35
2 3 2
s s
5 35
26 245
s s
35 26
− 7s2
26 26
1 s s
35 35
26
s
35
0
Since the third and fourth quotient terms are negative, P(s) is not Hurwitz.
Example 16.11 Test the polynomial P(s) of Hurwitz property.
P(s) s s + + 12s 4
Solution Even part of P s s s + 7s + 4

Odd part of P s s s + 2s
ms
Q s =
ns
1
s 2
+4 s
3
s s2
3 s + 12 s s
s s s
3
s s s
2
2
3s 12
s2 s3 + s s
s s
0
The division has terminated abruptly (i.e., the number of partial quotients (that is four) is not equal to the
order of polynomial (that is six) with common factor (s2 + 4).
P s s + = s s s s
If both the factors are Hurwitz, P(s) will be Hurwitz.

Let P1 ( s) = s 2 + 4
P1 ( s)
Since it contains only even functions, we have to find the continued fraction expansion of .
P1′(( s)
1′( s) = 2 s
P′
P
P1 ( s) s 2 + 4 s 2 4 s 1
= = + = +
P′
P1′( s ) 2 s 2 s 2 s 2 s
2
Since all the quotient terms are positive, P1(s) is Hurwitz.
Now, let P2 ( s) = s 4 3s3 4 s 2 + 3s 1

m2 ( s) = s 4 + 4 s 2 1
n2 ( s) = 3s
3s3 3s
⎞ ⎛1
3 3
3s s 4 + 4s
4 s2 1⎜ s
⎠ ⎝3
s4 + s2
2 3
3 1) 3 3s ( s
3s + s
3
⎞ 2 ⎛3
2 3s + 1 ⎜ s
⎠ ⎝2
3s 2
1) 2s ( 2 s
2s
0
Since all the quotient terms are positive, P2(s) is Hurwitz.

Hence, P( s) = (s
( s2 ( 4
))(s
)( s3 s2 s ) is Hurwitz.
Example 16.12 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s7 + s6 + 2 s5 + s4 + 4s

4 s3 + 8 s 2 + 8 s + 4 is
Hurwitz.
Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = 2 s6 + s 4 + 8s 2 + 4

Odd part of P ( s) = n( s) = s7 + s5 + 4 s3 + 8s
n( s)
Q ( s) =
m( s)
1
2 8s 2 s s s
2
s +
2
3 4
s s s2 s
2 3
s
3
s4 s5 + 6 s s
2 2
3 5
s s
2
0
Since the division has terminated abruptly it indicates a common factor s4 + 4. The polynomial can be
written as
P s s s s s
If both the factor are Hurwitz, P(s) will be Hurwitz.
In the polynomial (s4 + 4), the terms s3, s2 and s are missing. Hence, it is not Hurwitz.
Therefore, P(s) is not Hurwitz.
Example 16.13 Test whether the polynomial 2 13 s + 56 2

s 25 is Hurwitz.
Solution Even part of P s = = 2s s + 6 s + 25

Odd part of P s s + 5s
ms
Q s
ns
s 5s s + 25 2 s
2
2s 0s
s s s s + 25s s
s 5s
0
The division has terminated abruptly.
P s = s + s s + = s s s
Let P s s s 5
P1 ( s)
Since P1(s) contains only even functions, we have to find the continued fraction expansion of .
P1′(( s)
1′( s) = 4 s + 12 s
3
P′
P
⎞ ⎛1
4 s3 12
2 4
6 s 2 + 25 ⎜ s
⎠ ⎝4
s 4 + 3s 2
⎞ ⎛4
3 2
25 4 s3 + 12 s s
⎠ ⎝3
100
0
4 s3 + s
3
64 ⎞ ⎛ 9
− s 3 2
25 − s
3 ⎠ ⎝ 64
3s 2
⎞ 64 ⎛ 64
25 − s s
⎠ 3 ⎝ 75
64
− s
3
0
Since two of the quotient terms are negative, P1(s) is not Hurwitz.
We need not test the other factor (2s2 + s + 1) for being Hurwitz.
Hence, P(s) is not Hurwitz.
There is another method to test a Hurwitz polynomial. In this method, we construct the Routh–Hurwitz
array for the required polynomial.
Let P ( s) = an s n + an 1s n −1 + an 2 s n − 2 + … + a1s + a0
The Routh–Hurwitz array is given by,
sn an an − 2 ann− 4 …
s n −1 an 1 an − 3 an − 5 …
sn− 2 bn bn −1 bn − 2 …
sn−3 cn cn −1 …
. .
. .
. .
. .
s1 .
s0 .
The coefficients of sn and sn − 1 rows are directly written from the given equation.
an an − 2 − an an − 3
where bn =
an −1
an an − 4 − an an − 5
bn −1 =
an −1
an an − 6 a a
bn − 2 = 7
an −1
bn an −33 a 1bn −1
cn =
bn
bn an −55 a 1bn − 2
cn −1 =
bn
Hence, for polynomial P(s) to be Hurwitz, there should not be any sign change in the first column of the
array.
Example 16.14 Test whether P ( s) = s4 + 7 s3 + 6 s 2 + 21s + 8 is Hurwitz.
Solution The Routh array is given by,
s4 1 6 8
s3 7 21
s2 3 8
7
s1
3 0
s0 8
Since all the elements in the first column are positive, the polynomial P(s) is Hurwitz.
Example 16.15 Determine whether P ( s) = s4 + s3 + 2 s 2 + 3 s + 2 is Hurwitz.
s4 1 2 2
s3 1 3
s2 −1 2
s1 5 0
s0 2
Since there is a sign change in the first column of the array, the polynomial P(s) is not Hurwitz.
Example 16.16 Test whether P ( s) = s5 + 2 s4 + 4 s3 + 6 s 2 + 2 s + 5 is Hurwitz.

s5 1 4 2
s4 2 6 5
s3 1 0.5
s2 7 5
s1 −1.21
s0 5
Since there is a sign change in the first column of the array, the polynomial is not Hurwitz.
Example 16.17 Test whether the polynomial P(s) = s5 + s3 + s is Hurwitz.
Solution The given polynomial contains odd functions only.

P′(s) = 5s4 + 3s2 + 1
The Routh array is given by,
s5 1 1 1
s4 5 3 1
s3 0.4 0.8
s2 −7 1
s1 0 86
s0 1
Example 16.18 Test whether the polynomial P(s) = s8 + 5s6 + 2s4 + 3s2 + 1 is Hurwitz.
Solution The given polynomial contains even functions only.

P ′(s) = 8s7 + 30s5 + 8s3 + 6s
The Routh array is given by,
s8 1 5 2 3 1
s7 8 30 8 6 0
s6 1.25 1 2.25 1
s5 23.6 6. 4 0.4 0
s4 1.33 2.27
2 1
s3 −46
46.6 18.14 0
s2 1 75 1
s1 8 49
s0 1
Example 16.19 Test whether P(s) = s5 + 12s4 + 45s3 + 60s2 + 44s + 48 is Hurwitz.

s5 1 45 44
s4 12 60 48
s3 40 40
s2 48 48
s1 0 0
s0
Notes: When all the elements in any one row is zero, the following steps are followed:
(i) Write an auxiliary equation with the help of the coefficients of the row just above the row of zeros.
(ii) Differentiate the auxiliary equation and replace its coefficient in the row of zeros.
(iii) Proceed for the Routh test.
Auxiliary equation,
A( s) = 48s 2 + 48
A′( s) = 96s
s5 1 45 44
s4 12 60 48
s3 40 40
s2 48 48
s1 96 0
s0 48
Since there is no sign change in the first column of the array, the polynomial P(s) is Hurwitz.
Example 16.20 Check whether P(s) = 2s6 + s5 + 13s4 + 6s3 + 56s2 + 25s + 25 is Hurwitz.
s6 2 13 56 25
s5 1 6 25
s4 1 6 25
s3 0 0 0
s2
s1
s0
A(s) = s4 + 6s2 + 25
A′(s) = 4s3 + 12s
Now, the Routh array will be given by,

s6 2 13 56 25
s5 1 6 25
s4 1 6 25
s3 4 12
s2 3 25
s1 −21.3
s0 25
Since there is a sign change in the first column of the array, the polynomial P(s) is not Hurwitz.
Example 16.21 Determine the range of values of ‘a’ so that P(s) = s4 + s3 + as2 + 2s + 3 is Hurwitz.

s4 1 a 3
s3 1 2
s2 a−2 3
2a 7
s1
a−2
s0 3
For the polynomial to be Hurwitz, all the terms in the first column of the array should be positive,
i.e., a−2>0
a>2
2 7
and >0
a−2
7
a>
2
7
Hence, P(s) will be Hurwitz when a > .
2
Example 16.22 Determine the range of values of k so that the polynomial P(s) = s3 + 3s2 + 2s + k is
Hurwitz.
s3 1 2
s2 3 k
6−k
s1 0
3
s0 k
For the polynomial to be Hurwitz, all the terms in the first column of the array should be positive,
6−k
i.e., >0
3
6−k >0
i.e., k < 6 and k > 0

Hence, P(s) will be Hurwitz for 0 < k < 6.
16.3 POSITIVE REAL FUNCTIONS

A function F(s) is positive real if the following conditions are satisfied:
(a) F(s) is real for real s.
(b) The real part of F(s) is greater than or equal to zero when the real part of s is greater than or equal to
zero, i.e.,
Re F(s) ≥ 0 for Re(s) ≥ 0
16.3.1 Properties of Positive Real Functions

1
1. If F(s) is positive real then is also positive real.
F( s)
2. The sum of two positive real functions is positive real.
3. The poles and zeros of a positive real function cannot have positive real parts, i.e., they cannot be in the
right half of the s plane.
4. Only simple poles with real positive residues can exist on the jw-axis.
5. The poles and zeros of a positive real function are real or occur in conjugate pairs.
6. The highest powers of the numerator and denominator polynomials may differ at most by unity. This
condition prevents the possibility of multiple poles and zeros at s = ∞.
7. The lowest powers of the denominator and numerator polynomials may differ by at most unity. Hence,
a positive real function has neither multiple poles nor zeros at the origin.
16.3.2 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Positive Real Functions

The necessary and sufficient conditions for a function with real coefficients F(s) to be positive real are the
following:
1. F(s) must have no poles and zeros in the right half of the s-plane.
2. The poles of F(s) on the jw-axis must be simple and the residues evaluated at these poles must be real
and positive.
3. Re F (jw) ≥ 0 for all w.
Testing of the Above Conditions Condition (1) requires that we test the numerator and denominator of
F(s) for roots in the right half of the s-plane, i.e., we must determine whether the numerator and denominator
of F(s) are Hurwitz. This is done through a continued fraction expansion of the odd to even or even to odd
parts of the numerator and denominator.
Condition (2) is tested by making a partial-fraction expansion of F(s) and checking whether the residues
of the poles on the jw-axis are positive and real. Thus, if F(s) has a pair of poles at s = ± jw0, a partial-fraction
expansion gives terms of the form
16.3 Positive Real Functions 16.17
K1 K1*
+
s jω 0 s jω 0
Since residues of complex conjugate poles are themselves conjugate, K1 K1* and should be positive and
real.
Condition (3) requires that Re F(jw) must be positive and real for all w.
Now, to compute Re F(jw) from F(s), the numerator and denominator polynomials are separated into even
and odd parts.
m1 ( s) + n1 ( s) m1 + n1
F ( s) = =
m2 ( s) + n2 ( s) m2 + n2
Multiplying N(s) and D(s) by m2 − n2,
m1 + n1 m2 n2 m1m2 − n1n2 m2 n1 − m1n2
F ( s) = = +
m2 + n2 m2 n2 m22 n22 m22 n22
But the product of two even functions or odd functions is itself an even function, while the product of an
even and odd function is odd.
m1m2 − n1n2
Ev F ( s) =
m22 n22
m2 n1 − m1n2
Od F ( s) =
m22 n22
Now, substituting s = jw in the even polynomial gives the real part of F(s) and substituting s = jw into the
odd polynomial gives imaginary part of F(s).
Ev F ( s) s jω
= Re F ( j )
Od F ( s) s jω
= j F( j )
We have to test Re F(jw) ≥ 0 for all w.

The denominator of Re F(jw) is always a positive quantity because
m22 − n22 ≥0
s jω
Hence, the condition that Ev F(jw) should be positive requires
m1m2 − n1n2 s jω
= A(ω 2 )
should be positive and real for all w ≥ 0.
s+3
Example 16.23 Test whether F ( s) = is a positive real function.
s +1 jw
Solution
N ( s) s + 3
(a) F ( s) = =
D ( s) s + 1
The function F(s) has pole at s = −1 and zero at s = −3 as shown in
Fig. 16.1. s
Thus, pole and zero are in the left half of the s-plane. −3 −2 −1 0
(b) There is no pole on the jw axis. Hence, the residue test is not carried
out. Fig. 16.1
(c) 3
Odd part of N s )
Odd part of D s ) =
A(w2) is positive for all w ≥ 0.

Since all the three conditions are satisfied, the function is positive real.
s2 s+
Example 16.24 Test whether F s is positive real function.
s2 s+ 4
Solution jw
N s s2 s+ s s
(a) F s
D s s 2
s+ 4 s s
The function F (s) has poles at s = −7 and s = −2
and zeros at s = −5 an s = −1 as shown in Fig. 16.2.
s
7 6 5 −4 3 2 −1 0
Thus, all the poles and zeros are in the left half
of the s plane. Fig. 16.2
(b) Since there is no pole on the jw axis, the residue
test is not carried out.
(c) 5
Even part o D s 2
+ 14
s
2
ω s s2 70
ss s
Example 16.25 Test whether F s = is positive real function.
s s
Solution
N s ss s s s + 5s
(a) F s
D s s s s 2
s+
The function F(s) has poles at s = −1 and s = −4 and jw

zeros at s = 0, s = −3 and s = −5 as shown in Fig. 16.3.
Thus, all the poles and zeros are in the left half of
the s plane.
(b) There is no pole on the jw axis, hence the residue test s
is not carried out. −5 4 3 2 1 0
(c) s2
15s Fig. 16.3
Even pa 4
s
s j = 2

s2 + 1
s3 s
Solution
N s s2 + 1 s jw
(a) F s
D s s3 s ss s j2
The function F(s) has poles at s = 0, s = −j2 and s = j2 and zeros at s = −j1 j1
and s = j1 as shown in Fig. 16.4. s
0
Thus, all the poles and zeros are on the jw axis.
j1
(b) The poles on the jw axis are simple. Hence, residue test is carried out.
j2
s2 + 1 s2 + 1
F s = =
s s ss Fig. 16.4
By partial-fraction expansion,
K K 2*
F s = + +
s s j2 2
The constants K1, K2 and K2* are called residues.
s2 + 1 1
s
s +4
2
s=0
4
s2 + 1 + 3
K
s s j2 j 2 j2 8
2
3
*
=
8
Thus, residues are real and positive.
(c) Even part off N ( s) m1 s 2 1

Odd part of N ( s) = n1 = 0
Even part of D( s) = m2 = 0
Odd part off ( s) n2 s3 4s
Aω( )2
m1m2 n1n2 |s jω ( s 2 + 1)( ) ( )(
)(ss3 + 4s) |s jω = 0
A(w2) is zero for all w ≥ 0.

2ss3 + 2 s 2 + 3 s + 2
Example 16.27 Test whether F ( s) = is positive real function.
s2 + 1
Solution
N ( s) 2ss3 + 2 s 2 + 3s + 2 2ss3 + 2 s 2 + 3s + 2
(a) F ( s) = = =
D ( s) s2 + 1 ( s j )(s
)( s j )
Since numerator polynomial cannot be easily factorized, we will prove whether N(s) is Hurwitz.
Even part off N ( s) m( s) 2s 2 + 2

Odd part off N ( s) n( s) 2s 3 + 3 s
⎞ ⎛
2s2 2 2 3
3s s
⎠ ⎝
2 s3 2s
⎞ ⎛
s 2s2 2s 2s
⎠ ⎝
2s2
⎞ ⎛1
2 s s
⎠ ⎝2
s
0
Since all the quotient terms are positive, N(s) is Hurwitz. This indicates that zeros are in the left half
of the s plane.
The function F(s) has poles at s = −j1 and s = j1.
Thus, all the poles and zeros are in the left half of the s plane.
(b) The poles on the jw axis are simple. Hence, residue test is carried out.
2ss3 + 2 s 2 + 3s + 2
F ( s) =
s2 + 1
As the degree of the numerator is greater than that of the denominator, division is first carried out
before partial-fraction expansion.
s2 s3 + s s+ s+2
s
2s s 2
2s 2
s
s
F s = s+ +
s +12
K1
F s s+ + 1
s j1 1
j1 1
K = =
2
1
K1
2
Thus, residues are real and positive.
(c) 2
+2
3
+ 3s
Even p 1
Odd part of D s = =0
3
s 4
+ 4s = − )
2 2
A(w2) ≥ 0 for all w ≥ 0.

s s + s+3
2
s+
Solution
N s s + s+3 s + s+3
(a) F s =
D s 2
s+ s s
Since a numerator polynomial cannot be easily factorized, we will test whether N(s) is Hurwitz.
N s +3
s
⎞ ⎛1
6 2
3 s3 + 7 s s
⎠ ⎝6
s3 + 0 5s
⎞ 2 ⎛
6.5s
5s 6 3 ⎜ 0.92 s
⎠ ⎝
6s2
⎞ ⎛
3 6.5 2.17 s
⎠ ⎝
6.5s
0
Since all the quotient terms are positive, N(s) is Hurwitz. This indicates that the zeros are in the left
half of the s plane.
The function F(s) has a double pole at s = −1.
(b) There is no pole on the jw axis. Hence, the residue test is not carried out.
(c) Even part off N ( ) 1 6s 2 + 3
3
Odd part off N ( ) 1 7s
2
Even parrt of D( s) m2 s 1
Odd part off ( s) n2 2s
A( 2
) m1m2 n1n2 |s j 6s 2
((6s 3) s 2 ) ((ss3 7ss)(
)( s)
s ) |s jω 4s 4 5s 2 + 3 | s jω 4ω 4 + 5ω 2 3

s2 + s + 6
Example 16.29 Test whether F ( s) = is a positive real function.
s2 + s + 1
Solution
⎛ 1 23 ⎞ ⎛ 1 23 ⎞
⎜s 2 j ⎟ ⎜ s j
2 ⎟⎠
N ( s) s + s + 6
2
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2
(a) F ( s) = = =
D ( s) s 2 + s + 1 ⎛ 1 3⎞ ⎛ 1 3⎞
⎜s+ 2 + j 2 ⎟ ⎜s+ 2 − j 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
1 23 1 3
The function F(s) has zeros at s ±j and poles at s ±j .
2 2 2 2
2
(c) Even part off N ( ) 1 6
Odd part of N ( s) = n1 s
Even part of D( s) = m2 s 2 + 1
Odd part of D( s) = n2 s
s s |s j − +6
For w = 2, A(w2) = 16 − 24 + 6 = −2
This condition is not satisfied.
Hence, the function F(s) is not positve real.
s2 + 4
s s + s+1
Solution
N s s2 + 4 s
(a) F s =
D s s + s +1 (s )3
The function F(s) has two zeros at s = ± j2 and three poles at s = −1.
(c) 4
Odd part of N s = =0
Even part of D s =
3s
3s 4 − 4
For w = 1, A(w) = 3 − 13 + 4 = −6
2
This condition is not satisfied.

Hence, the function F(s) is not positive real.
s3 s
s +1
Solution
N s s3 s ss ss s
(a) F s =
D s s +1 s (s j s ± 1)
The function F(s) has zeros at s = and two poles at s = j1 and two poles at s = −j1.
Thus, poles on the jw axis are not simple.
Hence, the function F (s) not positive real.
s s + s
s + s+1
Solution
N s s s + s
F s
D s + s +1
Here, it is easier to prove that N(s) and D(s) are Hurwitz.
By Routh array,
s4
1 1 2
s3
3 1
2
s2
3 2
s1 −8
s0 2
Since there is a sign change in the first column of the array, N(s) is not Hurwitz. Thus, all the zeros are not
in the left half of the s plane. The remaining two tests need not be carried out.
Hence, the function F(s) is not positive real.
16.4 ELEMENTARY SYNTHESIS CONCEPTS

We know that impedances and admittances of passive networks are positive real functions. Hence, addition
of impedances of the two passive networks gives a function which is also a positive real function. Thus,
Z(s) = Z1(s) + Z2(s) is a positive real function, if Z1(s) and Z2(s) are positive real functions. Similarly,
Y(s) = Y1(s) + Y2(s) is a positive real function, if Y1(s) and Y2(s) are positive real functions. There is a special
terminology for synthesis procedure. We have, Z1(s)
Z( = Z1 ( ) + Z 2 ( )
Z(s) Z2(s)
Z 2 ( ) = Z(( ) − Z1 ( ) Z(s)
Here, Z1(s) is said to have been removed from

Z(s) in forming the new function Z2(s) as shown in
Fig. 16.5. If the removed network is associated Y(s) Y(s) Y1(s) Y2(s)
with the pole or zero of the original network
impedance then that pole or zero is also said to
Fig. 16.5 Network interpretation of the removal of
have been removed.
impedance and admittance
There are four important removal operations.
16.4.1 Removal of a Pole at Infinity

Consider an impedance function Z(s) having a pole at infinity which means that the numerator polynomial is
one degree greater than the degree of the denominator polynomial.
an +1s n +1 + an s n + … + a1s + a0 cn s n + cn 1s n −1 + … + c1s + c0
Z ( s) = = Hs +
bn s n + bn 1s n −1 + … + b1s + b0 bn s n + bn 1s n −1 + … + b1s + b0
a
where H = n +1
bn
Let Z1 ( s) = Hs
cn s n + cn 1s n −1 + … + c1s + c0
and Z 2 ( s) = = Z ( s) − Hs
bn s n + bn 1s n −1 + … + b1s + b0
Z1(s) = Hs represents impedance of an inductor L
of value H. Hence, the removal of a pole at infinity
corresponds to the removal of an inductor from the Z(s) Z2(s) Y(s) C Z2(s)
network of Fig. 16.6(a).
If the given function is an admittance function (a) (b)
Y(s), then Y1(s) = Hs represents the admittance of
a capacitor YC(s) = Cs. The network for Y1(s) is a Fig. 16.6 Network interpretation of the removal of
capacitor of value C = H as shown in Fig. 16.6(b). a pole at infinity
16.4 Elementary Synthesis Concepts 16.25
16.4.2 Removal of a Pole at Origin

If Z(s) has a pole at the origin then it may be written as
n −1
a0 + a s + + an−
n s + an s n K 0 d1 d2 s … dn s n −1
Z ( s) = = + = Z1 ( s) + Z 2 ( s)
b1s + b2 s + … + bm s
2 m s b1 b2 s … bm s m −1
a
where K0 = 0
b1
K0 1
Z1 ( s) = represents the impedance of a capacitor of value .
s K0
K
If the given function is an admittance function Y(s) then removal of Y1 ( s) = 0 corresponds to an inductor
s
1
of value .
K0
Z(s) C Z2(s) Y(s) Z2(s)
L
Thus, removal of a pole from the impedance
function Z(s) at the origin corresponds to the (a) (b)
removal of a capacitor, and from admittance
function Y(s) corresponds to removal of an Fig. 16.7 Network interpretation of the removal of a
inductor as shown in Fig. 16.7. pole at origin
16.4.3 Removal of Conjugate Imaginary Poles

If Z(s) contains poles on the imaginary axis, i.e., at s = ± jw1 then Z(s) will have factors (s + jw1) (s − jw1) =
s2 + w12 in the denominator polynomial
p( s)
Z ( s) = 2 2
(s ) q1 ( s)
K1 K1*
Z ( s) = + + Z 2 ( s)
s jω1 s jω1
For a positive real function, jw axis poles must themselves be conjugate and must have equal, positive and
real residues.
K1 K1*
2K s
Hence, Z ( s) = 2 1 2 + Z 2 ( s)
s + ω1
2K s 1 1
Thus, Z1 ( s) = 2 1 2 = =
s + ω1 s ω 2 Ya Yb
+ 1
2 K1 2 K1s
s 1
where Ya = is the admittance of a capacitor of value C =
2 K1 2 K1
ω12 2K
and Yb = is the admittance of an inductor of value L = 21
2 K1s ω1
If the given function is an admittance function Y(s) then
2K s 1 1
Y1 ( s) = 2 1 2 = =
s + ω1 Z a Zb s ω2
+ 1
2 K1 2 K1s
s 1 ω2
where Z a = is the impedance of an inductor of value L = and Zb = 1 is the impedance of
2 K1 2 K1 2 K1s
2 K1
a capacitor of value C = .
ω12 L
Thus, removal of conjugate imaginary poles

from impedance function Z(s) corresponds to the Z(s) C Z2(s) Y(s) L Z2(s)
removal of the parallel combination of L − C and C
from admittance function Y(s) corresponds to
removal of series combination of L − C as shown Fig. 16.8 Network interpretation of the removal of
in Fig. 16.8. conjugate imaginary poles
16.4.4 Removal of a Constant
If a real number R1 is subtracted from Z (s) such that
Z 2 ( s) = Z ( s) R1
Z ( s) = R1 Z 2 ( s)
then R1 represents a resistor.
If the given function is an admittance function Y(s), then removal of Y1(s) = R1 represents a conductance
of value R1.
Thus, removal of a constant from impedance function Z(s) corresponds to the removal of a resistance, and
from admittance function Y(s) corresponds to removal of a conductance.
s3 + 4 s
Example 16.33 Synthesize the impedance function Z ( s) = .
s2 + 2
Solution
By long division of Z(s),
⎞ 3 ⎛
s2 s 4s s
⎠ ⎝
s3 + 2 s
2s
2s
Z ( s) = s + = Z1 ( s) + Z 2 ( s)
s2 + 2
Z1(s) = s represents impedance of an inductor of value 1 H.
1 s2 2 s2 2 1 1
Y2 ( s) = = = + = s + = Y3 ( s) + Y4 ( s)
Z 2 ( s) 2s 2s 2s 2 s
1 1
Y3 ( s) = s represents the admittance of a capacitor of value F. 1H
2 2
1
Y4 ( s) = represents the admittance of an inductor of value 1 H. Z(s) 1 1H
s F
2
The impedances are connected in the series branches whereas
the admittances are connected in the parallel branches. The network
is shown in Fig. 16.9. Fig. 16.9
Example 16.34 Realise the network having impedance function

s 2 + 2 s + 10
Z ( s) =
s( s )
Solution
By long division of Z(s),
⎞ ⎛2
s 2 + 5s s 2 2 s + 10 ⎜
⎠ ⎝s
2 s 10
s2
2 s2 2 s
Z ( s) = + 2 = + = Z1 ( s) + Z 2 ( s)
s s + 5s s s + 5
2 1
Z1 ( s) = represents the impedance of capacitor of value F.
s 2
1 s 5 5
Y2 ( s) = = = 1 + = Y3 ( s) + Y4 ( s)
Z 2 ( s) s s 1
F
2
Y3(s) = 1 represents the admittance of a resistor of value 1 Ω.
5 1
Y4 ( s) = represents the admittance of an inductor of value H. Z(s) 1Ω 1
H
s 5 5
The impedances are connected in the series branches whereas the
admittances are connected in the parallel branches. The network
is shown in Fig. 16.10. Fig. 16.10
6 s3 + 5 s 2 + 6 s + 4
Example 16.35 Realise the network having impedance function Z ( s) = .
2 s3 + 2 s
Solution By long division of Z(s),
⎞ ⎛
2 s3 2 s⎟ 6 3
5s 2 + 6 4 ⎜3
⎠ ⎝
3
6 6s
2
5 4
2
5 4
Z ( s) = 3 + 3
= Z1 (ss) Z ( s)
2s 2s
Z1(s) = 3 represents the impedance of a resistor of value 3 Ω.
1 2 s3 + 2 s
Y2 ( s) = = 2
Z 2 ( s) 5s 4
By long division of Y2(s),
2 ⎞ ⎛2
5 4 2 s3 2s s
⎠ ⎝5
8
2 s3 + s
5
2
s
5
2
s
2
Y2 ( s) = s + 52 = Y3 ( s) + Y4 (ss)
5 5 4
2 2
Y3 ( s) = s represents the admittance of a capacitor of value F.
5 5
1 5s 2 + 4 25s 2 + 20 25 10
Z 4 ( s) = = = = s+ = Z5 ( s) + Z6 ( s)
Y4 ( s) 2 2s 2 s
s
5
25 1
25 25 H F
Z5 ( s) = s represents the impedance of an inductor of value H. 3Ω 2 10
2 2
10 1
Z6 ( s) = represents the impedance of a capacitor of value F. Z(s) 2
s 10 F
5
The impedances are connected in the series branches, whereas the
admittances are connected in the parallel branches. The network is
shown in Fig. 16.11. Fig. 16.11
Example 16.36 Realise the network having impedance function

s4 + s2 + 7
Z ( s) =
s3 + 2 s
Solution By long division of Z(s),
⎞ ⎛
s3 s s 4 110s
0s2 7 ⎜s
⎠ ⎝
s4 + 2s2
8s 2 7
8s 2 7
Z ( s) = s + = Z1 ( s) + Z 2 ( )
s + 2s
3
Z1(s) = s represents the impedance of an inductor of value 1 H.
1 s3 2 s
Y2 ( s) = = 2
Z 2 ( s) 8s 7
By long division of Y2(s),
⎞ ⎛1
8 2
7 s3 + 2 s s
⎠ ⎝8
7
s3 + s
8
9
s
8
9
s
1
Y2 ( s) = s + 82 = Y3 ( s) + Y4 ( s)
8 8 7
1 1
Y3 ( s) = s represents the admittance of a capacitor of value F.
8 8
1 8s 2 + 7 64 56
Z 4 ( s) = = = s+ = Z5 ( s) + Z6 ( s)
Y4 ( s) 9 9 9s
s
8
64 64 64 9
H F
Z5 ( s) = s represents the impedance of an inductor of value H. 1H 9 56
9 9
56 9
Z6 ( s) = represents the impedance of a capacitor of value F. Z(s) 1
9s 56 8
F
4 s2 + 6 s
Example 16.37 Realise the network having admittance function Y ( s) = .
s+1
Solution By long division of Y(s),
⎞ ⎛
s + 1 4 s 2 + 6s 4 s
⎠ ⎝
4s2 + 4s
2s
2s
Y ( s) = 4 s + = Y1 ( s) + Y2 ( s)
s +1
Y1(s) = 4s represents the admittance of a capacitor of value 4 F.
1 s 1 1 1
Z 2 ( s) = = = + = Z3 ( s) + Z 4 ( s)
Y2 ( s) 2s 2 2s
1 1 1
Ω
Z3 ( s) = represents the impedance of a resistor of value Ω. 2 2F
2 2
1
Z 4 ( s) = represents the impedance of a capacitor of value 2 F. Z(s)
2s 4F

3 + 5s
Example 16.38 Realise the admittance function Y ( s) = .
4 + 2s
Solution By long division,
⎞ ⎛3
4 2 s⎟ 3 5 s ⎜
⎠ ⎝4
3
3+ s
2
7
s
2
7
s
3
Y ( s) = + 2 = Y1 ( ) + Y2 ( s)
4 4 2s
3 4
Y1 ( s) = represents the admittance of a resistor of value Ω.
4 3
1 4 + 2s 8 4 s 8 4
Z 2 ( s) = = = = + = Z3 ( s) + Z 4 ( s)
Y2 ( s) 7 7s 7s 7
s
2
7 4
8 7 F Ω
Z3 ( s) = represents the impedance of a capacitor of value F. 8 7
7s 8
4 4
Z 4 ( s) = represents the impedance of a resistor of value Ω. 4
Ω
7 7 3
16.5 REALISATION OF LC FUNCTIONS

LC driving point immitance functions have the following properties.
1. It is the ratio of odd to even or even to odd polynomials.
2. The poles and zeros are simple and lie on the jw-axis.
3. The poles and zeros interlace on the jw-axis.
4. There must be either a zero or a pole at the origin and infinity.
5. The difference between any two successive powers of numerator and denominator polynomials is at
most two. There cannot be any missing terms.
16.5 Realisation of LC Functions 16.31
6. The highest powers of numerator and denominator polynomials must differ by unity; the lowest powers
also differ by unity.
There are a number of methods of realising an LC function. But we will study only four basic forms—Foster I,
Foster II, Cauer I and Cauer II forms. The Foster forms are obtained by partial-fraction expansion of F(s), and
the Cauer forms are obtained by continued fraction expansion of F(s).
16.5.1 Foster Realisation

Consider a general LC function F(s) given by
H ( s2 2
)( 2
)(
)(s 2
)...
F ( s) = 2 2 2 2
s( s ))(s
)(( )...
where 0 ≤ ω12 < ω 22 < ω 32 … and H is positive.

By partial-fraction expansion of F(s),
K0 K2 K2
F ( s) = + + + ... + K ∞ s
s s jω 2 s jω 2
Combining terms with conjugate poles,
K0 2K 2 s
F ( s) = + ... + K ∞ s
s s + ω 22
where K0, Ki and K∞ are the residues of F(s) at the origin, at jwi and at infinity respectively.
These residues are given by
K0 sF ( s)⏐s 0
Ki =
(s 2 2
i ) F ( s)
2s
s 2 = − ω i2
F ( s)
K∞ =
s s→∞
Foster I Form If F(s) represents an impedance function, it gives a series connection of impedances.
K 2K s
F ( s ) = Z ( s ) = 0 + 2 2 2 … + K ∞ s = Z1 ( s) + Z 2 ( s) + … + Z n ( s)
s s + ω2
K0 1
The first term represents the impedance of a capacitor of farad.
s K0
The last term K∞ s represents the impedance of an inductor of K∞ henry.
2K s
The remaining terms, i.e., 2 i 2 represent the impedance of a parallel combination of capacitor Ci and
s + ωi
inductor Li. For parallel combination of Li and Ci,
⎛ 1⎞
1 ⎜⎝ C ⎟⎠ s 2K s
Z ( s) = = = 2 i 2
i
Ci s +
1
s +
2 1 s + ωi
Li s Li Ci
1 2K
Ci = and Li = 2i
2 Ki ωi
Table 16.1 Realisation of Foster-I form of LC network

Impedance function Element
K0 1
=
s C0 s 1
C0 =
K0
⎛ 1⎞ 2 Ki
⎜⎝ C ⎟⎠ s Li =
2 Ki s ω i2
=
i
s + ωi
2 2
s2 +
1
Li Ci
1
Ci =
2 Ki
K∞ s = Ls
L∞ K∞
The network corresponding to Foster I form is shown in Fig. 16.15.

L1 Li
C0
C1 Ci
Z(s) L∞
Fig. 16.15 Foster-I form of LC network

If Z(s) has no pole at the origin then capacitor C0 is not present in the network. Similarly, if there is no pole
at ∞, inductor L∞ is not present in the network.
Foster II Form If F(s) represents an admittance function, it gives the parallel combination of
admittances.
K0 2K2 s
F ( s) = Y ( s) = + + …+ K ∞ s = Y1 ( s ) + Y2 ( s ) + …Yn ( s )
s s 2 + ω 22
K0 1
The first term represents the admittance of an inductor of henry.
s K0
The last term K∞s represents the admittance of a capacitor of K∞ farad.
2 Ki s
The remaining terms, i.e., represent the admittance of a series combination of an inductor Li and
s + ω i2
2
a capacitor Ci.
For series combination of Li and Ci,

⎛ 1⎞
1 ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ s 2K s
Y ( s) = = = 2 i 2
i
Li s +
1
s +
2 1 s + ωi
Ci s Li Ci
1 2 Ki
Li = and Ci =
2 Ki ω i2
Table 16.2 Realisation of Foster-II form of LC network

Admittance function Element
K0 1
=
s L0 s 1
L0 =
K0
⎛ 1⎞ 1
⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ s Li =
2 Ki s 2 Ki
=
i
s 2 + ω i2 s 2 + 1 Ci =
2 Ki
Li Ci ω i2
K∞ s = Cs
C∞ K∞
The network corresponding to the Foster II form is shown

in Fig. 16.16. Y(s) L0 L1 Li C∞
If Y (s) has no pole at the origin then inductor L0 is not C1 Ci
present. Similarly, if there is no pole at infinity, capacitor C∞
is not present. Fig. 16.16 Foster-II form of LC network
16.5.2 Cauer Realisation or Ladder Realisation

Cauer I Form Since the numerator and denominator polynomials of an LC function always differ in
degrees by unity, there is always a zero or a pole at s = ∞. The Cauer I Form is obtained by successive
removal of a pole or a zero at infinity from the function.
Consider an impedance function Z(s) having a pole at infinity.
By removing the pole at infinity, we get
Z 2 ( s ) = Z ( s ) L1s
Now, Z2(s) has a zero at s = ∞. If we invert Z2(s), Y2(s) will have a pole at s = ∞.
By removing this pole,
Y3 ( s) = Y2 ( s) − C2 s
Now Y3(s) has a zero at s = ∞, which we can invert and remove. This process continues until the remainder
is zero. Each time we remove a pole, we remove an inductor or a capacitor depending on whether the function
is an impedance or an admittance. The impedance Z(s) can be written as a continued fraction expansion.
1
Z ( s ) = L1s +
1
C2 s +
1
L3 s +
C4 s + ...
Thus, the final structure is a ladder network whose series arms are inductors and shunt arms are capacitors.
The Cauer I network is shown in Fig. 16.17.
L1 L3 Z1 Z3
Z(s) C2 C4 Z(s) Y2 Y4
(a) (b)
Fig. 16.17 Cauer I form of LC network
If the impedance function has zero at infinity, i.e., if degree of numerator is less than that of its denominator
by unity, the function is first inverted and continued fraction expansion proceeds as usual. In this case, the
first element is a capacitor as shown in Fig. 16.18.
Z2 Z4
L2 L4
Z(s) C1 C3 C5 Z(s) Y1 Y3 Y5
(a) (b)
Fig. 16.18 Cauer-I form of LC network
Cauer II Form Since the lowest degrees of numerator and denominator polynomials of LC function must
differ by unity, there is always a zero or a pole at s = 0. The Cauer II form is obtained by successive removal
of a pole or a zero at s = 0 from the function.
In this method, continued fraction expansion of Z(s) is carried out in terms of poles at the origin by
removal of the pole at the origin, inverting the resultant function to create a pole at the origin which is
removed and this process is continued until the remainder is zero. To do this, we arrange both numerator and
denominator polynomials in ascending order and divide the lowest power of the denominator into the lowest
power of the numerator. Then we invert the remainder and divide again. The impedance Z (s) can be written
as a continued fraction expansion.
1 1
Z ( s) = +
C1s 1 1
+ C1 C3
L2 s 1 1
+
C3 s 1
+ ... Z(s) L4
L4 s L2
Thus, the final structure is a ladder network whose first element

is a series capacitor and second element is a shunt inductor as
shown in Fig. 16.19. Fig. 16.19 Cauer II form of LC network
If the impedance function has a zero at the origin then the first C2 C4
element is a shunt inductor and the second element is a series
capacitor as shown in Fig. 16.20.
Thus, the LC function F(s) can be realised in four different Z(s) L1 L3 L5
forms. All these forms have the same number of elements and
the number is equal to the number of poles and zeros of F(s)
includng any at infinity. Fig. 16.20 Cauer–II form of LC network
Example 16.39 State whether the following functions are driving point immittance of LC
networks are not: jw
( 2
5s(s ) ( s2
2(s )( s 2
)(s
)( )
(a) Z( s) = 2 2
(b) Z ( s) = 2
j3
(s )(s
)(s
)(
( ) s( s ) j2
√
j√3
Solution
j1
( 2
5s(s )
(a) Z( s) = 0
s
( s2 ( 2
))(
)(s ) −3 −2 −1
−1
−j
The function Z(s) has poles at s ± j1 and s ± j 3 and zeros
− √3
−j √
at s = 0 and s ± j 2 as shown in Fig. 16.21. Since the poles
and zeros do not interlace on the jw axis, the function Z(s) is not −2
−j
an LC impedance function. −3
−j
( s2
2(s )( s 2
)(s
)( )
(b) Z ( s) = 2
Fig. 16.21
s( s )
The function Z(s) has poles at s = 0 and s ± j 2 and zeros at s ± j1 and s ± j 3 as shown in Fig.
16.22. The poles and zeros are simple and lie on the jw-axis. The poles and zeros interlace on the jw axis.
Hence, the function Z(s) is an LC impedance function.
jw
j3
j2
√
j√2
j1
s
0
−3 −2 −1
−1
−j
− √2
−j √
−2
−j
−3
−j
Fig. 16.22
Example 16.40 Realise the Foster and Cauer forms of the following impedance function
( 2
4(s )(ss 2
)( )
Z ( s) =
s( s 2 )
jw
Solution The function Z(s) has poles at s = 0 and s = ± j2 and zeros
at s = ± j1 and s = ± j3 as shown in Fig. 16.23. j3
From the pole-zero diagram, it is clear that poles and zeros are simple j2
and lie on the jw axis. Poles and zeros are interlaced. Hence, the given j1
function is an LC function.
s
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by partial-fraction 0
expansion of the impedance function Z(s). But degree of numerator is −1
−j
greater than degree of denominator. Hence, division is first carried out. −2
−j
4(s
(s 2
)( s
)(s
)( 2
) 4ss + 40 s + 36
4 2
−3
−j
Z ( s) = =
s( s 2
) s + 4s
3
s 3
s) 4 s + 40 s + 36 ( 4 s
4 2
Fig. 16.23
4 2
4s 16 s
24 s 2 + 36
24 s + 36 2
24 s 2 + 36
Z ( s) = 4 s + 3 = 4s +
s + 4s s( s 2 )
K0 K1 K1* K 2K s
Z ( s) = 4 s + + + = 4s + 0 + 2 1
s s j2 s j2 s s +4
4(1)(9)
where K0 sZ ( s) s = 0 = =9
4
( s2 4) Z ( s) 4( −4 + 1)( −4 + 9) 15
K1 = = =
2s 2( 4) 2
s 2 = −4
9 15s
Z ( s) = 4 s + +
s s2 + 4
The first term represents the impedance of an inductor of 4 H. The second term represents the impedance
1
of a capacitor of F. The third term represents the impedance of a parallel LC network.
9
For a parallel LC network,
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
C
Z LC ( s) =
1
s +
2
LC
By direct comparison,
1
C= F
15
15 1
F
L= H 4H 9
4
The network is shown in Fig. 16.24.
Foster II Form The Foster II form is obtained by partial- 15 1
H F
fraction expansion of the admittance function Y(s). 4 15
s( s 2 )
Y ( s) =
( s2
4(s )( s 2
)(s
)( )
By partial-fraction expansion, Fig. 16.24
K1 K* K2 K 2* 2 K1s 2 K 2 s
Y ( s) = + 1 + + = +
s j1 s j1 s j 3 s j 3 s 2 + 1 s 2 + 9
( s 2 + 1) ( −1 + 4) 3
where K1 = Y ( s) = =
2s 8( 1 + 9) 64
s 2 = −1
( s + 9)
2
(− + ) 5
K2 = Y ( s) = =
2s ( + ) 64
8(−
s 2 = −9
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 5⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
32 32
Y( ) = +
s2 + 1 s2 + 9
These two terms represent admittance of a series LC network. For a series LC network,
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
L
YLC ( s) =
1
s2 +
LC
32 3
L1 C1 = F 3
F
5
F
3 32 32 288
32 5 32 32
L2 C2 = F 3
H
5
H
5 288
The network is shown in Fig. 16.25. Fig. 16.25

Cauer I Form The Cauer I form is obtained from continued fraction expansion about the pole at
infinity.
4ss 4 + 40 s 2 + 36
Z ( s) =
s3 + 4 s
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator by one, it indicates the
presence of a pole at infinity.
⎞ ⎛
s3 s 4 s 4 + 40 s 2 + 36 4 s ← Z
⎠ ⎝
4 s 4 16 s 2
⎞ ⎛ 1
24 s 2 36 s3 + 4 s s ←Y
⎠ ⎝ 24
3
s3 + s
2
5 ⎞ ⎛ 48
s 24 s 2 + 36 ⎜ s ← Z
2 ⎠ ⎝ 5
24 s 2
⎞ 5 ⎛ 5
s s ←Y36
⎠ 2 ⎝ 72 48
H
5 4H 5
s
2
1 5
0 F F
24 72
the admittances are connected in the parallel branches in a Cauer
or ladder realisation. The network is shown in Fig. 16.26. Fig. 16.26
Cauer II Form The Cauer II form is obtained from partial-fraction expansion about pole at origin.
( s2
4(s )( s 2
)(s
)( ) 4ss 4 + 40 s 2 + 36
Z ( s) = =
s( s 2 ) s3 + 4 s
The function Z(s) has a pole at origin. Arranging the numerator and denominator polynomials in ascending
order of s,
36 + 40 s 2 + 4 s 4
Z ( s) =
4 s + s3
3⎞ ⎛9
4 36 40 2
4s4 ⎜ ← Ζ
⎠ ⎝s
36 + 9 s 2
⎞ ⎛ 4
31s 2 + 4 s 4 4 s + s3 ⎜ ←Y
⎠ ⎝ 31s
16 3
4s + s
31
15 3 ⎞ ⎛ 961
s 313 s2 + 4s4 ⎜ ←Z
31 ⎠ ⎝ 15s
31s 2
⎞ 15 3 ⎛ 15
4s4 ←Y
⎠ 31 ⎜⎝ 124 s
s
1 15
F F
9 961
15 3
s
31
0 31 124
H H
4 15
admittances are connected in the parallel branches in a Cauer or
ladder realisation. The network is shown in Fig. 16.27. Fig. 16.27
Example 16.41 Realise Foster forms of the LC impedance function
( s2 ( 2
)(s
)(
)(s )
Z ( s) = 2
s( s )
Solution
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by partial-fraction expansion of the impedance function Z(s).
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, division is first carried out.
( s2 )( 2
)(
)(s ) s4 + 4s2 + 3
Z ( s) = =
s( s 2 ) s3 + 2 s
⎞ ⎛
s3 s s4 4s2 + 3 s
⎠ ⎝
s4 + 2s2
2s2 3
2
2s 3 2s2 3
Z ( s) = s + = s+
s + 2s
3
s(ss + 2)
2
K0 K1 K1* K 2K s
Z ( s) = s + + + = s+ 0 + 2 1
s s j2 s j2 s s +2
(1)(3) 3
where K0 sZ ( s) |s 0 = =
2 2
( s 2 + 2) ( −2 + 1)( −22 3) 1
K1 = Z ( s) = =
2s −2)
2(− 4
2
s = −2
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
2 2
Z ( s) = s + + 2
s s +2
The first term represents the impedance of an inductor of 1 H. The second term represents the impedance
2
of a capacitor of F. The third term represents the impedance of a parallel LC network.
3
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
C
Z LC ( s) = 2
F
1
s2 + 1H 3
LC
C = 2F 1
H 2F
4
1
L= H
4
Foster II Form The Foster II form is obtained by partial-fraction expansion of the admittance function Y(s).
s( s 2 )
Y ( s) =
( s2 )( 2
)(s
)( )
K1 K* K2 K 2* 2K s 2K s
Y ( s) = + 1 + + = 2 1 + 2 2
s j1 s j1 s j 3 s j 3 s + 1 s + 3
( s 2 + 1) ( −1 + 2) 1
where K1 = Y ( s) = =
2s 2( −1 + 3) 4
s 2 = −1
( s + 3)
2
−3 + 2 1
K2 = Y ( s) = =
2s 2( −3 + 1) 4
s 2 = −3
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
2 2
Y( ) = +
s2 + 1 s2 + 3
These two terms represent admittance of a series LC network. For a series LC network,
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
L
YLC ( s) =
1
s +
2
LC
1 1 1
F F
L1 , C1 = F 2 6
2
2H 2H
1
L2 , C2 = F
6
Example 16.42 Realise Foster forms of the following LC impedance function:

( s2 ( 2
))(s
)(
(s )
Z ( s) = 2 2
s( s )(
)(s
)( )
Solution
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by partial-fraction expansion of the impedance function Z (s).
K0 K1 K1* K2 K 2* K 2K s 2K s
Z ( s) = + + + + = 0+ 2 1 + 2 2
s s j 2 s j 2 s j2 s j2 s s +2 s +4
(1)(3) 3
where K0 sZ ( s) s = 0 = =
( 2)( 4) 8
( s 2 + 2) ( −2 + 1)( −2 + 3) 1
K1 = Z ( s) = =
2s 2( 2)( 2 4) 8
s 2 = −2
2
( 4) ( 4 1)( 4 3) 3
K2 = Z(( ) = =
2s 2( 4)( −4 + 2) 16
s 2 = −4
3 ⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
4 8
Z ( s) = 8 + +
s s2 + 2 s2 + 4
8
The first term represents the impedance of a capacitor of F. The other two terms represent the impedance
of a parallel LC network. 3
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
C
Z LC ( s) =
1
s2 + 1H
LC 3 H
8F 8 32
By direct comparison, 3
1
C1 , L1 = H
8 4F 8F
8 3 3
C2 , L2 = H
3 32
Foster II Form The Foster II form is obtained by partial-fraction expansion of the admittance function Y(s).
s( s 2 )(( s 2
))(s ) s5 + 6 s3 + 8s
Y ( s) = =
( s2 )( 2
)(
)(s ) s4 + 4s2 + 3
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, division is first carried out.
s 4 + 4s
4s2 3) s5 6 s 3 8 s( s
s5 4 s3 3s
2 s3 5s
2 s3 5s 2 3
+ 5s
Y ( s) = s + = s+
s + 4s
4
4s 2
3 ( s +1
2
+ )( 2
+ 3)
K1 K* K2 K 2* 2K s 2K s
Y ( s) = s + + 1 + + = s+ 2 1 + 2 2
s j1 s j1 s j 3 s j 3 s +1 s + 3
where ( s 2 + 1) ( −1 + 2)( −1 + 4) 3
K1 = Y ( s) = =
2s 2( −1 + 3) 4
s 2 = −1
( s + 3)
2
( −33 2)( −33 4) 1
K2 = Y ( s) = =
2s 2( 3 + 1) 4
s 2 = −3
⎛ 3⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s ⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
2 2
Y ( s) = s + +
s2 + 1 s2 + 3
The first term represents the admittance of capacitor of 1 F. The other two terms represent admittance of
a series LC network. For a series LC network,
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ ⎟⎠ s
L
YLC ( s) =
1
s2 +
LC
2H 2H
2 3
L1 , C1 = F 1F
3
3 2
3F 1F
1 2 6
L2 , C2 = F
6
Example 16.43 Realise Cauer forms of the following LC impedance function:

10 s 4 +12
+ s2 + 1
Z ( s) =
2 s3 + 2 s
Solution
Cauer I Form The Cauer I form is obtained from continued fraction expansion about the pole at infinity.
10 s 4 +12
+ s2 + 1
Z ( s) =
2 s3 + 2 s
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator by one, it indicates the
presence of a pole at infinity.
2 s3 0 s 4 + 12 s 2 + 1 (5s ← Z
2 s) 10s
2s 10
10 s 4 + 10 s 2
)
2 s 2 1 2 s3 2s ( s ← Y
2s + s
3
s ) 2 s 2 + 1( 2 s ← Z
2s2
1) s ( s ← Y
s
0
The impedances are connected in the series branches whereas the admittances are connected in the parallel
branches in a Cauer or ladder realisation. The network is shown in Fig. 16.32.
5H 2H
1F 1F
Fig. 16.32
Cauer II Form The Cauer II form is obtained from continued fraction expansion about the pole at the
origin.
10 s 4 +12
+ s2 + 1
Z ( s) =
2 s3 + 2 s
The function Z(s) has a pole at the origin. Arranging the numerator and denominator polynomials in
ascending order of s,
1 + 12 s 2 + 10 s 4
Z ( s) =
2 s + 2 s3
By continued fraction expansion of Z(s),
⎞ ⎛ 1
2 s 2 s3 1 +12
12 s 2 10 s 4 ⎜ ← Ζ
⎠ ⎝ 2s
1+ s2
⎞ ⎛ 2
11s 2 + 10 s 4 2 s 2 s3 ⎜ ←Y
⎠ ⎝ 11s
20 3
2s + s
11
2 3⎞ ⎛ 121
s 11s 2 + 10 s 4 ⎜ ←Z
11 ⎠ ⎝ 2s
11s 2
⎞ 2 3⎛ 2
10 s 4 ←Y
⎠ 11 ⎜⎝ 110 s
s
2 3
s
11 2
0 F
2F 121
The impedances are connected in the series branches

whereas the admittances are connected in the parallel 11 110
H H
2 2
branches in Cauer or ladder realisation. The network is
shown in Fig. 16.33.
Fig. 16.33
Example 16.44 Realise the following network function in Cauer I form:

6 s4 + 42 s 2 + 48
Z ( s) =
s5 + 18 s3 + 48 s
Solution The Cauer I form is obtained by continued fraction expansion of Z(s) about the pole at infinity.
In the above function, the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator which indicates
the presence of a zero at infinity. The admittance function Y(s) has a pole at infinity. Hence, the continued
fraction expansion of Y(s) is carried out.
s5 + 8s3 + 48s
Y ( s) =
6 s 4 + 4 s 2 + 48
By continued fraction expansion
⎞ ⎛1
6 4
42ss 2
442 s 2 s5 +18
18 3
48s ⎜ s ← Y
⎠ ⎝6
s5 7 3
8s
⎞ ⎛6
11s3 400 s 6 4
42 s 2 48
48 s ←Z
⎠ ⎝ 11
240 2
6s4 + s
11
222 2 ⎞ ⎛ 121
s 30 11s3 + 40 s s ←Y
11 ⎠ ⎝ 222
5808
11s3 + s
222
3072 ⎞ 222 2 ⎛ 49284
s⎟ s + 48 ⎜ s←Z
222 ⎠ 11 ⎝ 33792
222 2
s
11
⎞ 3072 ⎛ 128
48 s s ←Y
⎠ 222 ⎝ 444
3072
s
222
0
6 49284 H
H
11 33792
1F 121 F 128 F
6 222 444
Fig. 16.34
Example 16.45 Realise Cauer II form of the function:

s( s 4 s2 )
Z LC ( s) =
3s + 4 s + 1
4 2
Solution The Cauer II form is obtained by continued fraction expansion about the pole at the origin. The
given function has a zero at the origin. The admittance function Y(s) has a pole at origin. Hence, the continued
fraction expansion of Y(s) is carried out. Arranging the polynomials in ascending order of s,
3s 4 + 4 s 2 + 1 1 + 4 s 2 + 3s 4
YLC ( s) = =
s5 + 3s3 + s s + 3s 3 + s 5
By continued fraction expansion of Y(s), we have
⎞ ⎛1
s + 3s3 + s5 1 + 4 s 2 + 3s 4 ⎜ ← Y
⎠ ⎝s
1 + 3s 2 + s 4
⎞ ⎛1
s 2 + 2 s 4 s + 3s3 + s5 ⎜ ← Z
⎠ ⎝s
s + 2 s3
⎞ ⎛1
s3 + s5 s 2 + 2 4
←Y
⎠ ⎝s
s2 + s4
⎞ ⎛1
s 4 s3 + s5 ⎜ ← Z
⎠ ⎝s
s3
⎞ ⎛1
s5 s 4 ⎜ ← Y
⎠ ⎝s 1F 1F
4
s
0 1H 1H 1H

Example 16.46 Obtain the Cauer I form of realisation for the function
s 5 + 7 s 3 + 10 s
Z LC ( s) =
s4 + 5 s 2 + 4
Solution The Cauer I form is obtained by continued fraction expansion of ZLC (s) about pole at infinity.
⎞ ⎛
s 4 + 5s
5s 2 4 s5 7 s3 10 s s ← Z
⎠ ⎝
s5 5s3 4s
⎞ ⎛1
2 s3 6 s s 4 + 5s
5s 2 4⎜ s ←Y
⎠ ⎝2
s 4 + 3s 2
⎞ 3 ⎛
2ss 2 + 2s + 6 ←Z
⎠ ⎝
2 s3 + 4 s
⎞ ⎛
2s 2s2 + 4 s ← Y
⎠ ⎝
2s2
⎞ ⎛1
4 2s ⎜ s ← Z
⎠ ⎝2
2s
0
The impedances are connected in the series branches, whereas the admittances are connected in the parallel
1H
1H 1H 2
1F
2 1F
Fig. 16.36
Example 16.47 Synthesize the following LC impedance function in Cauer II form:

s3 + 2 s
Z ( s) =
s4 + 4 s 2 + 3
Solution The Cauer II form is obtained by continued fraction expansion about the pole at the origin.
s( s 2 )
Z ( s) = 2 2
(s )(
)(s
)( )
But Z(s) has a zero at the origin. Hence, the continued fraction expansion of Y (s) is carried out. Arranging
the polynomials in ascending order of s,
3 + 4s2 + s4
Y ( s) =
2 s + s3
16.6 Realisation of RC Functions 16.47
By continued fraction expansion of Y (s),
3⎞ ⎛ 3
2 3 + 4s
4s2 + s4 ⎜ ← Y
⎠ ⎝ 2s
3 2
3+ s
2
5 2 4⎞ ⎛ 4
s + s ⎟ 2 s + s3 ←Z
2 ⎠ ⎝ 5s
4
2 s + s3
5
s3 ⎞ 5 2 4 ⎛ 25
s +s ←Y
5 ⎟⎠ 2 ⎝ 2s
5 2
s
2
⎞ 1 3⎛ 1
s4 ←Z
⎠ 5 ⎜⎝ 5s
s 5F
4
1 3
s
5 2H 2 H 5F
0 3 25

16.6 REALISATION OF RC FUNCTIONS

RC driving point immittance functions have following properties:
1. The poles and zeros are simple and are located on the negative real axis of the s plane.
2. The poles and zeros are interlaced.
3. The lowest critical frequency nearest to the origin is a pole.
4. The highest critical frequency farthest to the origin is a zero.
5. Residues evaluated at the poles of ZRC (s) are real and positive.
d
6. The slope Z RC is negative.
dσ
7. Z RC ( ) Z RC ( 0 ) .
RC functions can also be realised in four different ways. The impedance function of RC networks is given by,
H (s )(
)(s
)( )...
Z ( s) =
s( s )...
16.6.1 Foster Realisation

Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by partial-fraction expansion of Z(s).
K0 K1 K2
Z ( s) = + + + ... + K ∞
s s + σ1 s + σ 2
where K0, K1, K2, … K∞ are residues of Z(s).
Ko sZ ( s) s = 0
Ki ( s + i ) Z ( s) s = −σ i
Z ( s)
K∞ =
s s→∞
K0 1
The first term represents the impedance of a capacitor of farads.
s Ko
The last term K∞ represents the impedance of a resistor of K∞ ohms.
Ki
The remaining terms, i.e., represent the impedance of the parallel combination of resistor Ri and
s + σi
capacitor Ci. For parallel combinaton of Ri and Ci,
⎛ 1 ⎞
Ri ⎜
⎝ Ci s ⎟⎠ Ki
Z ( s) = =
1 s + σi
Ri +
Ci s
Ki 1
Ri = and Ci =
σi Ki
Table 16.3 Realisation of Foster-I form of RC network
Impedance function Element
K0 1
=
s C0 s 1
C0 =
K0
K
Ri = i
σi
⎛ 1 ⎞
( Ri ) ⎜
Ki ⎝ Ci s ⎟⎠
=
s + σi 1
Ri +
Ci s 1
Ci =
Ki
K∞ R∞ R∞ = K∞
The network corresponding to the Foster-I form is shown in R1 Ri

C0
Fig. 16.38.
Foster II Form The Foster-II form is obtained by partial fraction C1 Ci
Z(s) R∞
1
expansion of Y(s). Since Y ( s) = has negative residue at its
Z ( s)
Y ( s)
pole, Foster II form is obtained by expanding . Fig. 16.38 Foster-I form of RC network
s
Y ( s) K o n Ki
= +∑ + K∞
s s i =1 ( s i)
Multiplying this equation by s,

n
Ki s
Y ( s) = K o + ∑ + K∞ s
i =1 (s i)
1
The first term Ko represents the conductance of a resistor of ohms.
Ko
The last term K∞ s represents the admittance of a capacitor of K∞ farads.
Ki s
The remaining terms, i.e., represent the admittance of series combination of resistor Ri and capacitor
s + σi
1 K
Ci with Ri = ohms and Ci = i farads.
Ki σi
Table 16.4 Realisation of Foster II form of RC network

Admittance function Element
1
K0 = 1
R0 Ro =
Ko
⎛ 1⎞ 1
Ri =
Ki ⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ s Ki
=
i
s + ωi 1 K
Ci = i
s+
Ri Ci σi
K∞ s = C∞ s C∞ K∞
The network corresponding to the Foster II form is shown in Fig. 16.39.
R1 Ri
Z(s) R0 C∞
C1 Ci
Fig. 16.39 Foster II form of RC network
16.6.2 Cauer Realisation

Cauer I Form The Cauer I form is obtained by removal of the pole from the impedance function Z(s)
at s = ∞. This is the same as a continued fraction expansion of the impedance function about infinity. The
impedance Z(s) can be written as a continued fraction expansion.
1
Z ( s) = R1 +
1
C2 s +
1
R3 +
C4 s + ...
In the network shown in Fig. 16.40, if Z(s) has a zero at s = ∞, R1 R3 Rn − 1
the first element is the capacitor C1. If Z(s) is a constant at s = ∞,
the first element is R1. If Z(s) has a pole at s = 0, the last element
Z(s) C2 C4 Cn
is Cn. If Z(s) is a constant at s = 0, the last element is Rn.
Cauer II Form The Cauer II form is obtained by removal
of the pole from the impedance function at the origin. This is
Fig. 16.40 Cauer-I form of RC network
the same as a continued fraction expansion of an impedance
function about the origin.
If the given impedance function has a pole at the origin, it is removed as a capacitor C1. The reciprocal
of the remainder function has a minimum value at s = 0 which is removed as a constant of resistor R2. If the
original impedance has no pole at the origin, then the first capacitor is absent and the process is repeated with
the removal of the constant corresponding to the resistor R2.
The impedance Z(s) can be written as a continued fraction expansion.
1 1
Z ( s) =
+ C1 C3 Cn − 1
C1s 1 1
+
R2 1 1
+ Z(s)
C3 s 1 R2 R4 Rn
+ ...
R4
In the network shown in Fig. 16.41, if Z (s) has a pole at s = 0, Fig. 16.41 Caver-II form of RC network
the first element is C1. If Z (s) is a constant at s = 0, the first element
is R2. If Z (s) has a zero at s = ∞, the last element is Cn. If Z (s) is constant at s = ∞, the last element is Rn.
Example 16.48 Determine whether following functions are RC impedance function or not.
3(s
( )(
)(ss ) 2( 1))(( 3)
(a) Z ( s) = (b)
s( s ) ( 2)( 6)
Solution
3(s
( )( s
)(s )
(a) Z ( s) = jw
s( s )
The function Z(s) has poles at s = 0 and s = −3 and zeros
at s = −2 and s = −4 as shown in Fig. 16.42. The poles
and zeros are simple and located on the negative real axis s
of the s plane. The poles and zeros are interlaced. The −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
lowest critical frequency nearest to the origin is a pole.

Hence, the function Z(s) is an RC impedance function. Fig. 16.42
2(s
(s )( s
)(s )
(b) Z( s) =
(s ))(s
(
(s ) jw
The function Z(s) has poles at s = −2 and s = −6
and zeros at s = −1 and s = −3 as shown in Fig. 16.43.
The poles and zeros are simple and located on the
negative real axis of the s-plane. The poles and zeros s
are interlaced. But the lowest critical frequency nearest −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0
to the origin is not a pole, but zero. Hence, the function

Z(s) is not an RC impedance function. Fig. 16.43
Example 16.49 Realise the Foster and Cauer forms of the impedance function
(s ))(s
( )
Z ( s) =
s( s )
jw
Solution The function Z(s) has poles at s = 0 and s = –2 and
zeros at s = –1 and s = –3 as shown in Fig. 16.44.
From the pole-zero diagram, it is clear that poles and zeros are
simple and lie on the negative real axis. The poles and zeros are
s
interlaced and the lowest critical frequency nearest to the origin is −3 −2 −1 0
a pole. Hence, the function Z(s) is an RC function.
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by partial fraction
expansion of impedance function Z(s). Since the degree of the
numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, division Fig. 16.44
is first carried out.
s2 + 4s + 3
Z ( s) = 2
s + 2s
⎞ ⎛
s 2 + 2ss s 2 4s + 3 1
⎠ ⎝
s2 + 2s
2s 3
2s + 3 2s + 3
Z ( s) = 1 + = 1+
s + 2s
2 s( s )
K1 K 2
Z ( s) = 1 + +
s s+2
(1)(3) 3
where K1 sZ ( s) s = 0 = =
2 2
( −2 + 1)( −22 3) 1
K 2 ( s + 2) Z ( s) s = −2 = =
−2 2
3 1
Z ( s) = 1 + 2 + 2
s s+2
The first term represents the impedance of a resistor of 1 Ω. The second term represents the impedance of
2
a capacitor of F. The third term represents the impedance of parallel RC circuit for which
3
1 2F
Ci 1Ω 3
Z RC ( s) =
1
s+
Ri Ci
By direct comparison, 1 Ω
4 2F
1
R= Ω
4
C=2F
Foster II Form The Foster II form is obtained by the partial-fraction expansion of admittance function
Y ( s)
.
s 1 s( s )
s(s
Y ( s) = =
Z ( s) ( s ))(s
(
(s )
Y ( s) s+2
=
s ( s )(s
)(s
( )
Y ( s) K K
= 1 + 2
s s +1 s + 3
Y ( s) ( −1 + 2) 1
where K1 ( s + 1) = =
s s = −1 ( −11 3) 2
Y ( s) ( −33 2) 1
K 2 ( s + 3) = =
s s = −3 (− −3 + 1) 2
1 1
Y ( s) 2
= + 2
s s +1 s + 3
1 1
s s
Y ( s) = 2 + 2
s +1 s + 3
These two terms represent the admittance of a series RC circuit. For a series RC circuit.
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ s
YRC ( s) =
i
1
s+
Ri Ci
1
R1 Ω C1 = F
2 2Ω 2Ω
1
R2 = 2 Ω C2 = F 1F 1F
6 2 6

Cauer I Form The Cauer I form is obtained by continued fraction expansion about the pole at infinity.
s2 + 4s + 3
Z ( s) =
s2 + 2s
⎞ ⎛
s2 + 2s s2 4s + 3 1 ← Z
⎠ ⎝
s2 + 2s
⎞ ⎛1
2s 3 s2 + 2s s ← Y
⎠ ⎝2
3
s2 + s
2
1 ⎞ ⎛
s 2s + 3 4 ← Z
2 ⎠ ⎝
2s
⎞ 1 ⎛1
3 s s ←Y 1Ω 4Ω
⎠ 2 ⎝6
1
s 1F 1F
2 2 6
0
The impedances are connected in the series branches whereas admittances
are connected in the parallel branches. The network is shown in Fig. 16.47. Fig. 16.47
Cauer II Form The Cauer II form is obtained from continued fraction expansion about the pole at the
origin. Arranging the numerator and denominator polynomials of Z(s) in ascending order of s,
3 + 4s + s2
Z ( s) =
2s + s2
2⎞ ⎛ 3
2 3 + 4s + s2 ⎜ ← Z
⎠ ⎝ 2s
3
3+ s
2
5 ⎞ ⎛4
s + s2 ⎟ 2s + s2 ←Y
2 ⎠ ⎝5
4
2s + s2
5
1 2⎞ 5 ⎛ 25
s s + s2 ←Z
5 ⎠2 ⎝ 2s
5
s
2
⎞ 1 2 ⎛1
s2 ←Y
⎠ 5 ⎜⎝ 5
s
1 2 2F 2
s 3 25 F
5
0
5 Ω
5Ω
4
admittances are connected in the parallel branches. The network is shown
in Fig. 16.48. Fig. 16.48
Example 16.50 Determine the Foster form of realisation of the RC impedance function.
(s )(
)(s )
Z ( s) =
s( s )(s
)( )
Solution
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by the partial-fraction expansion of the impedance function
Z(s).
K0 K K
Z ( s) = + 1 + 2
s s+2 s+4
(1)(3) 3
where K0 sZ ( s) s = 0 = =
( 2)( 4) 8
( −2 + 1)( −22 3) ( −1)(1) 1
K1 ( s + 2) Z ( s) s = −2 = = =
( −22)( 2 + 4) ( −2)( 2) 4
( −4 + 1)( −44 3) ( −33)( 1) 3
K 2 = ( + 4) Z ( ) s = −4 = = =
( −44)( 4 + 2) ( −44)( 2) 8
3 1 3
Z ( s) = 8 + 4 + 8
s s+2 s+4
8
The first term represents the impedance of a capacitor of F. The remaining terms represent the impedance
of a parallel RC circuit for which 3
1
Ci
Z RC ( s) =
1
s+
Ri Ci
1Ω 3 Ω
8F 8 32
1
R1 Ω C1 = 4 F
8 4F 8F
3
3 8
R2 = Ω C2 = F
32 3
Y ( s)
Foster II Form The Foster II form is obtained by partial-fraction expansion of admittance function .
s
s( s ))(( s
)(s )
Y ( s) =
(s )(s
)(s
( )
Y ( s) ( s ))(
)(s
(s ) s2 + 6s + 8
= =
s (s )(
)(s ) s2 + 4s + 3
Since the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, division is carried out first.
s 2 + 4s ) 6 s 8 (1
4 s 3 s 2 + 6s
s 2 + 4s
4s 3
2s 5
Y ( s) 2s + 5 2s + 5
= 1+ 2 = 1+
s s + 4s + 3 ( s )(s
)( )
Y ( s) K K
= 1+ 1 + 2
s s +1 s + 3
Y ( s) ( −1 + 2)( −1 + 4) (1)(3) 3
where K1 ( s + 1) = = =
s s = −1 ( −11 3) 2 2
Y ( s) ( −3 + 2)( −3 + 4) ( )( ) 1
K2 ( s + 3) = = =
s s= −3 ( ) ( ) 2
3 1
Y ( s)
= 1+ 2 + 2
s s +1 s + 3
3 1
s s
Y ( s) = s + 2 + 2
s +1 s + 3
The first term represents the admittance of a capacitor of 1 F. The other two terms represent the admittance
of a series RC circuit. For a series RC circuit,
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ s
YRC ( s) =
i
1
s+
Ri Ci
2 3 2Ω 2Ω
R1 Ω C1 = F 1F
3
3 2
3F 1F
1
R2 Ω C2 = F 2 6
6
Example 16.51 Realise Foster forms of the following RC impedance function

2(s
(s ))(s
(s )
Z( s) =
(s )(
)(s )
Solution
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by the partial-fraction expansion of the impedance function
Z(s). Since the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, division is carried out
first.
2 s 2 + 12 s + 16
Z ( s) =
s2 + 4s + 3
⎞ ⎛
s 2 + 4s
4 s 3 2 s 2 12s
12 s 16 2
⎠ ⎝
2s2 8s + 6
4 s 10
4 s + 10 4 s + 10
Z ( s) = 2 + = 2+
s + 4s + 3
2 (s )(
)(s )
K1 K
Z ( s) = 2 + + 2
s +1 s + 3
2( −1 + 2)( −1 + 4)
where K1 ( s + 1) Z ( s) s = −1 = =3
( −11 3)
2( −3 2)( −3 4)
K2 ( s + 3) Z ( s) s = −3 = =1
( −33 1)
3 1
Z ( s) = 2 + +
s +1 s + 3
The first term represents the impedance of a resistor of 2 Ω. The remaining terms represent the impedance
of a parallel RC circuit for which
1
Ci
Z RC ( s) = 1Ω
1 3Ω
s+ 2Ω
3
Ri Ci
1 1F 1F
R1 Ω C1 = F 3
3
1
R2 Ω C2 = 1 F
3
Y ( s)
Foster II Form The Foster II form is obtained by partial-fraction expansion of admittance function .
s
( s )(s )( )
Y ( s) =
2(s
( s )(s )( s )
Y ( s) ( s )(s )(s
( )
=
s 2s(s
s( s )(s )( s )
Y ( s) K 0 K K
= + 1 + 2
s s s+2 s+4
Y ( s) (1)(3) 3
where K0 s = =
s s = 0 ( 2)( 2)( 4) 16
Y ( s) ( −2 + 1)( −2 3) ( −1)(1) 1
K1 ( s + 2) = = =
s s = −2 2( 2)( −2 4) 2( 2)( 2) 8
Y ( s) ( −4 + 1)( −44 3) ( −33)( 1) 3

K2 ( s + 4) = = =
s s = −4 2( 4)( −4 2) 2( 4)( −2) 16
3 1 3
Y ( s) 16
= + 8 + 16
s s s+2 s+4
1 3
s s
3 8 16
Y ( s) = + +
16 s + 2 s + 4
16
The first term represents the admittance of a resistor of Ω. The other two terms represent the admittance
of a series RC circuit. For a series RC circuit. 3
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ s
YRC ( s) =
i
1
s+
Ri Ci
16 Ω
1 8Ω
3
R1 = 8 Ω C1 = F 16 Ω
16 3
1 F 3 F
16 3 16 64
R2 Ω C2 = F
3 64
Example 16.52 Obtain the Cauer forms of the RC impedance function

(s ))(s
( )
Z( s) =
2(s
(s )s
)(
)(s )
Solution
Cauer I Form The Cauer I form is obtained by continued fraction expansion about the pole at infinity.
(s )(
)(s ) s 2 + 8 s + 12
Z ( s) = =
2(s
(s )( s
)(s ) 2 s 2 + 8s + 6

⎞ ⎛1
2 2
8s + 6 2
8s + 12 ⎜ ← Z
8s
⎠ ⎝2
s2 + 4 3
⎞ ⎛1
4 9 2 2
88ss + 6 s ←Y
⎠ ⎝2
9
2s2 + s
2
7 ⎞ ⎛8
s + 6 4s + 9 ← Z
2 ⎠ ⎝7
48
4s +
7
15 ⎞ 7 ⎛ 49
⎟ s + 6⎝ ←Y
7⎠2 30
7
s
2
⎞ 15 ⎛ 5
←Z
⎠ 7 ⎜⎝ 14
6 1 Ω 8 Ω 5 Ω
2 7 14
15
7
1 49 F
0 F
2 30
Cauer II Form The Cauer II form is obtained by continued fraction expansion about the pole at the origin.
Arranging the polynomials in ascending order of s,
12 + 8s + s 2
Z ( s) =
6 + 8s + 2 s 2
⎞ ⎛
6 8s + 2 s 2 12 8s + s 2 2
⎠ ⎝
12 + 16 s + 4 s 2
−8 3s 2
Since negative term results, continued fraction expansion of Y(s) is carried out.
6 + 8s + 2 s 2
Y ( s) =
12 + 8s + s 2
2⎞ ⎛1
12 + 8 6+8 2s2 ⎜ ← Y
⎠ ⎝2
1
6 4s + s2
2
3 ⎞ ⎛3
4 s + s 2 ⎟ 12 + 8s + s 2 ⎜ ← Z
2 ⎠ ⎝s
9
12 + s
2
7 ⎞ 3 ⎛8
s + s2 ⎟ 4s + + s2 ⎜ ← Y
2 ⎠ 2 ⎝7
8 2
4s + s
7
5 2⎞ 7 ⎛ 49
s ⎟ s + s2 ⎜ ←Z
14 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 5s
7
s
2
⎞ 5 2⎛ 5 1
s2 ←Y 5 F
⎠ 14 ⎜⎝ 14
s 3
F
49
5
s
14 7 Ω 14 Ω
0 2Ω 5
8
The impedances are connected in the series branches,
whereas the admittances are connected in the parallel branches.
Example 16.53 Realise the RC impedance in Cauer I and Foster I forms

s+4
Z ( s) =
( s ))(s
( )
Solution
Cauer I Form The Cauer I form is obtained by continued fraction expansion of Z(s) about the pole at
infinity. In the above function, the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator which
indicates presence of a zero at infinity. Hence, the admittance function Y(s) has a pole at infinity.
s 2 + 8 s + 12
Y ( s) =
s+4
⎞ ⎛
s + 4 s 2 + 8s + 12 s ← Y
⎠ ⎝
s2 + 4s
⎞ ⎛1
4 s + 12 s + 4 ⎜ ← Z
⎠ ⎝4
s+3
⎞ ⎛
1 4 s + 12 4 s ← Y
⎠ ⎝
4s
1 1
Ω Ω
⎞ ⎛1 4 12
12 1 ⎜ ← Z
⎠ ⎝ 12
1
1F 4F
0
The impedances are connected in series branches, whereas the
admittances are connected in parallel branches. The network is shown
in Fig. 16.55. Fig. 16.55
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by partial fraction expansion of Z(s).
s+4
Z ( s) =
( s ))(s
( )
K K
Z ( s) = 1 + 2
s+2 s+6
( −2 + 4) 1
where K1 ( s + 2) Z ( s) s = −2 = =
( −22 6) 2
( −66 4) 1
K2 ( s + 6) Z ( s) s = −6 = =
( −66 2) 2
1 1
Z ( s) = 2 + 2
s+2 s+6
These two terms represent the impedance of a parallel RC circuit for which
1
Ci
Z RC ( s) =
1
s+ 1Ω 1 Ω
Ri Ci 4 12
1
R1 Ω C1 = 2 F 2F 2F
4
1
R2 Ω C2 = 2 F
12
(s )(
)(s )
Example 16.54 The RC driving-point impedance function is given as Z ( s) = H
Realise the impedance function in the ladder form, given Z( ) = 1. s( s )
Solution Putting s = − 2,
( )( )
Z( ) H =H
( )( )
H =1
(s
))(( s )
)(s
Z ( s) =
s( s )
infinity.
⎞ ⎛
s 2 + 3s s 2 5s + 4 1 ← Z
⎠ ⎝
s + 3s
2
⎞ ⎛1
2 s 4 s 2 + 3s s ← Y
⎠ ⎝2
s2 + 2s
⎞ ⎛
s 2s + 4 2 ← Z
⎠ ⎝
2s
⎞ ⎛1
4 s⎜ s ←Y
⎠ ⎝4
s
0
The impedances are connected in the series branches whereas 1Ω 2Ω

shown in Fig. 16.57.
1 1
F F
Cauer II Form The Cauer II form is obtained by continued fraction 2 4
expansion about the pole at the origin. Arranging the polynomials in
ascending order of s,
4 + 5s + s 2 Fig. 16.57
Z ( s) =
3s + s 2

2⎞ ⎛4
3 4 + 5s + s 2 ⎜ ← Z
⎠ ⎝ 3s
4
4+ s
3
11 ⎞ ⎛9
s + s 2 ⎟ 3s + s 2 ⎜ ← Y
3 ⎠ ⎝ 11
9
3s + s 2
11
2 2 ⎞ 11 ⎛ 121
s s + s2 ⎜ ←Z
11 ⎠ 3 ⎝ 6s
11
s
3
⎞ 2 2⎛ 2
s2 ←Y
⎠ 11 ⎜⎝ 11
s
3 6
F F
4 121
2 2
s
11
0 11 Ω 11 Ω
9 2
Example 16.55 An impedance function has the pole-zero diagram as shown in Fig. 16.59. Find the
3
impedance function such that Z(−4) = and realise in Cauer I and Foster II forms.
4
jw
s
−3 −2 −1 0
Fig. 16.59
Solution The function Z(s) has poles at s = 0 and s = −2 and zeros at s = −1 and s = −3.
(s ))(s
(
(s )
Z ( s) = H
s( s )
Putting s = −4,
( )( ) ( )( ) 3
Z( ) H =H = H
( )( ) ( )( ) 8
3 3
= H
4 8
H =2
2( s + 1)( s + 3) 2 2 + 8s + 6
Z ( s) = =
s ( s + 2) s2 + 2s
infinity.
⎞ ⎛
s 2 + 2 s 2 s 2 + 8s
8s 6 2 ← Z
⎠ ⎝
2s2 4s
⎞ ⎛1
4 s 6 s2 + 2s s ← Y
⎠ ⎝4
3
s2 + s
2
1 ⎞ ⎛
s⎟ 4 + 6 8 ← Z
2 ⎠ ⎝
4s
⎞1 ⎛1
s ←Y
⎠ 2 ⎜⎝ 12
6 s
1
s
2
0
2Ω 8Ω
admittances are connected in the parallel branches. The network is shown
in Fig. 16.60. 1
F
1
F
4 12
Foster II Form The Foster II form is obtained by partial fraction
Y ( s)
expansion of .
s Fig. 16.60
16.7 Realisation of RL Functions 16.63
Y ( s) s+2
=
s 2(s
( s )(
))(ss )
By partial fraction expansion,
Y ( s) K K
= 1 + 2
s s +1 s + 3
Y ( s) ( −1 + 2) 1
where K1 ( s + 1) = =
s s = −1 2( −1 + 3) 4
Y ( s) ( −33 2) −1 1
K2 ( s + 3) = = =
s s = −3 2( 3 + 1) 2( 2) 4
1 1
Y ( s)
= 4 + 4
s s +1 s + 3
1 1
s s
Y ( s) = 4 + 4
s +1 s + 3
Two terms represent the admittance of a series RC circuit. For a series RC circuit,
⎛ 1⎞
⎜⎝ R ⎟⎠ s
YRC ( s) =
i
1
s+
Ri Ci
By direct comparison, 4Ω 4Ω
1
R1 Ω C1 = F 1 1
4 F F
4 12
1
R2 Ω C2 = F
12 Fig. 16.61
16.7 REALISATION OF RL FUNCTIONS

RL driving point immittance functions have following properties:
1. The poles and zeros are simple and are located on the negative real axis of the s plane.
2. The poles and zeros are interlaced.
3. The lowest critical frequency is a zero which may be at s = 0.
4. The highest critical frequency is a pole which may be at infinity.
Z ( s)
5. Residues evaluated at the poles of ZRL(s) are real and negative while that of RL are real and
positive. s
d
6. The slope Z RL is positive.
dσ
7. Z RL ( 0 ) Z RL (∞) .
The admittance of an inductor is similar to the impedance of a capacitor. Hence, properties of an RL
admittance are identical to those of an RC impedance and vice-versa, i.e.,
RC ( ) = YRL ( s)
Z RL ( s ) = YRC ( s )
An RL admittance can be considered as the dual of an RC impedance and vice-versa.
Example 16.56 Indicate which of the following functions are either RL, RC or LC impedance functions.
4(s
( )(
)(ss ) s( s )(s
)(s
( )
(a) Z ( s) = (b) Z ( s) =
s( s ) (s )(
)(s )
(s )(
)(s ) 2(s
( s )(s
)( s )
(c) Z ( s) = (d) Z( s) =
s( s ) ( s ))(
)(s
(s )
4(s
( s )(s)( s )
Solution (a) Z ( s) =
s( s )
This is an RC impedance function since (i) poles and zeros are on the negative real axis, (ii) they are
interlaced, and (iii) critical frequency nearest to the origin is a pole.
s( s ))(s
(
(s )
(b) Z ( s) =
(s )(s
)(s
( )
This is an RL impedance function as (i) poles and zeros are on the negative real axis, (ii) they are interlaced,
and (iii) critical frequency nearest to the origin is a zero.
(s )( s )
)(s
)(
(c) Z ( s) =
s( s )
This is an RC impedance function since (i) poles and zeros are on the negative real axis, (ii) they are
interlaced, and (iii) critical frequency nearest to the origin is a pole.
2(s
(s ))(s
(s )
(d) Z( s) =
(s )(s
)(s
( )
This is an RL impedance function as (i) poles and zeros are on the negative real axis, (ii) they are interlaced,
and (iii) critical frequency nearest to the origin is a zero.
Example 16.57 Realise following RL impedance function in Foster-I and Foster-II form.
2(s
(s )(s
)( s )
Z( s) =
(s )(s
)( )
Solution
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by partial-fraction expansion of the impedance function Z(s).
K1 K
Z ( s) = + 2
s+2 s+6
2( −2 + 1)( −2 + 3) 1
where K1 ( s + 2) Z ( s) s = −2 = =−
( −22 6) 2
2( 6 + 1)( 6 + 3) 15
K2 ( s + 6) Z ( s) s = −6 = =−
( −66 2) 2
Z ( s)
Since residues of Z (s) are negative, partial fraction expansion of is carried out.
s
Z ( s) 2(s
(s ))(s
(s )
=
s s( s )(
)(s )
By partial fraction expansion,
Z ( s) K 0 K K
= + 1 + 2
s s s+2 s+6
Z ( s) 2(1)(3) 1
where K0 s = =
s s = 0 ( 2)(6) 2
Z ( s) 2( −2 + 1)( −2 + 3) 1
K1 ( s + 2) = =
s s = −2 ( 2)( 2 6) 4
Z(( ) 2( 6 1)( 6 3) 5
K 2 = ( 6) = =
s s = −6 ( 6)( 6 2) 4
1 1 5
Z ( s) 2 4
= + + 4
s s s+2 s+6
1 5
s s
1 4
Z ( s) = + + 4
2 s+2 s+6
1
The first term represents the impedance of the resistor of Ω . The other two terms represent the impedance
of the parallel RL circuit for which 2
Ri s 1Ω 5 Ω
Z RL ( s) = 1 Ω 4 4
R
s+ i 2
Li
1 5
H H
1 1 8 24
R1 Ω L1 = H
4 8
5 5
R2 Ω L2 = H
4 24 Fig. 16.62
Foster II Form The Foster II form is obtained by partial fraction expansion of Y (s). Since the degree of the
numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, division is first carried out.
(s )(
)(s ) s 2 + 8 s + 12
Y ( s) = =
2(s
(s )( s
)(s ) 2 s 2 + 8s + 6
⎞ ⎛1
2 2
8s + 6 2
8s + 12 ⎜
8s
⎠ ⎝2
s2 + 4 3
4 9
1 4s + 9 1 4s + 9
Y ( s) = + 2 = +
2 2 s + 8s + 6 2 2(s
( s ))(s
(s )
4s 9 K K
Y1 ( s) = = 0 + 1
2( s 1)(s( s 3) s 1 s + 3
( −44 9) 5
where K 0 ( s + 1)Y1 ( s) s = −1 = =
2( −1 + 3) 4
( −12 + 9) 3
K1 ( s + 3)Y1 ( s) s = −3 = =
2(( ) 4
5 3
1 4 4
Y ( s) = + +
2 s +1 s + 3
The first term represents the admittance of a resistor of 2 Ω. The other two terms represent the admittance
of a series RL circuit. For a series RL circuit,
1
Li
YRL ( s) =
R
s+ i
Li
By direct comparison, 4Ω
5 4Ω
4 4 2Ω
R1 Ω L1 = H
5 5 4 4
H H
4 5 3
R2 4 Ω L2 = H
3
Example 16.58 Find the Foster forms of the RL impedance function:

(s ))(s
( )
Z( s) =
(s )(
)(s )
Solution
Z ( s)
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by partial-fraction expansion of impedance function .
s
Z ( s) ( s ))(( s
)(s )
=
s s( s )(
)(s )
By partial-faction expansion,
Z ( s) K 0 K K
= + 1 + 2
s s s+3 s+5
Z ( s) (1)( 4) 4
where K0 s = =
s s = 0 (5)(3) 15
Z ( s) ( −33 1)( −33 4) ( −2)(1) 1

K1 ( s + 3) = = =
s s = −3 ( −33)( 3 + 5) ( −3)( 2) 3
Z ( s) ( −55 1)( −55 4) ( −44)( 1) 2
K 2 ( s + 5) = = =
s s = −5 ( −55)( 5 + 3) ( −55)( 2) 5
4 1 2
Z ( s) 15 3 5
= + +
s s s+3 s+5
1 2
s s
4
Z ( s) = + 3 + 5
15 s + 3 s + 5
4
The first term represents the impedance of the resistor of Ω . The other two terms represent the
15
impedance of a parallel RL circuit for which
Ri s
Z RL ( s) = 1Ω 2 Ω
R
s+ i 4 Ω 3 5
Li 15
1 1
R1 Ω L1 = H 1
H
2
H
3 9 9 25
2 2
R2 Ω L2 = H
5 25
Foster II Form The Foster II form is obtained by partial fraction expansion of Y (s). Since the degree of the
numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, division is first carried out.
(s )(
)(s ) s 2 + 8 s + 15
Y ( s) = =
(s )(s
)(
)( s ) s 2 + 5s + 4
s 2 + 5s + 4) s 2 s (1
s2 + 5 4
3 11
3 11
Y ( s) = 1 +
( s +1
1)( s 4)
K K
Y1 ( s) = 0 + 1
s +1 s 4
( −33 11) 8
where K0 ( s + 1)Y1 ( s) s = −1 = =
( −1 + 4) 3
( −12 + 11) 1
K1 ( s + 4)Y1 ( s) s = −4 = =
( −4 + 1) 3
8 1
Y1 ( s) = 3 + 3
s +1 s + 4
8 1
Y ( s) = 1 + 3 + 3
s +1
+1 s + 4
The first term represents the admittance of a resistor of 1 Ω. The other two terms represent the admittance
of a series RL circuit.
For a series RL circuit,
1
Li
YRL ( s) =
R
s+ i
Li 3Ω
By direct comparison, 12 Ω
8
1Ω
3 3
R1 Ω L1 = H 3
H 3H
8 8 8
R2 12 Ω L2 = 3 H
Example 16.59 Find the Cauer forms of the RL impedance function:

2(s
(s ))(s
(s )
Z( s) =
(s ))(s
( )
Solution
Cauer I Form The Cauer I form is obtained by a continued fraction expansion of Z(s) about the pole at
infinity.
2(s
(s ))(s
(s ) 2 s 2 + 8s + 6
Z ( s) = =
(s )(s
)( ) s 2 + 8 s + 12
s 2 + 8s
8s 12)2 s 2 + 8s
8 s 6( 2 ← Z
2 s 2 16s
16 s 24
− 8s
8 s 18
Since a negative term results, continued fraction expansion of Y (s) is carried out.
s 2 + 8 s + 12
Y ( s) =
2 s 2 + 8s + 6
⎞ ⎛1
2 2
8s + 6 2
8s + 12 ⎜ ← Y
8s
⎠ ⎝2
s2 + 4 3
⎞ ⎛1
4 9 2 2
8s + 6
8s s←Z
⎠ ⎝2
9
2s2 + s
2
7 ⎞ ⎛8
s + 6 4s + 9 ⎜ ← Y
2 ⎠ ⎝7
48
4s +
7
15 ⎞ 7 ⎛ 49
⎟ s + 6 ⎜⎝ s ← Z
7⎠2 30
7
s
2
⎞ 15 ⎛ 15
←Y
⎠ 7 ⎜⎝ 42
6 1 49
H H
2 30
15
7
7Ω 42 Ω
0 2Ω 15
8
the admittances are connected in the parallel branches. The
network is shown in Fig. 16.66. Fig. 16.66
Cauer II Form The Cauer II form is obtained from a continued fraction expansion about the pole at the
origin. Arranging the numerator and denominator polynomials of Z(s) in ascending order of s,
6 + 8s + 2 s 2
Z ( s) =
12 + 8s + s 2
2⎞ ⎛1
12 + 8 6+8 2s2 ⎜ ← Z
⎠ ⎝2
1 2
6 4s + s
2
3 2⎞ ⎛3
4s + s ⎟ 12 + 8s + s 2 ⎜ ← Y
2 ⎠ ⎝s
9
12 + s
2
7 ⎞ 3 ⎛8
s + s2 ⎟ 4s + s2 ⎜ ← Z
2 ⎠ 2 ⎝7
8
4s + s2
7
5 2⎞ 7 ⎛ 98
s ⎟ s + s2 ⎜ ←Y
14 ⎠ 2 ⎝ 10 s
7
s
2
⎞ 5 2⎛ 5
s2 ←Z
⎠ 14 ⎜⎝ 14
s
5
s
14
0
branches. The network is shown in Fig. 16.67.
1Ω 8Ω 5 Ω
2 7 14
1 10
H H
3 98
Fig. 16.67
Example 16.60 Obtain the Foster I and Cauer I forms of the RL impedance function.
s( s ))(s
(
(s )
Z ( s) =
(s )(
)(s )
Solution
Z ( s)
Foster I Form The Foster I form is obtained by partial fraction expansion of .
s
Z ( s) ( s )(s
)( )
=
s (s )(s
)( )
Since the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, division is first carried out.
s 2 + 7s
7 s 6) s 2 + 12 s + 32(1
s 2 + 7s
7s 6
5s 26
Z ( s) 5s 26 5s 26
= 1+ 2 = 1+
s s + 7s
7s 6 ( 1)( 6)
Z ( s) K K
= 1+ 0 + 1
s s +1 s + 6
5s 26 −55 26 21
where K0 = = =
s+6 s = −1 −11 6 5
5s 26 −30 + 26 4
K1 = = =
s + 1 s = −6 −66 1 5
21 24
Z ( s) 5
= 1+ + 5
s s +1 s + 6
21 4
s s
Z ( s) = s + 5 + 5
s +1 s + 6
The first term represents the impedance of the inductor of 1 H. The other two terms represent the impedance
of a parallel RL circuit for which 21 Ω 4 Ω
Ri s 5 5
Z RL ( s) = 1H
R
s+ i
Li
21 4
H
30
H
21 21
R1 Ω L1 = H
5 5
4 4
R2 Ω L2 = H Fig. 16.68
5 30
infinity.
s3 + s 2 + 32 s
Z ( s) =
s2 + 7s + 6
⎞ ⎛
s2 7 s 6 s3 + 12 s 2 + 32 s s ← Z
⎠ ⎝
s3 7s2 6s
⎞ ⎛1
5s 2 26 s s 2 7s + 6 ⎜ ← Y
⎠ ⎝5
26
s2 + s
5
9 ⎞ ⎛ 25
s + 6⎟ 5s 2 + 26 s ⎜ s ← Z
5 ⎠ ⎝ 9
50
5s 2 + s
3
28 ⎞ 9 ⎛ 27
s⎟ s + 6 ⎜ ←Y
3 ⎠5 ⎝ 1400
9
s
5
⎞ 28 ⎛ 28
s←Z
⎠ 3 ⎜⎝ 18
6 s
28
s
3
0
The impedances are connected in the series branches, whereas the admittances are connected in the parallel
branches. The network is shown in Fig. 16.69.
25 28
H H
1H 9 18
140 Ω
5Ω
27
Fig. 16.69
Exercises
16.1 Test the following polynomials for Hurwitz s 2 + 2s
2s 1
property: (vi)
(i) s3 + s2 + 2s + 2 s 2 + 4s
4s 4
(ii) s4 + s2 + s + 1 s3 2s2 3s + 1
(iii) s3 + 4s2 + 5s + 2 (vii) 3 2
s s s 2
(iv) s4 + 7s3 + 6s2 + 21s + 8
s3 s2 s 1
(v) s4 + s3 + s + 1 (viii)
(vi) s7 + 3s6 + 8s5 + 15s4 + 17s3 + 12s2 + 4s s2 + s + 1
(vii) s7 + 2s6 + 2s5 + s4 + 4s3 + 8s2 + 8s + 4 s+4
(ix)
(viii) s7 + 3s5 + 2s3 + s s2 + 2s + 1
(ix) s5 + 2s3 + s s 2 + 4s
4s 3
(x) s3 + 2s2 + 4s + 2 (x)
(xi) s4 + s3 + 4s2 + 2s + 3 s 2 + 6s
6s 8
(xii) s5 + 8s4 + 24s3 + 28s2 + 23s + 6 s2 + 1
(xi)
(xiii) s7 − 2s6 + 2s5 + 9s2 + 8s + 4 s3 + 4 s
(xiv) s7 + 3s5 + 2s3 + 3 s 4 2 s 3 3s 2 + 1
(xv) s5 + s3 + s (xii)
(xvi) s6 + 7s4 + 5s3 + s2 + s s 4 s3 + 3s 2 2 s + 1
(xvii) s4 + s3 + 2s2 + 3s + 2 s 2 + 2s
2s 4
(xiii)
16.2 Determine whether the following functions ( s +11)( s 3)
are positive real: 2s 4
(xiv)
s3 + 5s s+5
(i)
s + 2ss 2 1
4 s2 + 2s
(xv)
s( s ))(s
( ) s2 + 1
(ii)
( s )(
)(s
)( s ) s2 + 4
(xvi) 3
2s2 2s + 1
2s s 3s 2 3s + 1
(iii) 3 2 16.3 Determine whether the following functions
s 2s
2s s 2
4 3
are LC, RC or RL function:
s 3s s2 s 2
(iv) 2(s
( s )(s
)( s )
s s + s +1
3 2 (i) F( s) =
( s )(s
)(s
( )
2 s3 22ss 2 + 3 2
(v) 3(s
( )(s
)( s )
s2 + 1 (ii) Z ( s) =
s( s )
Exercises 16.73
s s 2
s+
(iii) Z s (vii) Z s =
s s s 1 2
Ks( s ) 16.5 Realise the following functions in Foster II

(iv) Z s
s s form:
3(s s
2s s (i) Z s =
(v) Z s ss
ss
2s s
(vi) Z s
4s s (ii) Z s =
ss ss
s s 4s s
(vii) Z s (iii) Z s =
ss s s
s s 4s s
(viii) F s (iv) Y s
ss ss
s s
(ix) Z s s s
s s (v) Z s
ss s
s s 16.6 Realise the following functions in Cauer I
(x) Z s
(s ) form:
4s 2s s
(xi) Y s (i) F s =
s s s s
2s s
(xii) Y s s s
s s (ii) Z s
ss
ss s
(xiii) Z s
s s s s
(iii) Z s
s s
s s
(xiv) Z s
ss 2s s
(iv) Z s
ss
16.4 Realise the following functions in Foster I
form: s s
(v) F s =
3s s ss
(i) Z s
ss s+4
(vi) Z s =
2s s s s
(ii) Z s
ss 6(s s
(vii) Z s
4s s ss
(iii) F s
s s
s s
s+4 (viii) Z s
(iv) Z s s s +
s s
s s ss s
(v) Z s (ix) Z s
ss s s
s s 2
s+
(vi) Y s = (x) Z s
ss s 2
s 1
16.7 Realise the following function in Cauer II jw
form:
s
( s2 )( 2
)(
)(s ) −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
(i) F ( s) = 0
s( s 2 )
(s )(
)(s ) Fig. 16.70
(ii) Z( s) =
(s )(s
)(
)( s ) 16.9 An impedance function has the pole-zero
diagram as shown in Fig. 16.71. Find the
( s2
2(s )( s 2
)(s
)( ) 8
(iii) Z ( s) = 2 impedance function such that Z( ) = and
s( s ) 3
realise in Cauer forms.
(s )(s
)( )
(iv) Z ( s) = jw
s( s )
s
s3 + s 2 + 32 s −3 −2 −1 0
(v) F ( s) =
s2 + 7s + 6
2(s
(s ))(s
(s ) Fig. 16.71
(vi) Z( s) =
(s )(s
)(s
( ) 16.10 For the realisation of a given function F(s).
n
K0 sK
s( s 2 )( 2
)(
)(s ) F ( s) = + ∑ 2 i 2 + sK ∞
(vii) Z ( s) = s i =1 ( s i )
( s2 )( 2
)(
)(s )
where K0, Ki (i = 1, 2, 3, … n) and K∞ are
s2 + 2s + 2 constants.
(viii) Z ( s) = (i) Mention the type of function (RC, RL or
s2 + s + 1
LC)
16.8 An impedance function has the pole-zero (ii) Given that K0 = 6, K1 = 8, w1 = 4, K2 =
diagram as shown in Fig. 16.70 below. If Z 10, w2 = 8, K∞ = 5, find the component
(−2) = 3, synthesise the impedance function values of realised network for F(s) = Z(s)
in Foster and Cauer forms. and F(s) = Y(s). Draw neat diagrams.
Objective-Type Questions
16.1 The necessary and sufficient condition for a (a) zero (b) one
rational function F(s) to be the driving-point (c) two (d) three
impedance of an RC network is that all poles
and zeros should be 16.3 The first and the last critical frequencies of a
driving-point impedance function of a passive
(a) simple and lie on the negative real axis
network having two kinds of elements, are
in the s-plane
a pole and a zero respectively. The above
(b) complex and lie in the left half of s-plane
property will be satisfied by
(c) complex and lie in the right-half of s-plane
(d) simple and lie on the positive real axis of (a) RL network only
the s-plane (b) RC network only
(c) LC network only
16.2 The number of roots of s3 + 5s2 + 7s + 3 = 0 in
(d) RC as well as RL network
the left half of s-plane is
Objective-Type Questions 16.75
16.4 The pole-zero pattern of a particular network (a) a resistance of 0.75 Ω at low frequencies
is shown in Fig. 16.72. It is that of an (b) a resistance of 1 Ω at high frequencies
jw (c) both (a) and (b) above
(d) none of the above
j2
16.9 An RC driving-point impedance function has
j1 zeros at s = −2 and s = −5. The admissible
s poles for the functions would be
−1
−j (a) s = 0, s = −6 (b) s = −1, s = −3
−2
−j (c) s = 0, s = −1 (d) s = −3, s = −4
16.10 Consider the following from the point of
Fig. 16.72 view of possible realisation as driving-point
impedances using passive elements:
(a) LC network (b) RC network 1 s+3
1. 2.
(c) RL network (d) none of these s( s 5) s ( s + 5)
2
16.5 The first critical frequency nearest to the

origin of the complex frequency plane for an s2 + 3 s+5
3. 4.
RL driving-point impedance function will be s ( s + 5)
2 2 s( s + 5)
(a) a zero in the left-half plane Of these, the realisable are
(b) a zero in the right-half plane (a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) a pole in the left-half plane (c) 3 and 4 (d) none of these
(d) a pole in the right-half plane
16.11 The poles and zeros of a driving-point function
16.6 Consider the following polynomials: of a network are simple and interlace on the
P1 = s8 + 2s6 + 4s4 negative real axis with a pole closest to the
P2 = s6 − 3s2 + 2s2 + 1 origin. It can be realised
P3 = s4 + 3s3 + 3s2 + 2s + 1 (a) by an LC network
P4 = s7 + 2s6 + 2s4 + 4s3 + 8s2 + 8s + 4 (b) as an RC driving point impedance
which one of these polymials is not Hurwitz? (c) as an RC driving point admittance
(a) P1 (b) P2 (d) only by an RLC network
(c) P3 (d) P4 16.12 If F1(s) and F2(s) are two positive real
functions then the function which is always
16.7 For very high frequencies, the driving-point positive real, is
4(s
( s )(s
)( s ) F ( s)
admittance function, Y ( s) = (a) F1(s) F2(s) (b) 1
behaves as s( s )(
)(s
)( s ) F2 ( s)
F1 ( s) F2 ( s)
3 (c) (d) F1(s) − F2(s)
(a) a resistance of Ω F1 ( s) + F2 ( s)
2
(b) a capacitance of 4 F 16.13 The circuit shown in Fig. 16.73 is
1
(c) an inductance of H
4
(d) an inductance of 4 H
Fig. 16.73
s+3 (a) Cauer I form (b) Foster I form
16.8 The driving-point impedance Z ( s) =
behaves as s +4 (c) Cauer II form (d) Foster II form
16.14 For an RC driving-point impedance function, (c) should alternate on the imaginary axis
the poles and zeros (d) can lie anywhere on the left half-plane
(a) should alternate on the real axis
(b) should alternate only on the negative real
axis
Answers to Objective-Type Questions

16.1 (a) 16.2 (a) 16.3 (b) 16.4 (a) 16.5 (a) 16.6 (b) 16.7 (c)
16.8 (c) 16.9 (b) 16.10 (a) 16.11 (b) 16.12 (c) 16.13 (b) 16.14 (b)

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16

16.2 HURWITZ POLYNOMIALS

Properties of Hurwitz Polynomials

Example 16.2 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s4 + s3 + 5 s 2 + 3 s + 4 is Hurwitz.

Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = s 4 + 5s 2 + 4

Since all the quotient terms are positive, P(s) is Hurwitz.

Example 16.3 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s3 + 4 s 2 + 5 s + 2 is Hurwitz.

Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = 4 s 2 + 2

Example 16.4 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s4 + s3 + 3 s 2 + 2 s + 12 is Hurwitz.

Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = s 4 + 3s 2 + 12

Example 16.5 Prove that polynomial P ( s) = s4 + s3 + 2 s 2 + 3 s + 2 is not Hurwitz.

Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = s 4 + s 2 + 2

Example 16.6 Prove that polynomial P ( s) = 2 s4 + 5 s3 + 6 s 2 + 3 s + 1 is Hurwitz.

Solution Even part of P ( s) = m(s

Example 16.7 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s4 + 7 s3 + 6 s 2 + 21s + 8 is Hurwitz.

Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = s 4 + 6 s 2 + 8

Example 16.8 Check whether P ( s) = s4 + 5 s3 + 5 s 2 + 4 s + 10 is Hurwitz.

Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = s 4 + 5s 2 + 10

Example 16.9 Test whether the polynomial s5 33ss3 2s is Hurwitz.

Example 16.10 Test whether the polynomial P(s) is Hurwitz.

Example 16.11 Test the polynomial P(s) of Hurwitz property.

Solution Even part of P s s s + 7s + 4

If both the factors are Hurwitz, P(s) will be Hurwitz.

Now, let P2 ( s) = s 4 3s3 4 s 2 + 3s 1

Since all the quotient terms are positive, P2(s) is Hurwitz.

Example 16.12 Test whether the polynomial P ( s) = s7 + s6 + 2 s5 + s4 + 4s

Solution Even part of P ( s) = m( s) = 2 s6 + s 4 + 8s 2 + 4

Example 16.13 Test whether the polynomial 2 13 s + 56 2

Solution Even part of P s = = 2s s + 6 s + 25

The division has terminated abruptly.

Example 16.14 Test whether P ( s) = s4 + 7 s3 + 6 s 2 + 21s + 8 is Hurwitz.

Solution The Routh array is given by,

Example 16.15 Determine whether P ( s) = s4 + s3 + 2 s 2 + 3 s + 2 is Hurwitz.

Solution The Routh array is given by,

Example 16.16 Test whether P ( s) = s5 + 2 s4 + 4 s3 + 6 s 2 + 2 s + 5 is Hurwitz.

Solution The Routh array is given by,

Example 16.17 Test whether the polynomial P(s) = s5 + s3 + s is Hurwitz.

Solution The given polynomial contains odd functions only.

Solution The given polynomial contains even functions only.

Solution The Routh array is given by,

Solution The Routh array is given by,

Now, the Routh array will be given by,

Solution The Routh array is given by,

Solution The Routh array is given by,

i.e., k < 6 and k > 0

16.3 POSITIVE REAL FUNCTIONS

16.3.1 Properties of Positive Real Functions

16.3.2 Necessary and Sufﬁcient Conditions for Positive Real Functions

We have to test Re F(jw) ≥ 0 for all w.

A(w2) is positive for all w ≥ 0.

The function F(s) has poles at s = −1 and s = −4 and jw

A(w2) is positive for all w ≥ 0.

(c) Even part off N ( s) m1 s 2 1

A(w2) is zero for all w ≥ 0.

Even part off N ( s) m( s) 2s 2 + 2

A(w2) ≥ 0 for all w ≥ 0.

A(w2) is positive for all w ≥ 0.

This condition is not satisﬁed.

16.4 ELEMENTARY SYNTHESIS CONCEPTS

Here, Z1(s) is said to have been removed from

16.4.1 Removal of a Pole at Inﬁnity

16.4.2 Removal of a Pole at Origin

16.4.3 Removal of Conjugate Imaginary Poles