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Limits pertain to the output of the function in relation to the input (Y approaches
[limit] as approaches [ some value])

Consider the following function:

f(x) = | x², if x ≠ 2
| 3, if x = 2

Graph:
˄
● 9 | ●
8 |
7 |
6 |
5 | ↙
● 4 | ○ = According to the definition of the function, f(x) is
not defined at this coordinate.
3 | ↗ ● = f(2)
2 |
●1 | ●
<---------------●------→-←------->
-3 -2 -1 | 1 2 3
|
˅
Note that:
lim f(x) = 4, not 3
x→2

The takeaway is that the limit is the point that f(x) is approaching (from either
direction), not the value
at f(x) (which may in fact be undefined).

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Graph:
˄ Note that:
| ●
3 | lim f(x) = ∞
| ● x→0⁺
2 |
| ● lim f(x) = -∞
1 | ● x→0⁻
-3 -2 -1 | ●
<--------------→0←--------------> Hence, the limit is undefined in this
example.
● | 1 2 3 (this is true for any function with more
than
● | -1 one limit, such as ∞ and -∞ in the
example.)
● |
| -2
● |
| -3
● |
˅
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Graph:
˄ Note that:
● | ●
3 | lim f(x) = ∞
● | ● x→0⁺
2 |
● | ● lim f(x) = ∞
● 1 | ● x→0⁻
● | ●
<--------------→0←--------------> Hence, the limit is positive infinity.
-3 -2 -1 | 1 2 3 (note that limit is the same from both
directions (i.e. ∞).)
˅
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Squeeze theorem

Example (illustrative, but not rigorous):

given: g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x)

lim g(x) = L
x→a

lim h(x) = L
x→a

hence: lim f(x) = L

x→a

Graph example:
g(x) (as "*")
f(x) (as "-")
h(x) (as "●")
* ˄
* | *
* | L *
* | ↓ *
* |*●- *
- - ● | ↑ ● -
- - ● | -
● | ● -
<---------------0→a←------------> x g(x), f(x) and h(x) are arbitrary
functions - note
● | ● that at all times, f(x) is bounded by
g(x) and f(x)
● | (as defined in the example).
| ●
| ●
˅
The idea is that since f(x) is always "sandwiched" between g(x) and h(x), then lim
f(x) must equal
lim g(x) and lim h(x) when the limit for these two functions is the same (lim f(x)
is "squeezed").
(note (as illustrated in an earlier note) that none of the functions need to be
defined at "a")

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