COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

MENDIOLA, MANILA

A Friend or a Foe?
A Hermeneutical Analysis of
The American Colonial Democracy (1898-1946)

Presented to
Prof. Dr. James Loreto C. Piscos
Tertiary Professor in Readings in Philippine History in
College of Arts and Sciences of San Beda University, Mendiola, Manila

By
Ebora, Jan Lenard P.
Gorriceta, Aisha Tatyana V.
Gumpal, Francine Erika N.
Kandt, Hjelkia M.
Ledesma, Ramon Gabriel G.
Nacin, Allan Jeremiah M.

Group 3 - 1BLM
A.Y 2022-2026
 List of Members and Their Roles

Ebora, Jan Lenard P. Author, Flipbook Editor, Presenter

Gorriceta, Aisha Tatyana V. Leader, Author, Editor, Presenter, Director

Gumpal, Francine Erika N. Author, Flipbook Editor, Presenter

Kandt, Hjelkia M. Author, Flipbook Editor, Presenter

Ledesma, Ramon Gabriel G. Author, Editor, Presenter, Video Essay

Editor

Nacin, Allan Jeremiah M Author, Editor, Presenter, Video Trailer

Editor

Outline of the Presentation

Flow of the Presentation Person-In-Charge Time Allotment

Trailer Nacin, Allan Jeremiah M. ‘3 minutes

Flip Book Gumpal, Francine Erika N. 3 minutes

Kandt, Hjelkia M.

Executive Summary Gorriceta, Aisha Tatyana V. 5 minutes

Ledesma, Ramon Gabriel G.
Ebora, Jan Lenard P.

Video Essay Presentation Ebora, Jan Lenard P. 42 minutes

Gorriceta, Aisha Tatyana V.
Gumpal, Francine Erika N.
Kandt, Hjelkia M.
Ledesma, Ramon Gabriel G.
Nacin, Allan Jeremiah M.
Abstract

At the height of the revolution, the Americans proposed a friendly alliance to defeat the
Spanish colonizers but later revealed their true intentions of colonizing the Philippines. As a
result of this colonization, the Filipino-American war commenced, which the Americans won
using extreme brutality and by dividing the Filipinos over whether to accept American rule or
continue the revolution. This document is an analysis of how the Philippines gained its
independence and government autonomy during the American colonial period from 1898–1946.
The goal of the research is to examine using the hermeneutical approach whether or not
American colonial rule in the Philippines actually helped the Philippines’ transition from being a
colony to an independent nation. Using positivism method in contextualizing the world of the
text and the world behind the text, the researchers arrived at the conclusion that the Philippines is
a victim to American apostasy and supremacy, as it would still have a functioning government
and nation despite the presence of the Americans, thus setting the country back to its
independence and resulting in unnecessary warfare and gaining favor in the part of America's
true intentions for military expansion and imperialism, contradicting the 1935 constitution on the
rights of the Filipino people for liberty.

Keywords: American-Spanish war, Filipino-American war, American Imperialism, Philippine

Autonomy, American Apostasy

Timeline of Events during The American Colonial Democracy (1898-1946)

April 25, 1898 - Spanish-American War

August 14, 1898 The U.S blamed the Spanish for the explosion of the “Maine” battleship as
there was an ongoing conflict between Cuba-Spain-America. The
American Congress declared a state of war with Spain.

June 12, 1898 Philippine Independence

Emilio Aguinaldo, the first president of the newly independent nation, had
seen that the country had a functioning government that could support this
proclaimed independence.

August 10, 1898 The Spanish-American Mock Battle

When the Filipino revolution continued to battle for their freedom, the
Spanish forces were losing yet refused to submit. They decided to have a
mock battle and exclude the Filipinos from Intramuros as they held the
mock battle where the Spanish surrendered to the Americans.

December 10, Treaty of Paris

1898 The joint agreement of the United States and Spain to end the
Spanish-American War and to buy the Philippines for 20 million dollars.
 The Agreement was called the “Treaty of Paris” because this was the
agreement made in Paris.

February 4, 1899 First Shot In Filipino-American War (The start of the

Philippine-American war)
In the corner of Sociego and Silencio streets, Private William W. Grayson
fired the first shots that ignited the Philippine-American war.

June 18, 1899 The Assassination of Luna

General Luna received a telegram asking him to meet Aguinaldo at
Cabanatuan headquarters. General Luna heard a rifle report and hurried
downstairs to scold the soldier. As he went down, a group of men from
Kawit ganged up on him, stabbing and shooting him, inflicting no less than
40 wounds.

December 2, The Battle of Pasong Tirad

1899 On Aguinaldo’s way to retreat, he was accompanied by General Gregorio
Del Pilar as his loyal officer tried to make a last-stand effort in Pasong
Tirad (a high and long pathway). He took advantage of the terrain and
stalled the Americans for Aguinaldo’s escape that cost him his life.

September 28, The Balangiga Massacre and the Balangiga Bell

1901 - 1902 This was the revenge of the Americans after a surprise attack in Samar that
took 44 American lives in 1876. The Balangiga Massacre for the Filipinos
was their revenge after General Jacob H. Smith ordered the killing and
burning of everyone above 10 years old, resulting in the death of about
5000 Filipinos. The bells serve as a token of what happened in the war.

April 18 1902 The Philippine Organic Act of 1902

The Temporary Act provided Filipinos a Bill of Rights that guaranteed
their rights to life and other rights to enjoy basic freedoms.

July 4, 1902 The end of the Philippine-American war (end of the resistance)
Due to the brutality of the Balangiga attack, the falls of Luna and
Aguinaldo, and the American propaganda, thousands of Filipinos
surrendered.

1916 The Jones Act (The Philippine Autonomy Act)

The Philippines received its assurance of independence and the pledge was
contained under the Jones Law.

January 13, 1933 Establishment of Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act & Tydings-McDuffie Law

 During the campaign for independence where independent missions were
employed, the OsRox mission had brought home the Hare-Hawes-Cutting
Act that would establish a ten-year commonwealth government to serve as
its transition period to Independency.

1935 to 1946 Establishment of the Commonwealth

On November 15, 1935, Manuel l. Quezon became the first President of
the Philippine commission and on the same day the Commonwealth
government was inaugurated. The Philippines was governed by the
Commonwealth until 1946 but excluding the period of occupation of the
Japanese from 1942 to 1945.

December 8, World War II (Japanese Occupation)

1941 to July 5, On December 8, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on the Philippines,
1945 ten hours after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Hawaii on December 7, 1941.
In the year 1942, this is where the Philippines were invaded by torment
when the Japanese invaded the Philippines. Bataan was recaptured by
MacArthur’s allied forces which were to be followed by the liberation of
Manila in March. On July 4, 1945, coinciding with the Independence of the
United States, formed a declaration of the Independence State of the
Philippines.

July 4, 1946 U.S Recognition of Philippine Independence

The United States recognized the independence of the Philippines after the
given commonwealth period and guidance.

World Behind the Text / Diachronic Analysis

American Apostasy

The American Apostasy, the term apostasy is defined as turning away from one’s faith or
commitment. The alliance of Dewey towards Aguinaldo was informal; There are allegations of
Americans guaranteeing the acknowledgment of the Philippine independence that are not true
because they want to establish a mutual relationship between both parties - to achieve their
common goal to fight the Spaniards. Americans would like to preserve their connection to the
Philippines upon realizing it was intended to conquer the Philippines for their interest. The
Americans treat Aguinaldo as an escaped convict to pursue their plan further on conquering the
Philippines. Meaning, McKinley set aside the trust and mutualism that has been established
along with Aguinaldo. The suspicions arise when other military leaders General Artemio Ricarte
and Gregorio del Pilar are feeling doubtful when the number of American reinforcements
increases, warning Aguinaldo “to be careful” and his “batteries be mounted in certain places” to
prevent being taken advantaged. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 195-196)

President William McKinley, a dedicated 25th president of the United States, issued
Benevolent assimilation which files the form of expansion of the land; wherein that time it was
debated during his meeting with his cabinet on whether or not they should continue to expand
America. Theodore Roosevelt became the Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897, he brought
the idea to proclaim the hostilities towards the Spanish colony within the coastline of Cuba to
expand the US navy and his motives were favored alongside his comrade George Dewey.
(Agoncillo, 1990, p. 214)

Emilio Aguinaldo, the courageous first president of the Philippines, was exiled to Hong
Kong when the Spanish took control of the Philippines in late 1897. He denounced the Philippine
Revolution through exhortation of the Filipino guerrillas and combatants to be pacified and
address that those who still insist to perform hostility and waging wars will be considered
bandits. Aguinaldo, accompanied by Gregorio Del Pilar and Jose Leyba of his associates,
discreetly left Hong Kong for Saigon where he sailed to another ship to Singapore. On April 23,
1898, Howard Bray, an Englishman contacted Aguinaldo that he appointed American consul E.
Spencer Pratt to interview Aguinaldo. When he went to Singapore, Pratt approached and
persuaded him to cooperate with US Commodore George Dewey to gain power from the
Spanish. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 187)

Dated on April 25, 1898, in the afternoon, Dewey had received a cable from the faithful
Secretary of the Navy, John D. Long, that the war between the United States and Spain had
commenced. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 189) Added the Teller Amendments affirming to not exercise
dominion over Cuba. Roosevelt focuses on liberating Puerto Rico which tasks Commodore
Dewey to attack the Philippines where Spain is currently located. Following the four-month
exile, Aguinaldo reclaimed his position in the Philippine Revolution, simultaneously he departed
from Singapore aboard through the Malacca steam-ship on April 27 of the same year. Dewey
sailed to Mirs Bay, nearby Hong Kong with seven armed ships. (Library of Congress, 2011)

Spanish-American War

The origin all started in January 1898, when Dupuy de Lome, Spain’s Ambassador wrote
a letter to a friend in Havana Cuba, saying that President William McKinley was a weak
politician and a leader, which led to the letter being stolen and published in the newspaper. On
February 17, 1898, the USS Maine battleship submerged to the shoreline of Havana on the cause
of two explosions which were blown up by the mine with a total of 246 men killed; the American
government immediately blamed Spain for the cause of the casualties of those who are onboard
the ship. Moreover, Roosevelt stated that Dewey can execute the plan as a militarist. Roosevelt
used the retirement of the commander of the American Asiatic Squadron to initiate the
appointment of Commodore Dewey. Roosevelt appointed Dewey as the commander of
Squadron, to be authorized in Hong Kong as the base of operations dated February 25, 1898.
Theodore Roosevelt, one of the most influential Americans, instructed the newly appointed
Commodore George Dewey to break out of a war with the Spanish to expand their navy. On the
same day, Dewey then positioned himself in Manila to destroy Spanish warships. The American
Congress declared a state of war with Spain. (Agoncillio, 1990, p. 188-189)

Meanwhile, Aguinaldo returned from Singapore, where he attempted to discuss the plans
for new developments in the Philippines and bought war materials to strengthen the Philippine
military. The members of the Junta anonymously decided for Aguinaldo to return to the
Philippines and lead the people there, which Aguinaldo convinced them to do. In his meeting
with Aguinaldo, General Dewey persuaded Aguinaldo that the United States would grant their
independence because it was not looking to colonize the Philippines. On his return to the
Philippines with the newly strengthened military forces, the Filipinos were able to capture about
5000 prisoners. The Macabebe and San Fernando were captured as well, forcing the Spanish
general, Monet, to flee. The Americans were confident that they would win against the Spanish.
On the other hand, the Spanish are not confident that they could win against either the Filipino
rebels or the American forces. (Agoncillo, 1990, p.191)

Colonialism and Imperialism

Colonialism and Imperialism are similar ideologies with significant differences.

Colonialism is where one nation takes full or partial control over the other settlement and
Imperialism refers to the decree, political, custom, or policy consisting to extend powers by the
acquisition of territory. In other words, colonialism is the practice that can be taught or things
that individuals do whereas imperialism is the idea or theory behind the practice.

Colonialism is defined as the practice of controlling by power over the dependent area or
people. The concept of colonialism primarily deals with gaining profit by exploiting people and
economic resources with the influence of practice, culture, and tradition in the countries they
hegemonize. In other words, Colonialism is the process of imposing an economic, political, and
cultural state on another territory. American colonization aims to colonize the Philippines not just
to free them from the hands of the Spanish, but also has its ulterior motives for their economic
interest which deals with expanding business in Asia, naval and military interest, and religious
interest in spreading Protestantism serving the Philippines as their headquarters for Protestant
missionaries to fulfill their religious freedom. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 214)

Imperialism is a policy of conquering other countries. It is also defined by the idea behind
the exercise of extension of authority over weaker nations by the annexation of the land,
economic, and political rule. Imperialism is contradicting to the context of liberalism and
democracy. Americanization is another phrase of the same concept. It is described as actions
meant to supplement the complete preparedness of foreign-born residents of the United States for
citizenship. (Britannica, 2021). This policy had also been exercised by the Americans as
McKinley issued a Benevolent Assimilation serving as the first official declaration of American
policy within the country of the Philippines; Hence, indicating that they want to use their
settlement to impose their sovereignty over Filipinos in the Philippines. Taking control of the
Philippine government is the stated objective of their settlement. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 214)

Moreover, the Treaty of Paris also gave rise to imperialistic rule when American and
Spanish commissioners were scheduled to meet in Paris where a long discussion had occurred
regards to the legal concerns that the Spanish had instructed Americans regarding the cession of
the Philippines towards the United States which the Treaty was signed on December 10, 1898,
wherein, led Merritt and Dewey who arranged a secret negotiation with the Spanish within the
Walled City or Intramuros, conceded the Philippines to the hands of the United States for the
amount of twenty (20) million dollars.

Important People

Antonio Luna - A soldier, pharmacist, musician, journalist, military strategist, general, and the
spouse of Ysidra Cojuanco, he was born on October 29, 1866. He was a founding member of the
Propaganda movement, a cultural and literary group centering on Filipino expatriates by the
Philippine assimilating as a Spanish colony. He published under the pen name "Taga Ilog '' for La
Solidaridad, which was led by Galiciano Apacible. He is noted for his bravery, patriotism, and
strictness, which earned him the position of Director of War.

Apolinario Mabini - Theorist and spokesperson for the Philippine Revolution. Apolinario
Mabini was born on July 23, 1846, received his scholarship from El Colegio San Juan de Letran,
and completed his legal studies at the University of Santo Tomas. In 1894, he obtained his law
degree. Mabini was diagnosed with polio, which caused his legs to become paralyzed. Despite
his inability to physically participate in combat, he utilized his pen to convey his ideas on the
government that shaped the Philippines' movement for independence before his death.

Claro M. Recto - A senator who helped frame the 1935 Philippine Constitution. Recto
supervised the assembly that drafted the constitution during the years 1934 to 1935. The
constitution was written in accordance with the provisions stipulated in the Tydings Mc-Duffie
Act which provided a 10-year transitional period in preparation for the country’s eventual
autonomy and independence at the time. Recto personally presented the Commonwealth
Constitution to the former U.S president, Theodore Roosevelt.
US Commodore George Dewey - In the year 1837, an American was born in Montpelier,
Vermont. He graduated from the Naval Academy at Annapolis and served in the American Civil
War at the Bay of Mexico. Over the years, he was elevated to chief of the Bureau of Equipment,
president of the Board of Inspection and Survey, and finally Commodore in 1896, leading the
triumph against the fleets of Spanish ships in Manila Bay in 1898.

Emilio Aguinaldo - Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy was born in Cavite on March 22, 1869. His
parents were of Chinese and Tagalog heritage. He is the seventh of eight children. Carlos, his
father and the mayor of Kawit, died when he was nine years old. He attended the University of
Santo Tomas in Manila. During the Spanish colonization, he headed Katipunan, a revolutionary
group against the Spaniards, which declared Philippine independence in 1898, and Aguinaldo
became president. He passed away in 1964.

Sergio Osmena - Second President of the Philippine Commonwealth, graduated from the
University of Santo Tomas with a law degree. In Cebu City, he was once editor of the Spanish
daily El Nuevo Dia. Governor General Francis B. Harrison named Osmena as vice-chairman of
the Council of State in 1918. When the Jones Law of 1916 established an elected senate of
Filipino nationality. He was elected to the Philippine National Assembly as a delegate and
created and headed the Nationalist Party, which dominated Philippine politics until 1921.

Manuel L. Quezon - Manuel Luis Quezon was born on August 19, 1878 in Baler, Tayabas to
Spanish mestizo parents (Quezon). He studied law at the University of Santo Tomas and was
admitted to the bar in 1903. He was elected governor after being a fiscal for his province. He was
a former soldier during the Spanish colonization, and in 1899 he fought alongside Aguinaldo's
guerrilla against the Americans during the guerilla war, before being imprisoned for the alleged
death of an American prisoner. He has captured the motivations of American authorities because
of a lack of proof, and his political career has risen as a result. In Mindoro, he worked as a
prosecutor. Then, in 1906, he was elected governor of Tayabas; he created the Nacionalista party
alongside Osmea, with the intention of dominating Philippine politics. Quezon was elected
President in 1916. His outstanding achievement was the passage of the Jones Act, which granted
Philippine independence.

Manuel Roxas - Born in Capiz on January 1, 1892. He studied law at the University of the
Philippines, where he graduated in 1913 after topping the bar test. His political career began in
1917, when he was elected governor of Capiz from 1919 to 1921, and he was elected to the
Philippine House of Representatives, where he served as Speaker of the House and as a member
of the Council of State. Roxas was a member of the conference that established a constitution
under the amended Philippine Independence and Commonwealth Act in 1934. In addition, from
1938 to 1940, he was Secretary of Finance in the Commonwealth government. In 1946, he was
chosen as the fifth president of the Philippine Commonwealth. He reformed the government and
expanded the legislative program throughout his presidency until his death in 1948.

Jose P. Laurel - Dr. Jose Paciano Laurel y Garcia was born in Tanauan, Batangas on March 9,
1891. In 1915, he graduated from law school at the University of the Philippines. Before World
War II, he worked as a lawyer for the Japanese population, and from 1943 to 1945, he served as
President of the Second Philippine Republic.

Theodore Roosevelt Sr. - On September 22, 1831, in New York City, he was born. He was also
a philanthropist, volunteering for organizations such as the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Children and the Newsboy Lodging Home. He attended Harvard University in 1876. After
graduation, he married Alice Lee. In 1881, he began his political career as a New York
Assemblyman. He was involved in the battle against Spain, which resulted in an imperialist path
that culminated in the acquisition of territories in the Caribbean and Pacific. He issued the
presidential order requesting that all armed forces of the Government of the Commonwealth of
the Philippines be led by an American general. On July 4, 1902, he announced general amnesty
and ended the disagreement during the Philippine-American war.

President William McKinley - On January 29, 1843, he was born in Niles, Ohio, and joined
under the command of Rutherford B. Hayes, the 19th president of the United States (1877-1881).
(Britannica, n.d.). Mckinley was promoted to second lieutenant and discharged brevet for his
courage during the Battle of Antietam. He studied law in Ohio, was called to the bar in 1867, and
later started a legal office in Canton. On December 21, 1898, Mckinley released the Benevolent
Assimilation, which established his colonization plans in the Philippines.

Governor General Basilio Agustin - Basilio Augustin y Davila was the Philippines' last
Spanish governor general.

American Consul Edward Spencer Pratt - On April 23, 1898, the US consul held a secret
discussion with Aguinaldo in Singapore.

General Wesley Merritt - For two years, he served as military governor of the Philippines. He
led the VIII Corps in Manila during the Spanish-American War.

General Thomas Anderson - Commanded the expedition force's vanguard (Eighth Army
Corps); commanded the first reinforcement on June 30, 1898.

General Francis V. Greene - Soldier, engineer, and novelist from the United States. In 1877, he
served as military attache in Russia, and on July 17, 1898, he headed the second reinforcement.
General Douglas Mac-Arthur - In World War II, the American general in command of the
Southwest Pacific led the third reinforcement, which landed on July 31, 1898. In 1941, he was
appointed as the commander of the United States Armed Forces in the Far East. In 1945, he
stepped ashore in the Leyte Gulf. On September 2, 1945, the Japanese surrender was accepted
aboard the USS Missouri.

Gregorio Del Pilar - Gregorio Hilario del Pilar y Sempio is the revolutionary army's youngest
general, having been born on November 14, 1875 in San Jose, Bulacan. He is noted for his
nicknames such as the "Hero of Tirad Pass' ', ''Goyong `` and' 'Goyo ``. He was famous for his
successful assault on the Spanish barracks in the municipality of Paombong, his victory in the
Battle of Quingua in Bulacan, his assassination of Colonel John M. Stotsenburg (Clark Air Base
Pampanga), and his final stand at the Battle of Tirad Pass, which led to his death on December 2,
1899.

Miguel Malvar - Miguel Malvar Y Carpio was born in the village of Santo Tomas, Batangas, as
a farmer, businessman, and revolutionary general. During the Philippine Revolution and the
Philippine-American War, who unofficially ruled as President of the Philippines from April 1,
1901 to 1902, led the revolutionary troops after the Americans captured Aguinaldo in 1901.

Macario Sakay - Born in Tondo, he worked as a blacksmith, tailor, barber, and actor before
becoming a companion of Andres Bonifacio. He founded the Tagalog Republic. He surrendered
on July 14, 1906, claiming that he and his men would be granted amnesty because they had been
disarmed. He was hanged to death on his execution.

Macabebe Scouts - During the Spanish-American War, it is a group of pro-American Filipino

scouts aided in the conquest of the Philippine islands.

World of the Text

Philippine Independence was declared when Emilio Aguinaldo saw it fit as there was a
functioning government that could support the Independence as well as allow other countries to
see the strong desire Filipinos have for independence against the Spanish. Facing adversity in his
decision, he overcame the doubts of his people and his advisor, Apolinario Mabini, for the sake
of creating a new foundation for the Philippine government. By June 5,1898 Emilio Aguinaldo
decreed that June 12 would be the day of the proclamation of Philippine Independence to the
public. As this occurred in Kawit, Cavite, multiple national significance were also presented that
would become immortalized and given cultural importance up to this very day. (Agoncillo, 1990,
p. 200-201)
 Although there was careful planning and preparation for the establishment of Philippine
independence, the essence and purpose of its establishment were stolen by the Americans as they
interfered, meddling heavily in the Filipino-Spanish war. Despite their support for the
Philippines, the Filipinos who had almost defeated the oppressors were excluded when the
American people fought against what remained of the Spanish army. Following an agreement
between the two foreign countries, the United States purchased the Philippines from Spain for
20,000 US dollars at the time. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 200-201)

Spanish-American Secret Agreement

When the Filipino revolution continued to battle for their freedom, the Spanish forces
were losing yet refused to submit. General Agustin, the leader of the Spanish conquest, insisted
to General Dewy that there should be a mock battle between the Americans and Spanish,
excluding the Filipinos from the battle and not allowing them to enter Intramuros, where the
battle would take place. After the battle, the Spanish would then surrender to the Americans,
saving face. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 194)

As the Americans are letting in reinforcements continuously, Aguinaldo has started to

voice his suspicion, as have the other Filipino leaders. This was reinforced when General
Anderson sent a telegram threatening Aguinaldo with a shooting if he allowed Filipino troops to
enter Manila.

Spanish-American Mock Battle

Following the devised plan between the Spanish and Americans, the Mock battle of
Manila occurred on August 10. On August 7, operations "against the defenses of Manila"
commenced. On August 13, Filipinos, alongside troops of General Mac Arthur, advanced their
attack despite strict orders by General Anderson not to participate in the battle. Following the
battle, the plan of attack to bombard Fort San Antonio Abad was successful, as the Olympia (a
battleship under General Dewey) and other warships destroyed Spanish positions. As Mac
Arthur advanced the fort by eleven (11) in the morning., the Spaniards presented their surrender
by raising a white flag at Intramuros not too long after, around 11:20 a.m. By then, Manila had
fallen. On Sunday, August 14, the decree for the term of surrender by the Spanish was officially
signed by both parties, the Spanish and Americans. (Agoncillo, 1990, p.196-198)

Treaty of Paris

The Protocol of Peace. Before the mock battle between the Spaniards and Americans in
Manila, the two elite countries planned to end the tension and conflicts. Hence, on August 10, a
draft protocol was created requiring a meeting of no more than five commissioners from each
side to discuss the peace treaty and end the Spanish-American war. The negotiations in
Washington, D.C. concluded on August 12 with the signing of the peace treaty, which provides
for the settlement of the armistice and peace negotiations, including the cession of the islands
under Spanish colonization, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam to America, as well as
Manila will be kept in reserve until the Philippines' future is settled. (The Editors of
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2022). Accordingly, on August 12 of the same year, President
McKinley issued a proclamation ordering "all military exercises against the opponent be
deferred." This proclamation was cabled to General Merritt on the same day, but because Dewey
cut the cable isolating Manila from the outside world, Merrit received it on August 16, after the
mock battle of Manila had already taken place. This indicates that the sham battle that cost lives
could have been prevented, and Spain could have preserved their glory if there were no conflicts
in cable connecting Manila to other nations in the first place. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 197-198)

The peace commission convened in Paris on October 1 to settle the armistice and hand
over the islands under Spanish control, including the Philippines, to America. The American
Commission was represented at this meeting by George Gray, Cushman Davis, William Frye,
William R. Day, and Whitelaw Reid. Meanwhile, Senate President Don Eugenio Montero Rios,
General Rafael Cerero, Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa-Urrutia, Buenaventura Abarzuza, and Jose
de Garnica led the Spanish council. With President McKinley's order to take the entire
Philippines from Spain, Americans stayed persistent and insisted on the cession after a long
debate and refusal on both sides to give in. Spain reluctantly concurred. The Treaty of Paris was
signed on December 10, 1898. In exchange, the United States contributed $20 million for
reconstruction and advances done during Spanish control. This pact also demanded that Spain
give up Puerto Rico, Guam, and Cuba, as well as any Cuban debt. As an inducement, Spain was
granted ten years of access to the harbors of the Philippines Islands as the US. (Agoncillo, 1990,
p. 212).

Only after the American Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris did it become effective. The
authorization did not require a majority in the Senate, and some argue that the deal was unjust to
Filipinos, given that they recently gained independence as a country after being colonized by
Spain for more than 300 years. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 212).

Benevolent Assimilation

The Benevolent Assimilation is embedded in the formation of the Treaty of Paris. This
proclamation elucidates a notion of betrayal of the US-Filipino coalition, considering that the
Filipinos believed they had already fully grasped their independence. In actuality, however, the
US President at the time, William McKinley, issued a proclamation to the US Secretary of War
on 1898 of December 21, describing a policy of "Benevolent Assimilation" within the Philippine
archipelago after the Treaty of Peace ceased the bloody war between Spain and America. The
proclamation states that the US military regime in Manila will continue to extend its jurisdiction
to the whole country, and the sovereignty of the country has already been transferred to America
(Sumangil, n.d., p. 3).
 Likewise, within the scope of betrayal, it is also a must to take note that before the formal
conclusion of the Treaty of Paris, Mckinley purported to be confused about what to do with the
Philippines considering the existing authority to rule the country is already in the hands of
America. Nevertheless, he has a hidden agenda to maximize the potential of the Philippines as
part of American economic interests, for it can serve as a mechanism to expand their businesses
and uplift their overall status. Aside from that, the Philippines can serve as a territory for the first
line of American defense that can be a solid resource for naval and military interests. Last but not
least is the religious interest, for it can be an ideal geographical location as a base for American
Protestant missionaries. These reasons collectively prove that Americans did not really want the
Philippines to achieve independence but rather that it was part of their extensive plan for
egotistical growth. Within this view, the Benevolent Assimilation does not only serve as an
official indication of American policy but also as an assurance on the part of the US Congress
that they have sovereignty in the whole country, for they still have the power and influence to
rule. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 214)
The conflict in the series of events stipulates that the revolutionary leader Emilio
Aguinaldo already declared the Philippines through the symbolic waving of the national flag that
denotes an independent nation and a revolutionary government on June 12, 1898. As part of the
information dissemination, the proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation was presented to Elwell
Otis, the US military commander, and the Governor-General of the Philippines at that moment.
As part of his responsibility, Otis then forwarded a version of the proclamation to Emilio
Aguinaldo, but not in full details, considering that Aguinaldo declares that the Philippines is
already an independent country, which is contrary to the proclamation of Benevolent
Assimilation. As a result, Otis had to remove some references to US sovereignty in order to
emphasize the beneficent purpose of the proclamation and eliminate the terms that would
intensify the emotion of Filipino people and would not directly state that they still aim to rule the
country.
Filipino Reaction. Aguinaldo eventually received the unaltered copies that state the real content
of the message about the intentions of America in the Philippines and immediately issued a
counter-proclamation. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 201-215). This event resulted in a conflict that fuelled
a dispute between the two sides; sparking the Philippine-American War that started on February
4, 1899, which caused thousands of casualties (Evangelista, 2012).

Filipino-American War

The Outbreak at San Juan Bridge. On the morning of February 1, American engineers
were arrested by Filipino officials. While Otis protested to Aguinaldo, the latter only replied that
it was merely a detention rather than an arrest for not following the decree prohibiting foreigners
from approaching the defensive works of Filipinos. The tension was strengthened when, on the
same day of Otis’ protest (February 2), General MacArthur also protested, complaining that the
Filipino soldiers of Colonel Luciano San Miguel were within his territory. To avoid further
tension, Colonel San Miguel ordered his soldiers to retreat, but two days later (February 4),
Private Willie Grayson had an encounter with Filipino soldiers. When Private Grayson shouted
"Halt!" and the Filipino soldier continued to move, and a second "Halt!" from Private Grayson
was met with a "Halto!" from the Filipino soldier, Private Grayson decided that shooting him
was the best response.

When the accident was investigated, it turned out that Aguinaldo had relayed his message to Otis
to an emissary, with the message stating that he did not approve of the firing on the Filipino side
and that he did not want to continue the hostilities against the Americans. To confirm where the
firing started, Aguinaldo ordered Buencamino. In the information that Balsomero Aguinaldo (the
secretary of war) gave, it was said that the senior officers were not present at that time because
they were with Aguinaldo at Malolos. As a result of this event, the Filipino employees who work
for the American ships were dismissed without any good reason, and about 300 Filipinos were
also dismissed in their travels. The attack of the American soldier on the Filipino troop implied
that the incident was planned, and American authorities ordered an all-out attack against the
Filipinos. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 217-218)

As the war continued around February to March, General Otis ordered General Lawton to take
offense in the south while Otis was leading the offense to north. While on the Filipino side,
Aguinaldo has established the headquarters in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. But the Americans
continued to win battles against the towns in Cavite. The two sides continued to win and lose
battles against the other, but it was clear that the Filipino side was starting to fall within these
victories. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 218-220)

American Brutality. The Americans came to the Philippines with the proposal of
helping the Filipinos fight for their own independence, but once again, the Filipinos had to show
brutality to the Americans to fight for their freedom. Filipinos were victims of American
apostasy disguised as kindness in allowing the public to see America as "saving" the Philippines
from the Spaniards; as a result, Filipinos saw Americans as traitors and used brutality to drive
these colonizers out of their own country. The Americans, in order to dishearten the Filipino
revolutionary spirit, used extreme measures that not even the Filipinos witnessed during the time
of the Spanish. The Americans tortured the Filipinos in different and brutal ways in order to gain
information from Filipino rebels on their plans, war tactics, and intentions. (Agoncillo, 1990, p.
227-228)

Water cure: The American soldiers would force the person to open their mouth and pour in dirty
or salty water until their stomachs couldn’t take it anymore. The soldiers spill the water from the
person and use it to make a chair out of the person's stomach. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 228)

Rope cure: Less common than water cure, the Americans will wrap a long piece of rope around
the victim and twist it until the victim's face turns blue while beating up and suffocating them.
As a result of their cruel actions toward the Filipinos, two American officers, Lieutenant Perkins
and Captain Brandle, were found guilty and reprimanded. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 228)

Figure 1. A picture of a “water detail,” reportedly taken in May, 1901, in Sual, the Philippines.
“It is a terrible torture,” one soldier wrote. ATTRIBUTED TO CORPORAL GEORGE J.
VENNAGE/OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY RARE BOOKS AND MANUSCRIPTS LIBRARY

Filipino Brutality. Filipinos, in their desire for independence, show barbaric cruelty,
even breaking Aguinaldo's orders.They would cut off the nose and ears of Americans and apply
salt to their wounds in a literal manner. The Filipinos would also bury American prisoners alive,
kicking and slapping them. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 230)

The Fall of Mabini. Mabini, the president of the Cabinet, urged the Filipinos to continue
fighting for their independence. In a heartfelt letter to the Filipinos date April 15, 1899, Mabini
said:
 Mabini stood up for independence while the other members of the Filipino Government
insisted on following the American autonomy, they issued a stand against Mabini and requested
Aguinaldo to relieve Mabini as the President of the Cabinet. Aguinaldo formed a new Cabinet
which Mabini congratulated and called a “wise political measure” as he resigned in his position.
(Agoncillo, 1990, p. 220)

Assassination of Luna. As the Filipino-American war progressed, General Luna, who

was one of the most capable officials to lead the Filipino war, showed a terrible temper against
the American hostilities and political matters he didn’t agree with. He even slapped one of the
Cabinet members, Felipe Buencamino, Sr., because of political differences. Mabini suggested to
Aguinaldo that General Luna be replaced. With his temper, he made many enemies. (Agoncillo,
1990, p. 221-222)

On June 18, 1899, General Luna received a telegram asking him to meet Aguinaldo at
Cabanatuan headquarters. There he met Felipe Buencamino, with whom he had a heated
argument. General Luna heard a rifle report and hurried downstairs to scold the soldier. As he
went down, a group of men from Kawit ganged up on him, stabbing him and shooting him,
inflicting no less than 40 wounds. As General Luna retreated for his life, Colonel Roman ran to
save him but also got shot. The last words of General Luna were "Cowards! Assassins!" He was
buried with honor, but no one was punished for his assassination. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 221-222)

Aguinaldo Flees to the Mountains. Following the death of General Luna, Aguinaldo
retreated to Angeles, Pampanga as most of his forces gave up hope and surrendered. Evading
American forces, Aguinaldo moved his capital to Tarlac, then to Nueva Vizcaya, and even to
Bayambang, Pangasinan. Set on not being captured, Aguinaldo, alongside his family and
members of the Cabinet, steered clear of the Americans by traveling through the rough and
coarse terrain of Luzon. By Christmas day, 1899, Aguinaldo surrendered the women and some of
his escorts to the American army to release themselves of the burden. In which he marched onto
Tierra Virgen, Cagayan, and finally reached Palanan, Isabela on September 6, 1900. (Agoncillo,
1990, p. 224-225)

The Battle of Pasong Tirad. On his way to the North, Aguinaldo was accompanied by
General Gregorio Del Pilar. Acting as the rear guard commander, the loyal officer proposed to
make a last stand effort on Pasong Tirad, a high and long pathway on the Mountain Tirad. Del
Pilar stayed for a while to assure Aguinaldo’s escape and widen his distance away from
American forces. Using the mountain to their advantage, the narrow pathway allowed for
Filipino troops to see the enemies from miles away. By December 1, 1899, Aguinaldo received
news of the enemy’s arrival in the town of Concepcion through the general. On the following
morning, the strategic plan did not last long as a Christian Igorot led the Americans to a hidden
pathway that would catch Del Pilar and his men off guard. As they were being defeated and Del
Pilar wounded, he tried to hold off the enemy as his men escaped. However, the boy general
himself was shot through the neck as he made his way down a hidden trail on his steed.
Receiving news of his death and his body looted for souvenirs, this discovery was of great
grievance to Aguinaldo and his group. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 225-226)

On Del Pilar’s diary found a note written:

Figure 2. General Gregorio del Pilar and his troops, c. 1898

The Capture of Aguinaldo. With the loss of their leaders, many of the remaining
Philippine Army lost hope and found it necessary to surrender to the enemy. Using this as an
opportunity to win over the Filipino citizens, the Americans made a campaign composed of
Filipino members in the higher class who could influence the rest of the citizens, Cayetano
Arellano, Pedro A. Patemo, Felipe Buencamino, Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda,
Gregorio Araneta, and others. The said members who allied with the Americans were able to
maintain their position and persuaded the guerillas to give up and live a peaceful life instead.
While that happened for the sake of peace, the capture of Aguinaldo was being plotted by
Colonel Frederick Funston who is based in Nueva Ecija. Thanks to the decoded letters of
Aguinaldo’s messenger, Cecilio Segismundo, Funston made a scheme to employ some
Macabebes and two former Filipino officers (Lazaro Segovia and Hilario Tal Placido) who
played a key role in the plan to capture Aguinaldo.

After a thorough confirmation received from General MacArthur, the colonel alongside
his employed men sailed to Palanan, the location of Aguinaldo decoded from the letters. Funston
was able to lure Aguinaldo by creating a forged signature of the general Urbano Lacuna (the man
who the letter was meant for) approving a request for reinforcements from Aguinaldo. On March
23, 1901, Funston and his companions were portrayed as captives of the Macabebes he employed
in Palanan to make it seem authentic and as Aguinaldo welcomed the Filipinos, the employed
Macabebes turned against the Filipinos and officer Placido held Aguinaldo captive after much
bloodshed. In an effort to spare Aguinaldo's life, Colonel Simeon protected him from the gunfire.
Aguinaldo was about to retaliate when Dr. Santiago Barcelona intervened and urged him that he
owed it to the people to continue fighting for their independence. Aguinaldo was then detained
by the American government. Later, on April 19, after being taken to Manila to swear his oath of
loyalty to the United States, he asked the Filipino people to recognize the Philippines as a
"sovereignty of the United States."

The Balangiga Massacre and the Balangiga Bell. The Balangiga Massacre occurred in
1901-1902 and is considered one of the most inhumane acts of cruelty in the Filipino-American
War. In their frustration at not being able to locate the guerrillas' forces, American soldiers set
fire to towns in order to force the guerrillas to surrender. The Americans surrounded the town of
Balangiga with soldiers so they could monitor the guerillas. The American soldiers were having
their breakfast in the town when, as the church bell rang, 180 Filipinos attacked the Americans,
killing them brutally by slitting their throats with a bolo knife. Only one American soldier was
saved in the attack by his Filipina lover, who knew of the attack beforehand. (Agoncillo, 1990, p.
228-230)

The news of the attack infuriated and enraged Americans across the country. President Theodore
Roosvelt, the president of the United States, assigned a task to General Jake Smith to "kill and
burn; the more you bum and kill, the better it will please me." Following the orders of President
Roosvelt, General Smith instructed the soldiers to kill anyone of the Filipinos who was "capable
of carrying arms," including children, women, and elderly people. Within six months after the
order, Balangiga was described as "a howling wilderness." (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 228-230)
Figure 3. The Balangiga bells on display at Fort D.A. Russell, ca. 1925, before the fort was
renamed for Sen. F.E. Warren.

Figure 3.1 Seven months after the Balangiga attack, Ninth U.S. Infantry survivors pose at
Calbayog, Samar, April 1902. Most of these men would have been wounded in the attack
Figure 4. “Kill everyone over ten!” instructed by Gen. Smith. This is the depiction from The New
York Evening Journal on how American troops killed Filipinos in Balangiga, Samar ca. 1902 | c:
Sentinel Times

End of the resistance. Due to the brutality of the Balangiga attack, the falls of Luna and
Aguinaldo, and the American propaganda, thousands of Filipinos surrendered. Still, General
Malvar took leadership of what remained and continued the guerrillas' hostility. With the capture
of General Lukban, the leader of Samar, on February 27, 1900, the resistance of Samar
collapsed. Two months later, on April 16, General Malvar also surrendered. thus making the
Filipino resistance completely collapse. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 230-231)

Educational System. On August 21, 1901, the USS Thomas sailed from San Francisco,
California to Honolulu, Hawaii to reload supplies and refuel. Frederick Behner, a Michigan
pastor who was also a passenger of the ship, kept the updates through the diary regard to his
experience on board. He stated: "[She] is manned with a crew of 286 men, is carrying 357 male
teachers and about 200 female teachers, a few wives and about 30 children". The ship then
continued across the Pacific Ocean till it docked at Manila's coastline. A group of American
educators called Thomasites that travelled from the United States to the newly acquired island of
the Philippines on the USS Thomas, the second ship in the United States named after Clarence
Crase Thomas. Thomasites were entrusted with implementing an educational system to teach
basic education, while mentoring Filipino teachers through the modality of teaching, the
language of English. Furthermore. They were assigned throughout the islands, from Albay to
Tarlac.
Philippine Act of 1902 and Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916

The Philippine National independence movement during the American period, was
recognized as a time when the United States granted Philippine nationalism its legitimacy and
autonomy. The filipino's appeal for freedom was guaranteed by numerous constitutional
processes which granted them unrestricted freedom to express their nationalist sentiments and
appeal for autonomy. The Filipino stance on independence during the time was shrouded with
uncertainty as there was considerable tension on the matter. This was a crucial deciding factor
that the United States had no promising solution towards granting the Philippines its promise of
total autonomy. However, The Philippine Independent missions made a consistent case for their
appeal: that Filipinos' main national pursuit was independence and that the United States should
declare their commitment in granting the Philippines its complete freedom and recognize it as an
autonomous state and fulfill its promise of Independence. Finally, in 1916, the Philippines
received its assurance of independence and the pledge was contained under the Jones Law.
(Agoncillo, 1990, p. 328-330)

Following the US annexation of the Philippine islands, the Philippine-American War

would ensue, ultimately resulting in the installation of US military government rule in the
country. The response triggered an insurgency of Filipino nationalists along with
pro-independence Filipinos who swore to not compromise with America’s ‘interventions’ as
pretext for its colonialistic ambitions in the country. In an attempt to remediate the situation, the
U.S Government placed the archipelago under Martial Law. During this period, the United States
government was intending to assume control of the entire archipelago and a military
administration had to be fortified. The Philippine Organic Act was later authorized by the
Congress of the United States of America on July 1, 1902, as a de facto “initial” constitution that
provided a promise of a general election if uprisings had ceased and peace was maintained in the
islands. The bill became the foundational law for the Philippines' insular government. (Philippine
History Source Book, 2020, pg. 193)

Figure 5. Section 5 of the Philippine Organic Act, April 18, 1902

The Philippine Organic Act of 1902 or the Cooper Act, named after its author Henry
Allen Cooper, was a legislation enacted by the United States Congress that allowed the
establishment of a civilian government in the country. “An Act Temporarily to Provide for the
Administration of the Affairs of Civil Government in the Philippine Islands, and for Other
Purposes,” this law contained provisions that fortified one of the fundamental rights of the
Filipino people: their rights to legislation. The Act provided Filipinos a Bill of Rights that
guaranteed their rights to life and other rights to enjoy basic freedoms. The Bill also provided
provisions that demanded the establishment of a two-chamber Philippine Legislature or a
bicameral legislative assembly with the Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly as
the upper and lower houses; with both houses appointed by the United States Government.
However, a Government is only established if the following conditions are met : the cessation of
the insurrection within the Philippine Islands; a completion of a census and two years of
continued peace and recognition of U.S authority. (Philippine History Source Book, 2020, p.
177-193)

Figure 6. The stipulations of the Philippine Organic Act, April 18, 1902

The Bill mandates the US President to conduct a census on the islands under the
Philippine Commission and create a comprehensive report of the people and its activities to
examine whether the people within the islands are qualified to hold elections. The terms of the
Cooper Act were carried out by a Philippine Commission which at the time, was strictly
composed of American officials. Following the completion of a census in 1903, the elections for
the 80 legislative seats of the Philippine Assembly were eventually held in 1907. Consequently,
the first Philippine Legislature convened in the Manila Grand Opera House on October 16, 1907.
(Philippine History Source Book, 2020, pg. 193)

Regarding the Philippines' political course, the United States, however, was divided.
Some campaigned for the Philippines to achieve independence, while others sought to keep it as
a United States colony. The Philippine Bill of 1902 was a compromise between these two
positions. It served as the de facto constitution of the Philippine archipelago and it provided an
establishment of a civilian government in the Philippines that allowed for the implementation of
a mixed American (upper house) and Philippine (lower house) legislature. The Act was later
superseded by the Jones Law on August 29, 1916, which granted the Philippines complete
control of its legislature. (Philippine History Source Book, 2020, pg. 193)

The Jones Act of 1916, also known as the Philippine Autonomy Act, was a United States
federal law that granted limited legislative autonomy to the Philippines. US Congressman,
William Atkinson Jones of Virginia, authored the Jones Law as the first formal and official
declaration of the U.S in granting the Philippines its promise of autonomy and independence.
The act demanded for the establishment of a Philippine Senate only if a “stable government”
headed by the Filipinos had been achieved. Among the act’s salient features was the
implementation of a fully nationalized Filipino legislature, the Philippine Senate. However, the
law reserved some governmental functions to an American Governor-General who was
specifically hand selected by the U.S President to oversee the legislature. The legislature's actions
were subject to this governor general's veto, and its legislative process was restricted on the
condition that its laws do not violate any of the rights of American Citizens. In 1916, the
executive was still firmly under the control of the appointed governor general, and the majority of
Supreme Court justices and officials who were carefully selected and appointed by the President
of the United States remained foreigners. (Philippine History Source Book, 2020, p. 177- 193)

The act did not grant the Philippines full autonomy, and the country remained under
American control. However, this eventually led to the establishment of the Philippine
Commonwealth in 1935, which laid the groundwork for the country’s eventual independence in
1946.

Philippine Independent Mission

The Filipino people and its leaders were determined to campaign for independence and in
1918 the "Pambansang Komisyon'' was formed, those missions were sending officials to the
United States to talk on behalf of the Filipino people. One of the most successful missions in this
period was the OsRox mission where they were able to bring the Hare-Hawes cutting act and the
Tydings-McDuffie law. From the year of 1919 to 1934 was the period labeled as "The campaign
for independence" because it consists of 89 missions that would improve the Philippines and
give way to the Philippine autonomy act (Jones act) which would give way for the official
deceleration of the united states (upon approval of the US and Philippine congress) to grant
independence to the Philippines by forming the commonwealth to ensure a safe transition to
Philippine independence. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 328)

OsRox Mission

Throughout December 1931, Osmena and Roxas embarked on the OsRox Mission to
secure the best possible outcome from any scenario that might emerge in Congress regarding the
Philippine issue. After some three decades of autonomy tension, the OsRox Mission, that also
remained the lengthiest within the United States, was successful in overriding President Hoover's
veto of the contentious Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act. On January 17, 1933, the Hare-Hawes-Cutting
Act was enacted.(Agoncillo, 1990, p. 345)

Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act & Tydings-McDuffie Law

Prior to the proclamation of independence on July 4, 1946, the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act

created a ten-year Commonwealth to represent as a political transition. The latter introduced for
Philippine independence as well as tax-free exports of Philippine goods to the United States of
America such as sugar, coconut oil, and cordage, as well as political talks on the military facility.
The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act was enacted by the United States Congress (Agoncillo, 1990, p.
346). President Hoover vetoed a bill passed by Congress in December 1932. President of the
Philippine State Legislature Manuel L. Quezon led a delegation to the United States to resist the
new legislation and support the Tydings-McDuffie Act, which invalidated the
Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act's objectionable provisions. The Philippine Senate as well as the new
United States Congress both supported the draft legislation. President Franklin D. Roosevelt
signed the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934, also recognized as the Philippine Independence Act,
into law.
 Figure 7. 1932--The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act and soon after the Tydings-McDuffie Act came
next, in the progress towards ultimate independence, providing for stable trade relations. (Photos
by M. Valenzuela and M. Alcantara. Photo from La Vanguardia. November 1938)

Political Rivalries

Manuel L. Quezon - On November 15, 1935, he was inaugurated as the first President of the
Philippine Commonwealth. against his co-revolutionary General Emilio Aguinaldo, the
Philippines' first president, and Bishop Gregorio Aglipay. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 352) During the
Spanish colonization, Aguinaldo formed a Katipunan, a revolutionary group against the
Spaniards, which achieved Philippine independence in 1898, and Aguinaldo became president.
Gregorio Aglipay, the founder of the Philippine Independent Church or Aglipayan, took part in
the 1896 revolution, which was a racial fight between Filipino civil and clerical parties and
Spanish civil and clerical factions. The Second Phase of the Revolution was both political and
religious in nature. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 232)
 Figure 8. Manuel L. Quezon takes his oath of office as the Commonwealth's first President on
November 15, 1935.

Sergio Osmeña -In 1922, Quezon was trying to keep his position as head of the Nacionalista
Party in the eyes of his own followers and political competitors. Quezon's leadership was
jeopardized after parting from Osmea's Partido Nacionalista, especially with the minority
Democrats' increasing power following the elections. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 316)
Figure 8.1 Speaker Sergio Osmeña, was one of two Philippine Presidents who became Leader of
the House of Representatives, presiding over the first Philippine Assembly (1907).

Manuel Roxas - Taruc and his Democratic Alliance colleagues were removed from Congress by
a resolution passed by Congress. The alleged fraud and terrorism committed by the Hukbalahap
in Central Luzon resulted in the election of six Democratic Alliance and Nacionalista candidates.
The expulsion of Taruc and his associates paved the way for Congress to pass a resolution
agreeing to amend the Constitution. (Agoncillo, 1990, p.438) Luis Taruc is the leader of
communist guerrilla movement namely Hukbalahap or Hukbong Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon.

Figure 8.2 President Manuel Roxas (Middle) signing the independence document on July 4,
1946. To his left, American High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt read the Independence
Proclamation for Harry S. Truman
Commonwealth

The constitution was approved by the constitutional convention on February 8, 1935, and
by President Roosevelt on March 23, 1935. On May 14, a plebiscite was held to ratify the
constitution. Manuel L. Quezon was inaugurated as President and Sergio Osmea as
Vice-President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 352). The 1935
constitution highlights the political structure similar to the American government takes effect,
This system established a four year term, legislative and an independent judiciary. Furthermore,
it established political order based on democratic principles of symbolism, accountability and the
rule of law. Moreover, the constitution was presided by Claro M. Recto, with 202 elected
Filipino delegates who decided that the constitution to be written not only for the transitional
commonwealth but apply to the Republic. Additionally, the constitution provided the Philippines
with twenty-six years of stable, constitutional government during when the number of other
Asian countries surrendered to the military dictatorship and communist revolution. After the
enactment poll of 1935 Philippine Constitution, the principles of separation of powers were
established not only by express and specific provision to that effect, but rather by real division of
the function of the government: executive, legislative and judicial.

Figure 9. Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act (Agoncillo, 1990, p.335)

 Figure 10. (from left) President Butler B. Hare, Figure 11. Senator Harry Bartow Hawes, and
Figure 12. Senator Bronson M. Cutting is the author of the Act.

Figure 13. The American-sponsored Constitution of the Commonwealth signed by US President

Franklin V. Roosevelt, 23 March 1935

World War II

On December 8, 1941, ten hours after the bombing of Pearl Harbor dated on December 7,
Hawaii, Japan launched a surprise attack on the Philippines. (Brittanica, 2021) Manila was
proclaimed an open city on December 26, 1941, and was later conquered by the Japanese on
January 2, 1942. (Officialgazette, 2013) Then, MacArthur marched to Corregidor until the
island's defenders, headed by General Johnathan Wainwright, surrendered on May 6, and
MacArthur fled to the United States, thus putting the government in exile. (History, 2022)
MacArthur was assigned to Australia, where he began to make plans for his return to the
Philippines. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 336) When the Japanese invaded the Philippines, which was
controlled by the United States, here is where the Philippines were invaded by torment in 1942.
The Philippine army continued to fight until their surrender in April 1942. 80,000 POWs were
compelled to participate in the "Death March" towards the prison camp 105 kilometers to the
north. Approximately 10,000 of the detainees became crippled as a result of starvation, drought,
famine, and abuse, and died before reaching their destination. (Dolan, 1991, p. 40)
 In the Philippines, Japanese armed forces established a new administrative system. When
the Japanese ensured the island's independence, they established a Council of State, which
supervised civil affairs until October 1943, when the Philippines became an independent state.
(Dolan, 1991, p. 40) The aristocratic Filipinos, on the other hand, solely serviced the Japanese.
Jose P. Laurel led a Japanese-sponsored republic. (Steinberg, 1965, p. 651-665) The Japanese
occupation was met with resistance from guerrilla troops commanded by Filipino and American
military officers known as Hukbong Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon or Hukbalahap, which was
founded in early 1942 under the direction of Luis Taruc, a communist party member since 1939.
To increase their power in northern Luzon, the Huks equipped 30,000 warriors. Other guerilla
organizations were linked to the US Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE). (Dolan, 1991, p.
40)

America's reconquest began in October 20, 1944 with the invasion of the island within
the Gulf of Leyte. General Douglas MacArthur pledged in 1942 that he would return to the
Philippines. (History, 2019) General Homma Masaharu was found guilty for the atrocities
committed during Japan's invasion of the Philippines in February 1945 and killed by firing squad
on April 3, 1946. (American Experience, 2019) MacArthur's allied troops regained Bataan,
which was to be followed by the liberation of Manila in March. On July 4, 1945, the Philippines
formed a proclamation of independence, coinciding with the United States' independence.
(Malloryk, M, 2021) The Commonwealth of the Philippines was renamed the Republic of the
Philippines on July 4, 1946, in accordance with the Tydings-Mcduffie Law or the Philippine
Independence Act. (Brittanica, 2022)

Figure 14. Manila, declared as an Open City, not occupied by military forces, not allowed to be
bombarded. (1941)
 Figure 15. Attack in Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 (Photograph taken from the Japanese
Plane)

Figure 16. Hukbong Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon (HUKBALAHAP) led by Luis Taruc (middle), a
communist party member since 1939
Internal Criticism

Spanish-American War and Filipino-American War

Spanish-American War (1898) Filipino-American War (The Philippine

Insurrection 1899 - 1902)

A. Conflict between two (2) global A. Colonial Conflict (Armed Conflict

powers between the First Philippine Republic
B. US desire to expand imperialistic and the United States)
B. Continuation of the Philippine
ambitions and economic power in
Revolution
Latin America and Caribbean
C. US Annexation of the Philippine
territories
Islands and its assimilation of its rule
C. USS Maine used as pretext for US to
and culture
declare war
D. US intervention driven by imperialistic
D. US intervention driven by economic
ambitions and racism
interests

Figure 17. Comparative analysis of the Spanish-American War and Filipino-American War

Wars between the Spanish-American and Filipino-American occurred mainly because of

the desire to expand the imperialistic ambitions and economic power of Spaniards and
Americans, resulting in the colonization of different countries, including the Philippines.

In the war between the Americans and Spaniards, the tension began when Americans
expressed their support for Cuba's protest for independence from the colonization of Spain. This
tension was intensified, and war broke out when the US ship "Maine" sank off the coast of
Havana, causing the deaths of Americans, and the US blamed Spain. Nonetheless, the purpose of
the Americans to declare war with Spain was mainly driven by economic interests and power
struggles among the territories in Latin America and the Caribbean.

The war between the two elite countries affected the Philippines when the Americans
under the leadership of Commodore George Dewey sailed to Manila Bay to attack the Spaniards.
Eventually, the Spaniards were defeated. After the war ended in August 1898, Filipinos thought
they reclaimed the glory of the country back after years of colonization; however, on December
10, 1898, the Treaty of Paris between the Spaniards and Americans was signed, which signified
the cession of the Philippine islands from Spain to the US. Subsequently, on December 21, 1898,
the president of the United States issued the policy of Benevolent Assimilation in the Philippines,
giving them the authority to impose their military rules and control over the entire country.
Following the policy's issuance, Elwell Otis provided an edited copy of the proclamation to
Emilio Aguinaldo but Aguinaldo eventually discovered the Americans' true intention to return
the country to years of colonization. This commenced the beginning of the war between the
Philippines and the United States, which started on February 4, 1899 (Agoncillo, 1990, p.
197-231)

Compared to the Spanish-American war, the war between Filipinos and Americans was
long and bloodier but not global. With the intense emotion of the Filipinos to be freed from
colonizers, they strived to fight for the country’s independence, so they resorted to brutality but
eventually failed with the fall of Mabini and the capture of Aguinaldo.

It is also important to note that the US used the same tactic in acquiring the Philippines as
they did in Cuba. Driven by “Democratic Intervention” as a pretext for its imperialistic and
economic ambitions, the US annexed the Philippine Islands on the assumption that it would
provide and promise the Philippines its independence from Spain and grant it an autonomous
state. This was later achieved through numerous constitutional processes, and the Philippines
eventually won a fully nationalized state and government. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 197-231)

Spanish-American Secret Alliance (Dewey, Augustin, & Merritt) and the

Filipino-American Informal Alliance (Dewey & Aguinaldo)

Spanish-American Secret Alliance (Dewey, Filipino-American Informal Alliance

Augustin, and Merritt) (Dewey and Aguinaldo)

Formal alliance Informal Alliance

(Mock Battle of Manila and Treaty of Paris) (Alliance made under pressure of necessity)
Figure 18. Comparative analysis of the Spanish-American Alliance and Filipino-American
Alliance

The first instance of Spanish-American secret alliance was formed by Commodore Dewy,
and Brigadier General Wesley Merritt with Spanish Governor-General Fermin Jaudenes and
Agustin Basilio. The agreement stipulated that the Spanish Armada would only surrender to the
Americans Forces after the capture of the Capital. General Austin, the leader of the Spanish
Conquest, insisted to General Dewey that a collaboration must be made between the Americans
and the Spaniards and there should be a mock battle between them excluding the Filipino
insurgents from the battle. (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 194)

The second instance was the Spanish-American Secret Alliance that was signed on
December 10, 1898 Treaty of Paris, formally marking the conclusion of the Spanish-American
War. The alliance was formed in order to address the issue of Cuban independence, which was a
major point of contention between the two countries. As demanded by the terms of the alliance,
the United States formally agreed to support Spanish rule in Cuba in exchange for Spanish
concessions in other areas, such as Puerto Rico and the Philippines. The Treaty established a
formal alliance between the two countries and Spain was able to cede control of several
territories, including the Philippine Archipelago, to the United States.

The Filipino-American Informal Alliance, on the other hand, was an informal agreement
between the Philippines and the Americans prior to the attack on Manila. The alliance was
formed after the Americans persuaded Aguinaldo to join forces with Commodore Dewey in
wrestling against the Spaniards. The Filipinos saw the association with the Americans as that of
two countries united in a joint battle against Spain; however, the Americans saw it as a strategic
undertaking that would later aid their schemes against Spain and Philippines. The Americans and
the Filipinos formed a coordinated relationship, with the United States providing military and
economic aid to the Philippines in exchange for valuable intelligence to American forces and
access to its resources, strategic location, and Aguinaldo's troops as the first line of American
defense. However, the Americans did not share their moment of glory in winning the Battle of
Manila and treated Aguinaldo horribly after the surrender had already been secured. Filipino
historian Teodoro Agoncillo concludes that the American association and attitude towards the
Filipinos was merely enemies making attempts to masquerade as friends. Unlike the
Spanish-American Secret Alliance, the Filipino-American Informal Alliance was not a formal
treaty or agreement, and was not officially recognized by either side. It was merely an agreement
made under pressure of necessity. Aguinaldo however, was divided with the nature of the
agreement as he was dissatisfied with the United States’ refusal to write a formal statement
proclaiming its support for Philippine Independence.

Jones Act of 1916 and Tydings-Mcduffie Act of 1934

Jones Act of 1916 (Philippine Autonomy Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934

Act)

A. Provided a partial degree of A. Provided for the complete

independence to the Philippines independence of the Philippines
B. Did not provide any specific timeline B. Provided a 10-year period of transition
to independence to independence.
C. Established a Bicameral C. Established a Bicameral
Philippine-Legislature Philippine-Legislature
Figure 19. Comparative analysis of the Jones Act of 1916 and Tydings-Mcduffie Act of 1934

The Jones Act of 1916 and the Tydings-Mcduffie Act of 1934 are acts that were passed
by the United States Congress which related to the governance of the Philippines during the
time. Both acts granted the Philippines greater degree of autonomy. (Philippine History Source
Book, 2020, p. 177- 193)

The Jones Act of 1916 was a significant factor in developing the eventual establishment
of the Philippine Senate. The notable feature of the act was that it provided for the establishment
of the bicameral Philippine Legislature which granted the Filipino citizens the right to elect their
own representatives to legislative bodies. This marked the first representative form of Philippine
Government as previous legislative bodies had been controlled and appointed by the United
States government. However, the United States retained a significant degree of control over the
Philippine government, including the right to veto legislation and maintain military bases in the
country. However, both acts established a timeline for the transition to independence. The
Tydings-Mcduffie Act of 1934 provided for a ten (10) year period of transition during which the
Philippines would be granted increasing degrees of self-governance eventually leading up to full
independence on July 4, 1946. (Philippine History Source Book, 2020, p. 234-241)

The Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 did not specify a timeline for independence but it
was a major factor which set the parameters for the creation of an independent and fully
nationalized constitution for the Philippines. The significant difference between the two acts was
that the Tyding-Mcduffie Act of 1934 granted the Philippines complete independence without
any residual American control.

The 1899 Malolos Constitution and the 1935 Constitution

The Malolos Constitution (1899-1901) The 1935 Constitution (1935–1946)

A. Established a Bicameral legislature A. Established a Unicameral National

(Composed of a Senate and a House of Assembly (Legislature)
Representatives) B. Provided the legal basis of the
B. Drafted and adopted by the First
Commonwealth Government and was
Philippine Republic during the
adopted during the Commonwealth
Revolutionary period against Spain.
period.
C. Federal System of Government
C. Unitary System of Government
D. Official language: Spanish (other
D. Official language: English (other
languages are also recognized)
languages are also recognized)
E. Presidential form of government: A
E. Presidential form of government: A
President is elected by the legislature
President is elected by the National
for a term of four (4) years.
Assembly for a term of six (6) years.
Figure 20. Comparative analysis of the Malolos Constitution and the 1935 Constitution
 The 1899 Constitution of the Philippines, also known as the Malolos Constitution, was
the first constitution of the Philippine Republic that was adopted on January 21, 1899 by the
Philippine Revolutionary Government, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, during the Philippine
Revolution against Spain. The Malolos Constitution provided a presidential form of government
with a bicameral legislature. It established a federal system of government structure with the
central government having limited powers and the constituent states (called “provincias”) having
a high degree of autonomy. It also provided for the separation of powers among the three
brances; the executive, legislative, and judicial.

Figure 20.1 Rare signed copy of the Philippine 1935 Constitution (Photograph taken by Ricky
Recto)
Figure 20.2 The original document of the Philippine 1899 Malolos Constitution
“Constitution Politica de la Republica Filipina
Islas Filipinas, Barasoain (Bulacan) 1899” (Photograph taken by Leo Cloma)
Figure 20.3 Claro M. Recto’s personal copy of the Philippine 1935 constitution which contains a
handwritten copy of his valedictory speech (Photograph taken by José Victor Torres )

The 1935 Constitution was the second foundational constitution of the Philippines
following the Malolos Constitution. It was the fundamental law that served as the legal basis of
the Commonwealth government. It was adopted during the Commonwealth era, after the
Philippines gained autonomy from the United States through the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934.
The 1935 Constitution established the Philippines as a presidential, representative, and
democratic republic with a proper separation of authority among the three (3) branches of
government; similar to the Malolos Constitution. The 1935 constitution, subject under the terms
of the Tydings-McDuffie Act, also served as a basis for an independent Philippine government
from 1946 until 1973. From 1946 until 1973, it also served as the foundation for an independent
Philippine government. The framers of the Commonwealth Constitution were not fully
authorized to choose the sort of government that was acceptable since their work had to be
approved by the United States President, but there were many lawmakers knowledgeable with
American constitutional law, they developed a document that was heavily patterned on the
United States Constitution. Other key differences are also evident between the two constitutions.
The 1899 Constitution established a Bicameral Legislature (individually composed of a Senate
and a House of Representatives), while the 1935 Constitution provided for a unicameral National
Assembly with one legislative house that was composed of elected representatives from each
region of the country. Amongst the features of the 1935 Constitution were the concepts of social
justice and the promotion of the general welfare as state policies, all of which were not present in
the 1899 Constitution. However, both constitutions contain a Bill of Rights that guaranteed the
basic freedoms and rights of the Filipino citizens.

Figure 20.4 Rare signed copy of the 1935 Constitution “Bill of Rights” (Photograph
taken by Ricky Recto)

The 1935 Constitution also incorporated a judicial review process among the Supreme
Court and lower courts, allowing the Supreme Court to assess the legitimacy and
constitutionality of laws and other executive actions. This however, was not included in the 1899
Malolos Constitution.
 Overall, both the 1899 Malolos Constitution and the 1935 Constitution established the
Philippines as a presidential, representative, and democratic republic with a three-branch
government with proper division of powers. The 1935 Constitution, on the other hand, is
associated with the Philippines' eventual independence from the United States during the
Commonwealth era, whereas the Malolos Constitution was adopted during the Philippine
Revolution against Spain.

External Criticism

American Colonial Democracy in the Philippines vs Spanish Colonialism in the Philippines

American Colonial Democracy Spanish Colonialism in the Philippines

A. Benevolent Assimilation A. Controls Political Power

B. Enemy Masking as a Friend B. Evangelism of Christianity
C. Indefinite Liberty and Limited C. Straight Foward Rule
Autonomy
Figure 21. Comparative analysis of the American Colonial Democracy and the Spanish
Colonialism in the Philippines

The American colonizers introduced themselves as friends with good intentions, masking their
hidden agenda to gain military powers as opposed to Spanish colonialism, where there was no
ambiguity about their desire to colonize the Philippines. The Americans gave us limited
autonomy and promised indefinite liberty, as stated in the Jones Act of 1916 and the
Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934. Although the Philippines have the liberty to make legislation
and appoint their representatives as leaders, it is still overseen by the United States, as they are
the upper house of the bicameral Philippine Legislature. On the other hand, the Spanish saw the
Filipinos as subjects of their own, declaring that the Filipinos were also ruled by the rulers of
Spain. They used Christian evangelism to strengthen their rule and serve their own agenda by
using the faith and beliefs of people to their advantage. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d)

The Difference between Spanish Colonial Education in the Philippines and American
Colonial Education in the Philippines

Spanish Colonial Education American Colonial Education

 A. Friars and Missionaries are A. Formal educators known as
educators Thomasites
B. Education is not formal B. Education is Formal
C. Focuses on the Christian converted C. Imposing of the english language
indians.
D. Spreading Christianity
Figure 21. Comparative analysis of Spanish Colonial Education in the Philippines and American
Colonial Education in the Philippines
hilippinesWhen the Spaniards arrived, they presented the appropriate system of education,
which was mainly directed and given rise by religious leaders such as friars and religious orders
(Philippine's Evolution, 2016). The legacy of the Philippine educational system has implications
for the current generation that have a massive impact on schooling institutions. Missionaries
played an important role in the acquisition of the Philippines. Students were taught the
fundamentals of the curriculum in the ancient Philippines. This type of education also was
educational and vocational in nature. The father prepared his male children to be warriors,
hunters, fishermen, miners, lumberjacks, and shipbuilders. The mother, for her part, taught her
daughters cooking, gardening, serving, and other housekeeping skills. Spain's main goal in the
Philippines during their reign has been to transform the native Filipinos into dutiful and Deity
Christians. As an outcome, religion became a required subject at any and all stages, from primary
school to university. The very first school systems were parochial schools established by
missionaries in their parishes. In addition to religion, native students were taught reading,
writing, arithmetic, and certain vocational and useful arts topics in these schools. Later,
missionaries established both boys' and girls' colleges.

United States colonization has always had a significant impact on the growth of the Philippine
education system. Indeed, American English has long been upheld in our schools, and it has
surpassed Filipino as our mother tongue (Plaza, 2018). The United States ruled the Philippines
for nearly half a century. As a colonial empire, the United States pursued a policy that was
rightfully thought to promote Filipino social and material well-being. The introduction of the
American educational system was one such policy, and its influence and impact just on the life
and society of the Filipinos both during and after the colonial period were so pervasive and
far-reaching that it is widely regarded as the "greatest contribution" of American colonialism in
the Philippines.
 Figure 22. Library of the University of Santo Tomas in Manila, 1887. Created at the request of
Archbishop de Benevides, O.P.

The Atrocities of America During the Vietnam War and the Philippine-American
War

Operation Ranch Hand Filipino-American War from 1898-190

A. The use of chemical warfare A. Torturing of civilians

B. Torturing Viet Cong soldiers and B. Burning villages
suspected conspirators C. Killing of civilians
C. Destroying crops and nature

Figure 23. Comparative analysis of the American atrocities committed during the Vietnam War
and the Philippine-American War

During the Vietnam War, the United States of America agreed to take effect on Operation Ranch
Hand, an aggressive program using chemicals. The operation used 20 million gallons of
herbicides in Vietnam, these herbicides are used to terminate the food supply of the Viet Cong
and also the forest that helps cover themselves. Operation Ranch Hand devastated the
Vietnamese both veterans and civilians were exposed to the herbicides, and multiple reports of
darkening of the skin, liver problems, a severe acne-like disease called chloracne, miscarriages,
birth defects in children, cancers, and leukemia. (History, n.d)

Almost similar to the Vietnam War, During the Filipino – American War from 1898 – 1902, both
sides were devastated, grasping for victory in the war. The United States of America used many
forms of brutality in order to make the war fast and short, by the order of President Theodore
Roosevelt, General Jake Smith was tasked to “Kill and burn; the more you burn and kill; the
better it will please me.” The Americans made chaos in the Philippines and its people, burning
villages and crops, and killing civilians who are capable of bearing arms, this includes; elderly
people, children, and women. Furthermore, the Americans are more like medieval war, torturing
suspected Filipino fighters and using the scorched earth strategy to devastate the population.

Figure 24. September 1965 photo provided by the US air force, shows four ‘Ranch Hand’ C-123
aircraft spraying liquid Agent Orange defoliant in south Vietnam. Photograph: Anonymous/AP
Figure 25. A young boy, who was born without eyes, at the Tu Du Hospital in Ho Chi Minh City,
home to dozens of children who suffer from severe mental and physical disabilities as results
from their parents coming in contact with Agent Orange. (Credit: Kuni
Takahashi/CHI-Photo/REX/Shutterstock)

The American Colonialism in the Philippines and The Spanish-American war in Cuba

The American Colonial Democracy in the The Spanish-American war in Cuba

Philippines

A. America-Spanish Secret Agreement A. Ostend Manifesto (Secret attempt to buy

B. Informal Alliance (Promise to help the Cuba)
Philippines gain independence) C. Teller Amendment (U.S to help Cuba
C. Treaty of Paris gain independence)
D. Treaty of Paris

Figure 20. Comparative Analysis of the American Colonial Democracy in the Philippines and
Spanish-American war in Cuba

Similar to the Philippines, America also proposed to help Cuba gain independence from Spanish
colonization in 1898. When Spain opened the Cuban ports for international trading, the United
States became its main trading partner exporting sugar, tobacco, rice, and coffee. The conflict
between Cuba and Spain affected the investments of U.S in the land of Cuba which is reportedly
to be over $50 million while the trade exports generated $100 million annually, thus leading
them to help Cuba breakfree from Spanish colonizers. When The United States declared war
when a U.S. warship exploded and they blamed Spain. The American troops fought the
Spaniards in Cuba, but the first Spanish-American battle occurred in Manila. The U.S.
government had planned to secretly buy Cuba from Spain for $130 million in a document now
known as Ostend Manifesto. The U.S. failed to buy Cuba because of anti-slavery campaigners
who exposed their intentions. Similar to this is the American-Spanish agreement wherein the
Americans planned to have a mock battle with the Spaniards to save face for being defeated by
the Filipino revolution, thus the Treaty of Paris wherein the U.S. bought the Philippines from the
Spaniards for $20 million. On the Treaty of Paris, neither the Cubans or Filipinos were allowed
to participate in the negotiations. (Khan Academy, n.d)

Cuba, in able to avoid U.S annexation passed the Teller Amendment which is a contract between
Cuba and U.S. from the U.S. to help Cuba gain their independence but would not gain Cuba after
breaking free from Spain. On the other hand, The Philippines only had an informal alliance with
U.S. when General Dewy promised President Emilio Aguinaldo to help them gain their
independence from Spanish Colonizers, but without any contract, this promise held no weight, as
soon after General Dewy would be the one to lead the American war against the Filipinos. (Khan
Academy, n.d)

Exegesis

Figure 22. Framework of American Colonial rule in the Philippines

The American Colonial Democracy affected the Philippines' road to independence; the question
of whether it was beneficial or just another colonizer exploiting the Philippines and its people is
still being debated today. Along with the "friendly alliance" that the United States first proposed
to the Philippines, there have been countless bloodsheds and massacres, which have gradually
weakened the Filipino revolutionary spirit, which not even the Spanish colonizers could silence.
The fall of Filipino leaders such as Apolinario Mabini, Heneral Luna, Emilio Aguinaldo,
Gregorio Del Pilar, and each and everyone else who fought for the independence of the
Philippines discouraged the masses from believing that they could live their lives free of colonial
oppressors.
Will the Philippines have gained independence without the "help" of the Americans? Philippine
Independence was already proclaimed by Emilio Aguinaldo in the year 1898, the same year the
U.S. meddled with the Spanish-Filipino war. The Spanish colonizers were already losing, which
is why, despite losing to the Americans, they agreed to the mock battle. The secret agreement
between the Spanish and American colonizers is proof that the Spaniards would rather lose to the
Americans than accept defeat by the Filipinos.

The Americans' "assistance" in setting up a government and educating their "little brown
brothers" is really a cover for their true imperialist goals and interests in the Philippines. In
actuality, American interests lie in bolstering their military campaign and demonstrating to the
rest of the globe that they are the new breed of colonizers, with noble goals as opposed to simply
exploitation of a nation and its people. Before the Americans determined that the Filipino people
needed their assistance, the Philippines already had a working government and constitution. It is
unlikely that the bloodshed caused by a newly built independent government would ever equal
that of the Filipino-American war, even though the Philippines is only now beginning to gain its
independence from Spanish colonial rule and the government is not as established as the
American government.

The American colonialism during the time aligns with democracy which is levels of
independence on an individual's preference on the way of governing the nation. Even though the
Philippines is under Colonial Rule, there is an existing government that is governed by the
citizens, such as the representatives chosen by the Filipino people in the commonwealth
government, thus there is still a degree of democracy enjoyed through the provisions of the 1902
Philippine Organic Act and the 1916 Jones Law, which demanded the establishment of a
Philippine Assembly which gave the country its own legislative body albeit still limited by U.S
interventions. The two co-exist because the Philippines is in the transition to autonomy during
the American Colonial period. However, the provisions are limited and contrary to the 1935
Constitution that states on Article III, section 1 of the bill of rights that no person shall be
deprive of liberty, yet still the Philippines is not free from the American colonizers.

Eisegesis

In the period of the Filipino-American war, the Americans justified how it is a "white
man's burden" to Christianize and civilize "our little brown brothers." During the Treaty of Paris
when the Philippines was in the process of new "leadership," the democrats from the US
congress believed that it was unfair to the Filipinos because the Philippines had just recently
ended more than 300 years of Spanish colonial rule. The Republicans of the US congress
believed that they had to govern and rule the Philippines in order to teach us democracy and
order. Ironically, what the Americans had done was very undemocratic and unnecessary because
the Philippines already had a constitution and a working government, and they failed to
recognize the Philippines had its own identity and independence.

Similar to modern times, the global and social significance of how the Americans had
succeeded in "re-educating" and teaching us their concept of democracy and peace has also
reshaped the hearts and minds of the Filipino people. Whether we like it or not American
colonial rule had a positive and negative impact on our nation. Similar to how Filipino people
had ousted Ex-President Marcos Sr. the Filipino people were divided into supporting Marcos and
supporting the revolution. For some people of that time, they were not affected by the brutality of
the Marcos Regime, and similar to the Filipino-American war period, many Filipinos were
against a revolution because it would affect their personal and business lives as they also
believed that the United States would lead them to Independence.

The significance of the Filipino people being embodied to change, it recognizes the
difficulties of not just our political and global systems, but our personal and societal issues in
adapting to this new Pinoy society where we are not entirely free. Many of our ancestors such as
Manuel L Quezon opposed the Hare-haws-Cutting act because, for personal and patriotic views,
they believed that they were not totally free. Similar to today, are we truly free? In spite of all our
efforts, we are still influenced by other nations and still, we must remember the lessons of the
past to not repeat their mistakes. The Philippines is an Independent Sovereign Country whose
history will not be forgotten.

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