Binding diffusion in solid state

In physics, the systems that interact with each other are known as interconnected systems.
In classical mechanics, this connection is the connection of two oscillating systems to
each other in some way, such as two pendulums connected by a spring. Communication
affects the oscillation pattern of both systems. In particle physics, two particles are said
to be interconnected if they are connected to each other by one of the four fundamental
forces.

The four fundamental forces

gravity
It is a natural phenomenon by which all things of mass or energy, including planets,
stars, galaxies, and even light[1] are moved and tilted toward each other. As the extent of
the forces of this attraction is weak and the scope of its effects lies in areas with great
attractive forces.

Electromagnetic forces
These forces play essential roles in chemical and biological reactions, as their range is
not final and has no effect in the astronomical field, as the content of cosmic materials is
unified and electrically neutral and falls within the domain of the weak nuclear forces

nuclear power
They are attractive forces with a very short range, as the length of their effects does not
exceed the core or outside the nucleus.

weak nuclear force

The force is responsible for the radioactive decay and nuclear fission of subatomic particles. The
weak nuclear force theory is sometimes called quantum flavor dynamics after the terms quantum
chromodynamics and quantum electrodynamics, but this term is rarely used in practice
 The bonding of solid particles to each other
Types of solid Materials
Solids are divided into crystalline and non-crystalline solids

(a) Crystalline Solids

- Crystalline solids are characterized by:

- Definite melting point Definite heat of fusion Definite crystal lattice

- The atoms, ions or molecules in crystalline steel are arranged in a definite, always
repeating order.

-The binding forces may be caused by:

- The attraction between positive and negative ions, as in NaCl

- Or it is a result of the existence of chemical bonds in which atoms are held

together by valence bonds in continuous structures, as in diamond.

- Binding forces may arise from the attraction of molecules, as in solid carbon
dioxide CO2 (dry ice).

(b) Amorphous solids

- Solids that do not meet the above conditions are known as amorphous solids.

Examples of non-crystalline solids are: glass - rubber - hard glue.

- The term (Amorphy) has been given to the material that does not have a natural geometric
shape or an ordered internal structure, and its surfaces do not have specific, repetitive faces, as is
the case in a crystalline substance.

-The particles of amorphous matter are arranged in a random order, as is the case in liquids.
Therefore, they are considered liquids in a range of temperatures, unlike crystalline materials that
melt at a constant temperature
Types of crystalline solids according to the type of bonding between their
molecules

Crystalline solids are divided into three types according to the forces that
bind their molecules

(1) Molecular crystals

(2) ionic crystals
(3) Atomic crystals

First: Molecular Crystals

The points of the crystal lattice in this type of crystal occupy molecules
that hold together and bond with each other with physical bonds due to
the attraction between the dipole molecules or as a result of the presence
of hydrogen bonds or the London (Van Dervals) forces (which are the
same forces that exist between gases), and therefore the crystals
electrically neutral.

These electrically neutral crystals are called van der Waals crystals,
because the reason for their cohesion is van der Waals forces, while the
atoms within the same molecules are linked by covalent bonds such as
(solid carbon dioxide crystal)

The three types of bonds that can exist between the molecules of a molecular crystal are:

Attractive dipole-dipole forces - hydrogen bonding - dispersion forces which are

weak compared to covalent bonds.
Second: Ionic crystals

- Ionic crystals are the ones that consist of the arrangement of positive
ions (cations) and negative ions (anions) (ions of opposite charge) in one
of the known crystal forms, and the arrangement is through the
attraction between negative and positive ions (electrostatic attraction).

- Because the attraction is between ions with a great electrostatic force,

the lattice energy resulting from this attraction will be high, which is
called the heat of crystallization, and its opposite is the energy needed to
disintegrate the crystal into its ions, and it is called the crystal lattice
energy

The forces that bind the molecules of this type of crystal are strong ionic
bonds, which are much stronger than the other intermolecular forces,
such as the bonding between sodium chloride molecules.
Third: Atomic crystals

-They are crystals whose complex unit consists of individual atoms

only.
- Such as: graphite - iron - xenon.
- The following figure shows the forces that bind atoms together