De Romanis 1 Inspection PDF

de Romanis
BOOK 1:
dei et deae
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de Romanis Book 2: homines, Katharine Radice, Angela Cheetham,

Sonya Kirk and George Lord
Latin to GCSE Part 1, Henry Cullen and John Taylor
Latin to GCSE Part 2, Henry Cullen and John Taylor
Latin Stories, Henry Cullen, Michael Dormandy and John Taylor
Aeneas: Virgil’s Epic Retold for Younger Readers, Emily Frenkel
Essential GCSE Latin, John Taylor
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ii

de Romanis
BOOK 1:
dei et deae
KATHARINE RADICE,
ANGELA CHEETHAM,
SONYA KIRK AND
GEORGE LORD
iii

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Copyright © Katharine Radice, Angela Cheetham, Sonya Kirk and George Lord, 2020
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A book like this is born from the books and the teaching of others. As a school pupil myself, my interest in
Classics was fired most of all by two people. My grandmother, Betty Radice, was an editor for Penguin
Classics and had done much to bring the works of Classical authors to a wider audience in translation. Her
own reference work (Who’s Who in the Ancient World ) had shown me – with its deft clarity and concision –
how wide and exciting the Classical World was, and how far reaching its connection has been within later
European culture. Tony Griffiths was for many years a teacher of Classics at the Royal Grammar School,
Newcastle and he was the epitome of a teacher who believed that their work was to help others build their
own steady and sharp understanding. He taught with integrity and unstinting generosity and I learned much
from his kindness and courage. I have been lucky to inherit from each of these substantial sections of their
own libraries: these books have been the bedrock of all that I have done as a teacher and the wind in the sails
of this project in particular.
LIBRI EX LIBRIS
in memoriam Betty Radice & Tony Griffiths MBE
Katharine Radice
January 2019
iv

CONTENTS
Latin stories are printed in blue in the chapter lists below
Acknowledgements vii Exercise 1.17: Mars terrifies the humans 32

Preface viii Core Language Vocabulary List 33
Why Study the Romans? viii Additional Language 34
Why Study Latin? ix

The Structure of de Romanis ix
2 Roman Heroes 39
Reference Material x Introduction 40

How to Pronounce Latin x Sources to Study 45
Supplementary Materials Online xii Questions for Discussion 49
Core Language Vocabulary List 50
Introduction to the Romans 1 Nouns: three genders 51
Rome and the Romans 1 2-1-2 adjectives: masculine, feminine and
Roman Government 2 neuter 52
Roman Society 3 3rd declension adjectives 53
Timeline 4 Noun and adjective endings by case and
declension 54
1 The Olympian Gods 5 Prepositions 55
Introduction 6 Exercise 2.5: Aeneas travels from Troy
Sources to Study 12 to Italy 56
Questions for Discussion 16 Adjectives used without nouns 57
Core Language Part A 17 The perfect tense 58
Differences between English and Latin 18 Irregular verbs: inquit, inquiunt 58
Exercise 1.4: Saturn eats his children 20 Exercise 2.8: Horatius fights bravely at
Nouns and adjectives 21 the bridge 59
Verbs 21 Exercise 2.9: Cloelia swims to safety 60
Case endings 22 Additional Language 61
Exercise 1.8: Vulcan punishes Venus 23
Core Language Part B 24 3 Roman Gods 69
Noun cases: nominative and accusative 24 Introduction 70

Noun endings: declensions, stems and Sources to Study 75
gender 25 Questions for Discussion 79
Case endings and declensions 26 Core Language Vocabulary List 80
Translating nouns in the accusative The ablative case 81
case 27 Prepositions and the ablative case 82
Adjectives: nominative and accusative 28 Prepositions and compound verbs 82
Singular and plural endings 29 Conjugations and principal parts 83
Exercise 1.15: Minerva’s birth 30 Infinitives 84
Adjectives describing plural nouns 31 Irregular verbs: sum, eo, possum 85

Contents
Exercise 3.5: Aeneas, Vesta and the Penates 86 Exercise 5.7: Spartacus 160
Adverbs 88 Present tense: 3rd and 4th conjugation
Verb stems and the imperfect tense 89 verbs 161
The imperfect tense: using person endings 90 Exercise 5.9: Violence at a gladiator show 162
Translating the imperfect tense 90 Present participles 164
Exercise 3.8: Romulus is turned into the Translating present participles 164
god Quirinus 91 Exercise 5.11: Death of a charioteer 166
Further uses of the ablative 92 Additional Language 167
Exercise 3.10: An unlucky gateway 92
Exercise 3.11: The sacred geese 94 6 Prophecy 175
Additional Language 96 Introduction 176

Sources to Study 180
4 Favour and Punishment 105 Questions for Discussion 185
Introduction 106 Core Language Vocabulary List 186
Sources to Study 112 Possessive adjectives: my, your, his,
Questions for Discussion 115 her etc 188
Core Language Vocabulary List 116 Imperatives and direct commands 189
Imperfect tense: sum, possum 118 Numbers 190
More irregular verbs: fero, volo, nolo 118 Numbers: adjectives 190
Direct questions 120 Further uses of the accusative: time
Exercise 4.3: Evander meets the hero Hercules phrases 191
and together they build the Ara Maxima 121 Exercise 6.5: Tarquin and the Sibylline
Genitive and dative cases 122 Books 192
Finding noun stems and declensions 124 Future tense: sum, possum, eo 194
Finding adjective stems 124 Future tense: 1st and 2nd conjugation
Exercise 4.8: Cerberus, the guard dog for verbs 195
the Underworld 126 Exercise 6.9: Jupiter tells the future glory of the
Verbs taking the dative 127 Roman race 196
Exercise 4.10: The Romans offer a huge Future tense: 3rd and 4th conjugation
sacrifice to the gods 128 verbs 198
Exercise 4.11: Augustus builds many temples 129 Exercise 6.12: A frightening prophecy 200
Additional Language 130 Exercise 6.13: Marius and the sleeping
chicks 201
5 Festivals, Games and Shows 139
Future tense: volo, nolo, fero 202
Introduction 140 Exercise 6.15: Caesar ignores two warnings from
Sources to Study 145 the gods 203
Questions for Discussion 149 Additional Language 205
Core Language Vocabulary List 150
Present tense: sum, possum, eo 152 Reference Grammar 213
adsum and absum 153 Glossary of Names 230
Exercise 5.3: The theft of the Sabine women 154 Vocabulary List 232
Present tense: fero, volo, nolo 156 Latin to English 232
Exercise 5.5: The Ludi Romani 157 English to Latin 237
Person endings 158 Bibliography 243
Present tense: 1st and 2nd conjugation Sources of Illustrations 245
verbs 158 Sources of Quotations 246
vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people we should like to thank for their help and encouragement during the
process of writing de Romanis. Stephen Anderson read the language materials at an early stage
and did much to improve the Latinity of the sentences and reading passages. Melvin Cooley
reviewed the background sections and sources in particular and gave us many exceptionally
helpful suggestions about how to include a broader and more authentic range of material. Elise
Jones helped us with early drafts of the project, and gave us the benefit of her imaginative
appreciation of classical and renaissance art. Abbey Jones has encouraged us along the way
and had an eagle eye for typos and phrasing. Francis Hunt offered us a new teacher’s
perspective and his positive reaction has been a real boost. With her customary accuracy and
speed, Ariadne Pagoni added macrons to the Latin throughout the course. Hugo and Toby
McGurk trialled sections of Book 1 so that we could check the suitability for a younger
audience. Charles Low read the first draft and helped us sharpen its detail. James Renshaw
reviewed the introductory material for each chapter and gave us excellent advice on how to
reach beyond the headline stories to the everyday world behind them. Sean Lambert, Alexandra
Boyt, Melvin Cooley, Tom Foxall and Natasha Crook took the plunge of signing up to trial the
course in 2018–2019 in their own departments. Our own pupils at the Stephen Perse Foundation
have helped with candid comments during the trial and revision process; in particular, Imogen
Stow chose to work through the source questions and did so with gusto and panache. Alice
Wright, Lily Mac Mahon and their team at Bloomsbury have overseen the transformation
from classroom to textbook and garnered advice for us from their group of reviewers. Beatriz
Lostalé’s most brilliant illustrations have brought the Latin stories to life on the page. Keith
Maclennan and Elise Jones have imbued the stories’ audio files with similar vitality and drama.
All these people have helped to improve the quality and accuracy of the content of de Romanis,
and the responsibility for any mistakes that remain lies with the authors.
We should also like to thank our families and friends for their patience and support
throughout: in particular, Brendan McGurk, William and Elizabeth Radice, Mark Corbett,
Alan and Gail Cheetham, Cathy and Richard Lord, Chris Martin, Tim Huggins, and our
forbearing colleagues in the Stephen Perse Foundation L28 workroom who have grown, no
doubt, rather weary of the piles of de Romanis drafts cluttering up their work space.
de Romanis has been a collaborative project and, as a team of authors, we have all benefited
from the energy, enthusiasm and interests of the others, and the vigorous process of review
and improvement that has taken place across all sections of the course. Within this
collaboration, we have each had particular areas of responsibility. Katharine Radice led the
project, wrote the Core Language and Reference sections, and finalised the content of the
Introduction and Sources sections for Chapters 7–12. Angela Cheetham wrote the Additional
Language exercises and helped with the questions for the sources. Sonya Kirk wrote the
Introduction and Sources sections for Chapters 1–6 and researched and sourced the choice of
images throughout. George Lord helped find source material for many of the Latin stories and
led the way with the initial drafts for the Introduction and Sources sections for Chapters 7–12.
Katharine Radice, Angela Cheetham, Dr Sonya Kirk and George Lord

vii

PREFACE
WHY STUDY THE ROMANS?
The Romans were a fascinating community and their history is rich in remarkable men and
women, daring exploits, political revolutions, phenomenal success and power, and a set of
cultural values which are at times shocking and surprising. The Romans have influenced our
own culture in many different ways including our language, literature, architecture, political
and legal systems, and geographical boundaries. When we study the ancient Romans, we are
also studying the foundations of the modern Western world.
Studying the Romans means studying something which is varied and changing: the
Romans were a community whose history stretched for over a thousand years, and they were
a community made up of individuals with significantly different rights, roles and experiences.
A Roman could be a citizen, a freedman or slave; a Roman could be a child, woman or man.
It is important to remember that the experiences of individuals over time could be as different
as, for example, the experiences of today’s wealthy elite in comparison with the poorest
person in the mediaeval age.
Studying the Romans presents certain challenges: for a start, we need to remember that
the story of Rome keeps changing, and it will be important to take note of the dates given so
that the development of Rome over time becomes clear. Second, our access to the Romans
comes from physical objects such as buildings, inscriptions, coins and statues, and from
written sources such as works of history, poetry, geography, speeches, letters and
philosophical discussions. Some of these texts were written hundreds of years after the
events they discuss. The Romans were interested in telling their own story, but each version
of this story was influenced by the concerns and opinions of the writers. In the Sources to
Study sections of each chapter you will have the chance to look at some of the evidence
directly, and to consider how the nature and context of a source might have influenced the
information that it provides.
In addition, communities tend to tell stories about the exceptional, not the ordinary: in the
shadows of the stories of famous men and women is the world of everyday experience: over
time, scholars have found more and more evidence about everyday life. The excavations at
Pompeii, for example, have been an excellent source of information, and there are some
personal texts, like the private letters of Cicero and Pliny, which also bring parts of this
world into view. As you work through this course, it will be interesting to consider not just
the famous stories from the past, but also to imagine the untold stories of others in their
community.
viii

Preface
WHY STUDY LATIN?
Latin allows us to access directly the world of the Romans, but it is a wonderful language on
its own terms: it works with beautiful clarity and it contains many words which are the roots
of English today. This course will encourage you to keep thinking about the relationship
between Latin and English, and this will help you to learn more about English as you develop
your understanding of Latin.
Words in Latin change their form in a way that English words typically do not: Latin
words take their shape from their role in a sentence and according to the meaning they need
to convey. This means that studying Latin will help you to learn the structure of a sentence
and to see more clearly how language fits together like the pieces of a jigsaw. Learning Latin
will help you to learn the principles of grammar which will then make it easier and quicker
to learn many different modern languages.
In addition, Latin often takes steady and careful thought: it can help you develop an
accurate approach to the way that you work. The need to learn vocabulary and grammar will
help to strengthen your memory, and using this knowledge to translate will help you develop
a logical and systematic approach to problem solving. It is partly for these reasons that Latin
had a central position in the British school curriculum for hundreds of years.
THE STRUCTURE OF DE ROMANIS
de Romanis has two volumes. Book 1: dei et deae focuses on stories about the gods and
aspects of Roman religion. Book 2: homines discusses Rome’s major political revolutions
and the impact Rome’s growing power had on its own community and the countries it
conquered.
There are six chapters in each book, and each of these chapters contains five different
sections.
1. Introduction: this will introduce you to the theme of each chapter, and give you the
knowledge of Roman culture and context which will help you make sense of the
Latin stories.
2. Sources to Study: each chapter includes four different sources that offer you the
chance to understand something about the Romans from a direct engagement with
the evidence we have.
3. Questions for Discussion: these are wide-reaching questions that encourage you to
reflect upon the cultural and historical content of each chapter in an analytical and
imaginative way.
4. Core Language: this contains all the new Latin material for the chapter. In the Core
Language section you will find 30 new words to be learned, and the explanations of
new grammar. There are sentences to translate from Latin to English, and stories written
in Latin which will help you learn more about the world of the Romans. The exercises
within a chapter make use of the new words for that chapter, and so it is important to
learn the new vocabulary at the start. Chapter 1 introduces the new words in stages, but
ix

Preface
thereafter all the new vocabulary for a chapter is printed at the beginning of each
Core Language section. Each chapter also uses words from previous chapters;
if you forget any of these, you can look them up in the Vocabulary List at the back
of the book.
5. Additional Language: these exercises offer further practice for the grammar and
vocabulary introduced in each chapter and can be tackled as you work through the
Core Language to supplement the exercises there. There are many different types of
Additional Language exercises, and they will help you strengthen your
understanding by practising material in different ways. The Additional Language
exercises also provide the opportunity to translate from English into Latin.
It is unlikely that you will complete all the material in each chapter: there is a wide range so
that it is possible for you and your teacher to pick and choose the material which is most
helpful for reinforcing or extending the content of each Core Language section.
REFERENCE MATERIAL
At the back of the book are three reference sections:
1. Reference Grammar: this section contains a summary of all the grammar for the
book and explanations about how the different forms of Latin are used. It is a very
useful section for revision, or for checking the form of a word.
2. Glossary of Names: the names of people, gods or places which are important for
each chapter are listed at the start of the Core Language section. Unlike the other
names that appear in the Latin stories, these names do not appear in the vocabulary
lists underneath each story. If you forget a name, you can look it up in the Glossary
of Names.
3. Vocabulary List: this contains all the core vocabulary which you will meet in this
book. If you forget a word, you can look it up here, either from Latin into English, or
from English into Latin. Sometimes the Latin stories use words which are not part of
the chapter vocabulary lists: the meanings for these are given at the end of each story
and they do not appear in the vocabulary list at the back.
HOW TO PRONOUNCE LATIN
Latin existed as a living language for well over a thousand years, and across a huge
geographical area. It is impossible to pin down exactly how it would have been or should
now be pronounced. What follows, however, is a guide to the current conventions that exist
for the pronunciation of classical Latin in English-speaking classrooms.
Latin pronunciation rests on the following principles:
● with the exception of diphthongs (see below), every new vowel is within a new
syllable and so, for example, the word forte has two syllables, not one.

Preface
● single Latin vowels can be either long or short in sound: the Latin sections of
de Romanis follow the convention of marking long vowels with a macron (e.g. nōn).
These macrons are there as a guide for pronunciation and you will not see them in
published versions of original Latin texts. In addition, you would not be expected to
include them for Latin words which you write in a public exam.
Broadly speaking, Latin pronunciation is very similar to English, but the vowel sounds can
be quite different, and some consonants also have different sounds. For each of the tables
below, the Latin should be pronounced like the sound underlined in the English word.
Vowels
short vowel long vowel
a cat ā car
e get ē eight
i hit ı̄ eel
o pot ō tomato
u circus ū doom
Diphthongs
Sometimes vowels combine to make one sound. This is known as a diphthong. Of these the
most common in Latin are:
ae find
au how
Otherwise, two adjacent vowels should be pronounced as two separate syllables. For
example:
timeō tim-ay-oh
fı̄lius feel-i-us
mortuus mor-tu-us
Consonants
c a hard ‘c’, as in car
g a hard ‘g’, as in god
v pronounced ‘w’, as in we
qu pronounced together, as in quit
i often used as a ‘j’ consonant, but pronounced as a ‘y’, e.g. Iuppiter = yu-pit-er
xi

Preface
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS ONLINE
de Romanis is supplemented by a range of materials available online via the Bloomsbury

companion website:
www.bloomsbury.com/de-romanis-resources
Among these are the following.
Teacher’s Guide containing:
● a detailed explanation of the course’s structure and design

● guidance for teaching the new content within each chapter.
Culture and context materials:
● Power Point presentations to introduce the background material for each chapter
● worksheets for students to complete based on the introductory material for each
chapter
● suggested links to relevant videos
● multiple choice interactive quizzes.
Language materials:
● malleable copies of the Latin text for each Latin story

● comprehension questions for two of the Latin stories within each chapter
● PDF worksheets for each of the Additional Language exercises
● a spreadsheet of all the words from the chapter vocabulary lists so that words can be
sorted by part of speech or by chapter
● links to interactive resources such as vocabulary testing.
Some materials will only be accessible to teachers. These are:
● end of chapter tests for all 12 chapters

● answers for all Core Language and Additional Language exercises.
Where online materials correspond to particular exercises in the book, you will see a CW
icon in the margin.
xii

Introduction to the Romans
The material in this course stretches from the very beginnings of Rome’s history in the 8th
century BC right up to the might of the enormous Roman Empire in the 3rd century AD . In
addition, some of the stories you will read are from a mythical world which the Romans
believed predated any of their own history. This introduction is designed to give you an
overview of the changes that took place within the Romans’ society and culture during this
vast time period. It will help you understand the broader context of the stories you will read
across Books 1 and 2. On p4 there is a timeline, which will help you track some of the most
important events in Rome’s history.
Some of the words in the sections which follow are in bold: these highlight key parts of
the Roman story, or the words which have a particular meaning in a Roman context.
ROME AND THE ROMANS
Rome began as a small city in central Italy. The earliest residents were mostly farmers.
When their city was under attack, those farmers became soldiers in the Roman army. Early
in its history, a strong army was essential for Rome to defend itself against repeated attacks
on the city from its Italian neighbours. The idea of a community made up of hard-working
farmers who were also brave soldiers doing their duty for Rome was essential to the Roman
identity throughout Rome’s history.
Later, military success led to greater and greater expansion of Roman territory. Territories
which were ruled by a Roman governor were known as provinces. Over time, the small
Italian city which started in the 8th century BC grew to be a capital city with an empire of
more than 5 million square kilometers in size by the 2nd century AD . This expansion in
territory brought with it growth in population: the Romans often granted citizen status to
the communities who became part of their empire, and their population was also increased
by the growing number of slaves, many of whom were prisoners of war. Over time, the small
farms of the earliest Romans transformed into huge estates where hundreds of slaves
laboured to feed the growing population. As their empire expanded, the Romans developed
a series of growing trade networks on both land and sea. The enduring phrase that ‘all roads
lead to Rome’ indicates the huge scale of roads and sea lanes under Rome’s control. These
trade networks not only kept the population of Rome fed, they also allowed for the exchange
of goods from all over the known world. The buying and selling of everything from grain to
silk contributed to the growing wealth of the Roman people.

With so much interaction with other parts of the world, both in military conquest and
peaceful trade, it was inevitable that the culture of Roman society would also undergo a
number of changes. Early in its history, the Romans adopted a number of customs from the
Etruscans, the people who lived in the area just north of Rome. Gladiator fighting and chariot
racing, two things the Romans are known for, were both originally Etruscan events. Much
Greek culture was adopted by the Romans too, particularly after the conquest of Greece in
146 BC . The Romans borrowed ideas from Greek architecture in building their own public
buildings, such as the Pantheon and the Colosseum. Ideas from Greek art dominated Roman
painting and sculpture; some Roman artists even specialised in making copies of Greek
artwork rather than creating their own. Greek literature was thought to be the best of its sort,
and just as Roman artists reproduced Greek art, Roman authors believed that echoing Greek
literature was a good way to display their own literary talent. Stories from Greek mythology
heavily influenced the Romans’ ideas too and they absorbed many aspects of Greek religion.
ROMAN GOVERNMENT
There were three major phases in the political history of Rome. To begin with, during the
8th–6th centuries BC Rome was ruled by kings, but it was not a hereditary monarchy. Instead,
some kings were elected by the Roman people. Other kings used violence and took the
throne for themselves.
Rome’s first king, Romulus, invited the fathers of Rome’s leading families to give advice
on matters of government. These advisers were known as senators. Together, the senators
were known as the senate. To begin with, there were 100 senators, but the number varied
considerably over time.
In the 6th century BC there was a major revolution: the king at that time, Tarquinius
Superbus, was driven out of Rome, and Rome became a Republic instead. This meant that
power lay in the hands of the people. The senate continued to advise, but decisions had to be
agreed by the citizens, who gathered together in assemblies to vote. The citizens also elected
the magistrates, who were the men who carried out the business of government. Occasionally,
in times of crisis, a dictator was appointed: a dictator was a man who was given temporary
power to make decisions without the need for a vote in the assembly.
The Republic lasted for nearly 500 years, but at the end of the 1st century BC there was
another major political change. Throughout the 1st century BC there had been a series of civil
wars. The ultimate winner of these was a man called Octavian, who later became known as
Augustus. Augustus became the first Roman emperor, and his adopted son, Tiberius,
became emperor after Augustus’ death. This established the principle that the position of
emperor would be hereditary.

ROMAN SOCIETY
Most of the material in this course relates to the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD . By
then, citizens of ancient Rome had a number of rights. A male Roman citizen was able to
vote and he had the protection of the Roman court system. Female citizens, however, could
not vote or be elected to hold a political office. For much of Roman history, women were
also unable to enter contracts, own property or run a business without the agreement of a
male guardian, though this changed over time.
Roman society was divided into classes. Membership of a class was largely based on
birth or wealth. The highest class were the patricians. This class was based on birth, and
referred to the members of the original families whose fathers (patres) had formed the first
Roman senate. Any Roman citizen who was not a patrician was a plebeian. Working
alongside these labels were the titles which showed a citizen’s wealth or role in society.
Senators were those who had been elected to the senate. Below those were the equites. This
title is sometimes translated into English as equestrian. We still use this word to mean a
horse-rider; early in Roman history, members of the Roman equestrian order were those who
were wealthy enough to afford a horse to fight in the cavalry, rather than fighting as a foot
soldier. Thus, being an equestrian was based on wealth. Any citizen could become an
equestrian if he could prove he had property that was worth a certain amount of money.
Below the equestrians were five classes of citizenships all based on wealth and property,
simply called the first, second, third, fourth and fifth classes. The lowest class of all, the
proletarii, was below the fifth class and had the least money and land.
As mentioned above, the Romans also had many slaves. Some slaves had been taken as
prisoners of war, others were born or sold into slavery. Slaves performed all sorts of jobs
such as basic household tasks, hard manual labour, complex affairs such as managing
business finances, and anything or everything in between. For much of Roman history,
slaves had no rights and their masters were free to do whatever they wished to them. It
is hard to know the number of slaves, but scholars have estimated that by the end of the
1st century BC the ratio of slave:free citizens may have been as high as 1:3. Slaves who had
been given the chance to earn their freedom or who had been given their freedom as a mark
of gratitude were known as freedmen. Freedmen were granted citizenship and enrolled in
the class that matched their wealth. Some freedmen went on to become very wealthy and
accomplished men and, during some periods in history, their sons could go on to hold
political office.

TIMELINE
This timeline will help you understand how some of the important events and the people you will meet in Chapters 1–6
of de Romanis fit into the broader span of Rome’s history.
the very The mythical origin of the world, and the rise of the Olympian gods.
beginnings of
time
pre-9th The age of heroes, many of whom fought in the great war between Troy and Greece.
century BC The founding father of the Romans, Aeneas, was believed to have fought in the Trojan
War. When Troy lost, he travelled to Italy to start a new community there.
8th–7th Greek myths and legends began to be written down. In later centuries, many of
centuries BC these stories were adopted by the Romans and absorbed into Roman culture.
mid-8th Roman Romulus and Remus, the twin sons of the god Mars, were believed to have founded
century BC kings a small city in central Italy. Romulus killed his brother and the city was named Rome.
late 6th The Romans expelled their last king and became a Republic. Their last king, Tarquinius
century BC Superbus, sought help from Rome’s neighbours, the Etruscans. Several Roman heroes,
such as Mucius Scaevola, Horatius Cocles and Cloelia, participated in the war that
followed.
5th century BC The city-states of Greece at this time led the Western world in art, architecture,
literature and philosophy. In time, their achievements in these fields would all
influence Roman culture heavily.
4th century BC Tribes from modern-day France, known as the Gauls, attacked the city of Rome and
nearly won. The Romans were able to repel their stealth attack because of a warning
from Juno’s sacred geese.
The
3rd century BC The Romans fought wars against and eventually defeated their rival Carthage,
Roman
leaving Rome the dominant power in the Mediterranean.
Republic
2nd century BC Rome defeated Greece and absorbed much of Greek culture.
1st century BC Roman society struggled to handle the imbalance in power its growing wealth and
success brought. This led to slave uprisings and widespread civil wars.
Julius Caesar, the famous general, led his army in a civil war against Pompey and the
Roman senate. Caesar defeated his opponents and was appointed dictator for life.
Many Romans believed that he wanted to be king, and on this basis he was
assassinated in 44 BC . His death triggered another civil war and paved the way for
Augustus, the first emperor, to come to power.
Augustus ended the civil wars and became the first Roman emperor. He declared
peace across the Roman empire.
1st century AD In AD 79, watched by the historian Pliny, the volcano Mount Vesuvius erupted near
Pompeii, a Roman town in the Bay of Naples. The falling ash preserved a great deal
Roman of evidence of daily life in a Roman town.
emperors The enormous amphitheatre known as the Colosseum was built.
2nd century AD In AD 117 The Roman empire reached its greatest size under the emperor Trajan.
The emperor Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon, Rome’s most well-known temple.

CHAPTER 1
THE OLYMPIAN GODS

CW
Chapter 1: Introduction
The Olympian gods

The Romans worshipped many different gods and goddesses. As discussed on pp1–4, Rome
was a city founded a very long time ago. We do not know much about very early Roman
religion, but we do know that over time Roman culture was influenced by the culture of the
Ancient Greeks. By the middle of the 2nd century BC the Romans had conquered Greece and
absorbed much of its literature and religion. It became the Roman practice to match up their
own major gods with the Greek gods, and many of the stories the Greeks had told about their
gods started to appear in Roman literature too.
The most famous gods worshipped by the Romans are known as the Olympian gods.
They have this name because they were paired with the major gods whom the Greeks had
believed lived on Mount Olympus. Here is a list of the Olympian gods with both their
Roman and their Greek names. You will see that the Romans believed that each god was
associated with different things.
FIGURE 1.1 The summit of Mount Olympus

Mount Olympus is a mountain in Greece and it has one of the highest peaks in Europe.
Its summit is often shrouded in cloud, and it is no surprise therefore that it seemed like a
natural home for the gods.

Chapter 1 Introduction
Roman name Greek name
Jupiter Zeus king of the gods
Neptune Poseidon god of the sea
Pluto Hades god of the underworld, the region

inhabited by souls of the dead
Juno Hera queen of the gods, goddess of

marriage
Venus Aphrodite goddess of love
Apollo Apollo god of music, prophecy, music,

archery and disease
Mars Ares god of war
Diana Artemis goddess of hunting, childbirth and

young women
Minerva Athena goddess of wisdom, weaving,

and war
Ceres Demeter goddess of agriculture
Bacchus Dionysus god of wine, fertility and frenzy

FIGURE 1.2 Bust of Jupiter
Vulcan Hephaestus the blacksmith god of fire
The shoulders and bare chest in this statue
Mercury Hermes the messenger of the gods and show Jupiter’s strength. Jupiter’s face has been
the god of travellers and thieves carved with his characteristic beard. This bust
dates from the 2nd century AD and is now part
Vesta Hestia goddess of the hearth and home of the collection at The British Museum.
The Greeks, and then the Romans, told many stories about these gods. This chapter
focuses on the stories. You may know some of these stories already because many of them
are still popular today. These stories help us to understand some of the things which were
important to the Romans and some of the things which they worried about. As you read the
myths in this chapter, it might be interesting to consider what these stories might tell us
about the Roman attitudes to family, gender and power.
Jupiter, king of the gods

The Romans believed that Jupiter was the king of the gods. Even though he was the most
powerful of the gods, his reign was not always an easy one. Jupiter is often shown in art with
his favourite weapon, a thunderbolt, ready to throw whenever trouble arose.
Jupiter had not always been the king of the gods. The Roman poet Ovid re-tells the Greek
story that Jupiter became king after he killed his father, Saturn. Saturn was the king of the
Titans. Titans were divine beings, an earlier race of gods. They were monstrous and

Chapter 1 The Olympian Gods
uncivilised. There had been a prophecy that one of Saturn’s

children would kill him and take his place. To prevent this,
Saturn swallowed each child as soon as his wife, Ops,
gave birth.
As you will read in Exercise 1.4, Saturn’s wife decided
to trick him. When Jupiter was born, she hid her baby and
gave Saturn a stone wrapped as a baby to swallow.
Unknown to Saturn, Jupiter grew up in secret. Later, he
and his mother tricked Saturn into drinking a potion that
made him vomit up all the children he had already
swallowed. Together, Jupiter and his siblings defeated
Saturn. Then Jupiter and his brothers, Neptune and Pluto,
drew lots to decide who would rule which part of the world.
Jupiter took over Mount Olympus and ruled as king of the
gods. Neptune won the sea, and Pluto won the Underworld.
Jupiter settled in to rule men and gods from Mount
Olympus. Jupiter married his sister Juno, who became the
queen of the gods. Their son, Mars, was the god of war.
Juno was believed to be the goddess of marriage even
though her own marriage to Jupiter was not always a
happy one because Jupiter had many affairs. Several
stories from ancient myth focus on Juno’s jealousy and her
readiness to take revenge.
Trouble on Mount Olympus: Juno and

Vulcan
One of the most famous stories about Jupiter and Juno
FIGURE 1.3 Saturn eating one of his children
started as a Greek myth told by the Greek poet Hesiod
This chilling painting of the Titan Saturn, the father of many sometime around 700 BC in a long poem called the
Olympian gods, was created by the Spanish painter Goya
Theogony. Like many Greek myths, the Romans re-told
towards the end of his life when he had seen a
tremendous amount of death and destruction in the the same story using Roman names instead. In this story,
Napoleonic Wars. Notice how, in a mainly dark Juno became so annoyed with the number of children
background, the bolting white eyes of Saturn and the red Jupiter had with other goddesses, and even mortal women,
blood of his son stand out. that she decided to have a child on her own. Since she was
a goddess, she was able to do this. However, the child she
bore was not like the other Olympians; Olympians were all beautiful and this child, Vulcan,
was ugly. Despite this, Vulcan was very clever, and became the god of fire and metalworking.
The Romans believed that Vulcan set up a forge and worked with the one-eyed giants known
as Cyclopes to make weapons for the gods themselves, including Jupiter’s thunderbolts. You
can read about some of these weapons in Source 1.1.
In another of the stories told about Vulcan, we hear that Jupiter threw Vulcan out from
Mount Olympus. This happened because Juno was determined to destroy one of Jupiter’s
sons by a mortal woman: the hero Hercules, whom we shall read more about in Chapter 2.

FIGURE 1.4 A Cyclops forging Jupiter’s thunderbolts

According to myth, the Cyclopes also made weapons for the other gods, such as
Neptune’s three-pronged trident and Pluto’s helmet of invisibility. This mosaic, which
dates from the 3rd century AD , was found in Tunisia where it remains today in the Bardo
National Museum.
Juno had sent a storm to destroy Hercules, so Jupiter punished Juno by hanging her from
Mount Olympus with anvils chained to her ankles. When Vulcan tried to free his mother,
Jupiter cast him out from Mount Olympus. Other myths tell us that Juno threw Vulcan from
Mount Olympus because he was crippled and ugly. It is important to remember that, when it
comes to the myths about the Olympian gods, there is often more than one version.
Vengeful gods: Vulcan and Venus

In revenge for his exile, Vulcan sent a throne to Juno. Vulcan was such a clever craftsman
that, when Juno sat in the throne, she was bound fast and could not get free. Vulcan agreed
to release Juno if Jupiter promised that Venus, the goddess of love, would marry Vulcan.
This was a bold request. Venus was so beautiful that many gods had fallen in love with her

and wanted to marry her. What’s more, Venus

was already in love with Mars, the god of war
and the son of Jupiter and Juno, and so she did
not wish to marry Vulcan.
Jupiter, however, agreed to Vulcan’s
demands and, because Jupiter was the king of
the gods, Venus had to obey. She married
Vulcan, but she was not faithful to him. In
Exercise 1.8, you will read a story from nearly
3,000 years ago that tells how Vulcan
eventually caught Venus committing adultery
with Mars. The Roman poet Ovid included
this story in one of his poems, and you can
read a translation of this in Source 1.3.
Wisdom and war: Minerva and

Mars
Mars was not the only god of war. The
Romans also worshipped Minerva, the
goddess of war, wisdom and crafts such as
weaving. She was the daughter of Metis, the
Titan goddess who had been married to Jupiter
before he married Juno. Just as Jupiter’s father
FIGURE 1.5 Birth of Minerva swallowed his children to keep them from
This vase was created in Greece in the 5th century BC . It shows the overthrowing him, Jupiter decided to swallow
story of the birth of the Greek goddess Athena or, as the Romans Metis before she could give birth to their
knew her, Minerva. She is shown here emerging from the head of her
child. Even though Jupiter had swallowed her,
father, fully grown and wearing armour.
Metis gave birth to Minerva inside Jupiter’s
body. Soon afterwards, Jupiter began having
terrible headaches. To get rid of these headaches, Jupiter asked Vulcan to hit him in the head
with an axe. When Vulcan did so, Minerva jumped out, fully grown and armed for battle.
You will read a version of this story in Exercise 1.16.
The power of the gods

As we have seen, the gods of Mount Olympus did not set good moral examples for humans.
The gods could be petty, mean, cruel and unfaithful, but the Romans worshipped them
because they had great power over the world of mortals. For example, we have seen that the
Romans believed that Jupiter controlled the weather, Neptune had power over the seas and
Venus had the power to make men and women fall in love.
Many of the stories told about the other Olympians focus on their particular power. For
example, the Romans believed that Ceres, the goddess of agriculture, was responsible for the
10

seasons. To explain this, the poet Ovid tells us

that Pluto, the god of the Underworld, fell in love
with Ceres’ daughter Proserpina. Pluto abducted
Proserpina and took her to the Underworld to be
his bride. Ceres searched the world for Proserpina
and neglected her duties as the goddess of
agriculture. The crops died in the fields and
humans began to starve. Finally, Jupiter decreed
that because Proserpina had eaten some
pomegranate seeds in the Underworld, she would
spend part of the year there with Pluto. For the
rest of the year, however, she would return to her
mother. The Romans believed that when
Proserpina returned to Ceres in the spring, the
goddess was happy and the earth grew abundant
food. In the autumn, when Proserpina returned to
the Underworld, Ceres began to grieve again and
nothing grew during the winter months.
Some gods had power over a large number of
different things at the same time. For example
Apollo was the god of music, prophecy and
archery, and he was both the bringer and healer of
diseases. Apollo’s twin sister, Diana, also had
wide-ranging powers. She was the goddess of
hunting and wild animals, and she was worshipped
as the goddess of childbirth and the protector of
girls until they reached the age of marriage. FIGURE 1.6 Roman fresco of Diana
Many people today have heard of the god This beautiful wall painting (fresco) of Diana, goddess of hunting,
childbirth and young women, was found in the Roman seaside town
Bacchus: he was the god of wine and most
of Pompeii. She is shown with a serious expression, striding
people now associate him with parties and fun. forward, and about to place an arrow in her bow.
To the Romans, however, he was a figure of
great and dangerous power. He was the god of
madness, frenzy and fertility.
Mercury was the messenger god, sent by other gods to carry information between gods
and mortals and between the gods themselves, but he was very powerful in his own right as
the patron god of travellers and thieves. Mercury is easily recognised by his winged sandals
and he appears in many stories in classical mythology and literature as he goes about
delivering news and information. The Roman poet Ovid wrote that Mercury did not just
deliver messages for the gods; he also carried dreams to sleeping mortals and conducted the
spirits of the dead to the Underworld.
Vesta was a very important goddess for the Romans. She was worshipped as the goddess
of the hearth and home. You will read much more about Vesta in Chapter 3.
11

CHAPTER 1: SOURCES TO STUDY
Source 1.1: Vulcan’s forge

In the 1st century BC the poet Virgil wrote a dramatic description of the weapons for Jupiter,
Mars and Minerva made by the Cyclopes in Vulcan’s cave.
In this passage, Virgil uses the Greek name Pallas Athene for Minerva and he describes
the aegis which was part of her armour. This aegis was a breastplate with the head of the
monstrous Gorgon Medusa, whose gaze turned people to stone.
The Cyclopes Brontes, Sterope and Pyracmon were forging steel, working naked in that
vast cavern. In their hands was a thunderbolt which they had roughed out, one of those the
Father of the Gods and Men hurls down upon the earth in such numbers from every part of
the sky. Some of it was already polished, some of it unfinished. They had attached three
shafts of lashing rain to it, three shafts of heavy rain clouds, three of glowing fire and three
of the south wind in full flight. They were now adding to the work the terrifying lightning
and the sound of thunder, then Fear and Anger with its accompanying flames. In another
part of the cave they were working for Mars, busy with the wing-wheeled chariot in which
he stirs up men and cities to war. Others were hard at work polishing the armour worn by
Pallas Athene when enraged, the fearsome aegis with its weaving snakes and their reptilian
scales of gold, and the Gorgon Medusa herself, rolling her eyes in her bodiless head on the
breastplate of the goddess.
Virgil, Aeneid Book 8, 424–438 (trans. slightly adapted)
Source 1.1: Questions

1 How many Cyclopes were working in the cave and what were their names?
2 For which god were they making a thunderbolt?
3 What had the Cyclopes added to the thunderbolt to make it so powerful and
frightening? What were they adding next?
4 What were the Cyclopes making for Mars?
5 What does the description of Minerva’s armour tell us about her as a
goddess?
6 Based on what you have read in this passage, which god do you think would
have been most terrifying to look at?
12

Chapter 1 Sources to Study
Source 1.2: Venus’ beauty

This fresco was found on the wall of a home in the city of Pompeii. Pompeii was a Roman
city on the Bay of Naples, near to the volcano Vesuvius. When Mount Vesuvius erupted in AD
79, the entire city was buried under ash and pulverised rock.
Archaeologists started to excavate the area in the 18th century. They found that many
parts of Pompeii were amazingly well-preserved by the volcanic ash, including this wall
painting of Venus. In this painting, Venus is shown lying on a shell, floating on the sea with
two little winged cupids.
FIGURE 1.7 Detail from a fresco from the House of Venus

This large fresco is from a grand and wealthy house. It is on the wall of the covered
colonnade which runs around the house’s inner courtyard garden. Many different
frescos are displayed, but this is the most famous of them, and the house takes its
modern name from it.

1 Who is the most important figure in this painting? How can you tell?
2 What has the painter done to Venus’ appearance to show us that she is the
goddess of love?
3 What characteristics does this image suggest belong to Venus?
4 Some people think Venus has been painted on a sea-shell here to remind its
viewers of the myth that she was born from the foam of the sea. What can
you find out about this myth? What does this story tell us about the Romans’
understanding of the world around them?
5 Why do you think the Romans might have wanted paintings of the gods on
display in their houses?
13

Source 1.3: Venus and Mars’ love affair

At the very start of the 1st century AD , the Roman poet Ovid wrote a poem called the
Metamorphoses. In this poem he told many different stories about the gods. In this passage,
Ovid tells us that the Sun caught Mars and Venus having an affair. The Sun then told Vulcan
that his wife was cheating on him. Vulcan created a clever trap to catch the lovers and
embarrass them before the gods.
The Sun, people think, was the first god to see Venus committing adultery with Mars. This
god is the first to see everything. Pained by what he saw, the Sun told Venus’ husband,
Vulcan, son of Juno, about the pleasures stolen from his marriage-bed, and showed him the
site of the betrayal. Shocked, Vulcan let the artwork he was making fall from his skilful
hands. Straightaway he fashioned from bronze tiny links of bronze, a net invisible to the
eye to use as a snare, handiwork finer than the finest thread, finer than a spider’s web
hanging from a ceiling. He arranged the net carefully above the bed, setting it to drop at the
slightest touch, the smallest movement.
When his wife and her lover made love in the bed, by means of a husband’s skill they
were caught in each other’s arms, stuck fast to each other by this new kind of net. Vulcan
immediately threw open the ivory doors of the bedroom and let in the gods. There the
lovers lay, body bound to body – a shocking sight – and various gods (all amused) wished
out loud that he could be part of a shocking sight like that. It gave them all a good laugh,
and for a long time this was the most repeated story in all of heaven.
Ovid, Metamorphoses, Book 4.171–189 (trans. slightly adapted)

1 Why do you think the Sun is described as ‘the first to see everything’?
2 Why did the Sun tell Vulcan that Venus was cheating on him?
3 How did Vulcan feel when he heard this, and what did he do next?
4 Why did Vulcan summon the other gods? What do you think he was expecting
them to do?
5 Are you surprised by the way the other gods reacted? Explain your answer.
6 Write a character description of Vulcan based on what this passage tells us
about his feelings and his actions.
14

Source 1.4: Do gods look like humans?

Around 45 BC , the Roman orator and author Cicero wrote a series of philosophical books
entitled De Natura Deorum (On the Nature of the Gods). One of the subjects he wrote
about was the appearance of the gods. Romans believed that the gods were anthropomorphic,
i.e. that they looked and acted like humans. In the passage below Cicero explains why this
was so.
Indeed, when we think about the gods’ appearance, we think that the race of the gods is
nothing other than human in appearance; for how else does anyone ever imagine – either
when they are awake or when they are asleep – that they have pictured the gods? Reason
itself declares the same thing. For it is generally agreed that the nature of the gods surpasses
all others, either because it is blessed or because it is immortal, and therefore that it must
be equivalent to the most beautiful thing. What arrangement of limbs, what shaping of
features, what figure, what species is able to be more beautiful than the human one?
Cicero, De Natura Deorum, Book 1.46–47 (with omissions)

1 What is the first reason Cicero gives to explain why the Romans thought that
the gods look like humans?
2 Cicero then tells us that reason, i.e. logical thought, brings us to the same
conclusion. Use the following questions to help you explain his argument.
a. What does Cicero mean when he writes that the nature of the gods
surpasses all others?
b. If the gods are better than all other beings, what does Cicero think this
means their appearance must be?
c. What does Cicero think is the most beautiful appearance for a being to
have?
3 Do you think Cicero’s argument is a good one?
4 Based on what you know about the gods, do you agree that they should be
beautiful?
5 Think about the images you have seen of the gods so far. Do you think that
they are beautiful? Does our society have the same standards of beauty as
the Romans had?
15

CHAPTER 1: QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1 What is your impression of the Olympian gods from what you have read?
You might like to consider
● how the gods treated each other
● how the gods treated the humans
● what the gods looked like
● where the gods lived
● the powers of the gods
2 Which of the gods or goddesses you have read about would you choose to
worship and why?
● what each god or goddess was associated with
● the powers of each god or goddess
● the character of each god or goddess
3 What can we learn about the Romans from the stories they told about the
gods?
● the values and attitudes of the gods
● the actions of the gods
● how the Romans connected the gods with the natural world around them
16

Chapter 1 Core Language Part A
Chapter 1: Core Language Part A
Gods and goddesses

The following gods and goddess feature in the sentences and stories in this
chapter:
Iuppiter Jupiter, king of the gods

Iūnō Juno, queen of the gods
Minerva Minerva, goddess of wisdom and war
Mars Mars, god of war
Vulcānus Vulcan, the blacksmith god of fire
Venus Venus, goddess of love
17

Differences between English and Latin

There are many ways in which Latin is different from English. Of these, the most
important are as follows.
● Latin word order is often different: verbs are often (but not always) at the end
of a sentence.
● Latin often uses fewer words than English; this means that you will often
need to add extra words in English when you translate. For example, Latin
has no word for a or the, and it often does not use words for my, your, his,
hers, its, ours etc.
● Capital letters are used only for names.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Iuppiter erat rēx. 6. Iuppiter erat pater.
2. Iūnō rēgīna erat. 7. Iūnō uxor erat.
3. Iuppiter deus erat. 8. fīlia erat Minerva.
4. Iūnō dea erat. 9. fīlius Mars erat.
5. Iūnō māter erat. 10. Minerva erat dea.
Note that you should rēx king

learn all the
rēgīna queen
vocabulary printed in
green boxes. deus god
dea goddess
māter mother
pater father
uxor wife
fīlia daughter
fīlius son
erat he / she was
18

EXERCISE 1.2
1. Mars deus Rōmānus erat. 6. Iūnō saeva erat.
2. Minerva dea Rōmāna erat. 7. Mars erat īrātus.
3. Minerva pulchra erat. 8. Iūnō īrāta erat.
4. Mars pulcher erat. 9. Minerva laeta erat.
5. Mars erat saevus. 10. Iuppiter laetus erat.
Rōmānus, Rōmāna Roman Question: Can you

work out from
pulcher, pulchra beautiful, handsome
Exercise 1.2 why
saevus, saeva savage, cruel each of these Latin
words has two
īrātus, īrāta angry
different forms?
laetus, laeta happy
EXERCISE 1.3
1. Venus pulchra et laeta erat. 5. Iuppiter laetus erat sed Iūnō

īrāta erat.
2. saepe Vulcānus erat īrātus.
6. etiam Iuppiter erat īrātus.
3. saepe Iūnō saeva erat sed
Venus laeta erat. 7. Mars erat pulcher sed īrātus.
4. tum Mars laetus erat. 8. tum Vulcānus īrātus et saevus

erat.
saepe often
sed but
tum then
et and; even
etiam also; even
19

EXERCISE 1.4: SATURN EATS HIS CHILDREN
Before Jupiter became king of the gods, a monstrous race of Titans ruled Mount
Olympus. Saturn, king of the Titans, had received a prophecy that one of his children
would kill him and take his place. Saturn decided to eat each of his children as soon
as they were born.
One day his wife tricked him into eating a stone instead. The new baby grew up in
secret and eventually overthrew his father.
ōlim Iuppiter nōn erat rēx. Sāturnus deus erat et Sāturnus erat rēx. Sāturnus
pater erat sed Sāturnus saevus erat. Sāturnus līberōs cōnsūmpsit. māter īrāta
erat.
tum fīlius novus erat nātus. māter fīlium amāvit. māter patrem lapide fefellit.
fīlius cēlātus erat. fīlius tūtus erat. māter laeta erat. 5
fīlius erat Iuppiter. fīlius īrātus erat. Sāturnus saevus erat sed etiam fīlius
saevus erat. Iuppiter patrem vīcit. tum Iuppiter rēx erat. Iuppiter laetus erat.
ōlim once
nōn not
Sāturnus Saturn
līberōs cōnsūmpsit ‘ate his children’
novus new
nātus born
fīlium amāvit ‘loved her son’
patrem lapide fefellit ‘tricked his father with a stone’
cēlātus hidden
tūtus safe
patrem vīcit ‘defeated his father’
20

Nouns and adjectives

In Latin, different sorts of words behave in different ways. This means it is
important to know which part of speech a word is.
nouns usually refer to people or gods, things, places

adjectives usually describe nouns
EXERCISE 1.5
Translate each of these words and say whether it is a noun or an adjective.
1. rēgīna 6. laetus
2. īrātus 7. rēx
3. pulcher 8. Iūno
4. fīlia 9. saevus
5. deus 10. māter
Verbs
Verbs usually refer to actions: for example, he wept, she ruled.
EXERCISE 1.6
Translate the following sentences and underline the verb in each one.
1. pater lacrimāvit.
2. Iuppiter rēxit
3. māter lacrimāvit.
4. rēx rēxit.
5. rēgīna rēxit.
lacrimāvit he / she wept
rēxit he / she ruled
21

Case endings
Nouns in Latin change their endings depending upon the role they play in the
sentence. We refer to these endings as case endings.
The two most important roles in the sentence are subject and object.
● the subject does an action

● the object has an action done to it
In the sentences which follow you will see that some of the nouns have changed
Watch out! their endings. This is because some of the nouns are the subjects of their verbs,
Sometimes the but the other nouns are the objects.
spelling of the rest of
the noun has to If a noun is the subject of the verb, it will have the form you have met in the
change too: for vocabulary lists.
example, Iūnō will If a noun is the object of the verb it will have one of the following three endings.
become Iūnōnem
and Mars will become
-am -um -em
Martem.
EXERCISE 1.7
In each of the following sentences, write out the Latin, underline the subject, circle
the object and translate the whole sentence.
1. Iuppiter Iūnōnem amāvit.
2. Mars Minervam laudāvit.
3. Iuppiter Minervam terruit.
4. pater Martem pūnīvit.
5. māter fīlium amāvit.
6. deus fīliam terruit.
7. rēx rēgīnam amāvit.
8. Iuppiter uxōrem rēxit.
9. māter fīlium laudāvit.
10. Iūnō lacrimāvit.
amāvit he / she loved
laudāvit he / she praised
terruit he / she terrified
pūnīvit he / she punished
22

EXERCISE 1.8: VULCAN PUNISHES VENUS
Venus, the beautiful goddess of love, was often unfaithful to her husband Vulcan.
Her most notorious affair was with Mars, the handsome god of war. Vulcan devised
a way to punish his unfaithful wife: he made a clever net which trapped and
embarrassed Venus and Mars.
In Source 1.3 you can read a translation of Ovid’s version of this story.
Vulcānus erat deus: uxor erat Venus. Venus erat dea pulchra. Vulcānus nōn
erat pulcher. Vulcānus Venerem amāvit; Venus Vulcānum nōn amavit. Mars
erat deus pulcher. Mars Venerem amāvit et Venus Martem amāvit.
clam Mars et Venus in cubiculō erant. Mars erat laetus; Venus erat laeta. Vulcānus
5 Martem et Venerem cōnspexit. Vulcānus īrātus erat. Vulcānus Martem et Venerem
pūnīvit. Vulcānus māchinam ingeniōsam fēcit. māchina ingeniōsa Martem et
Venerem cēpit. Mars īrātus erat; Venus īrāta erat, sed Vulcānus erat laetus.
nōn not
clam in secret
in cubiculō ‘in the bedroom’
cōnspexit he / she caught sight of
māchina machine
ingeniōsus clever
fēcit he / she made
cēpit he / she captured
23

Chapter 1: Core Language Part B

Noun cases: nominative and accusative
You have learned so far that the two most important roles in a sentence are
subject and object, and that Latin nouns have different cases to show which role
they have.
● The subject does the action of the verb. In Latin, if a noun is the subject of a
verb, it will be in the nominative case.
The king wept.

subject
nominative
● Some verbs also have an object; this is the noun which has the action done to
it. In Latin, if a noun is the object of a verb, it will be in the accusative case.
The king terrified the queen.

object
accusative
● Notice, however, that there is no object after erat (he / she was).
Jupiter was the king.

nominative nominative
EXERCISE 1.9
For each of the following English sentences, identify which nouns would be in the
nominative case in Latin and which nouns would be in the accusative case.
1. The queen terrified her son.
2. The king praised the queen.
3. Vulcan loved Venus.
4. Venus was a goddess.
5. The son loved his mother.
6. The father punished his daughter.
7. The queen wept.
8. Jupiter was the king.
9. Mars terrified the king.
10. The woman praised her daughter.
24

Chapter 1 Core Language Part B
Noun endings: declensions, stems and gender

There are different sets of endings for each case because nouns in Latin belong to
different groups. We call these groups declensions: nouns in the same declension
share the same endings.
The part of the noun that does not change is called the stem. For some nouns the
stem used for other cases is different from the form the noun has in the nominative
case.
Like many modern languages, in Latin each noun has a gender; for some nouns
(e.g. pater – father) this is obvious, but for others it is not. Vocabulary lists,
therefore, will tell you which gender a noun is.
The table below has all the nouns you will meet in the rest of Chapter 1. The
second column tells you the stem for each noun, whether it is in the 1st, the 2nd,
or the 3rd declension and whether it is a masculine or a feminine noun.
dea de- 1f goddess
fīlia fīli- 1f daughter
rēgīna rēgīn- 1f queen
fēmina fēmin- 1f woman
deus de- 2m god
līberī līber- 2m children
fīlius fīli- 2m son
māter mātr- 3f mother
pater patr- 3m father
rēx rēg- 3m king
uxor uxōr- 3f wife
homō homin- 3m man; human being
Iuppiter Iov- 3m Jupiter
Mars Mart- 3m Mars
Iūnō Iūnōn- 3f Juno
Minerva Minerv- 1f Minerva
Venus Vener- 3f Venus
Vulcānus Vulcān- 2m Vulcan
25

Case endings and declensions

You have learned that nouns belong to different groups, called declensions and
that nouns within the same declension share the same endings.
Here are the endings for the nominative and accusative cases for each declension.
1st declension 2nd declension 3rd declension
nominative fēmin-a de-us (rēx)
accusative fēmin-am de-um rēg-em
rēx is in brackets because each 3rd declension noun has its own form for the
nominative case: pater, māter, homō, rēx, uxor are all examples of 3rd
declension nominatives. This means that rēx cannot act as a template for other
nominative 3rd declension nouns; each 3rd declension noun’s nominative will be
whatever it is for that word.
This also means that for the 3rd declension it is necessary to learn the stem
separately; sometimes the stem is quite different from the nominative (e.g.
Iuppiter has the stem Iov-).
EXERCISE 1.10
Give the meaning and the accusative form for each of these nouns.
1. dea, de- 1f
2. Vulcānus, Vulcān- 2m
3. rēgīna, rēgīn- 1f
4. pater, patr- 3m
5. Iūnō, Iūnōn- 3f
6. fīlius, fīli- 2m
7. fīlia, fīli- 1f
8. māter, mātr- 3f
9. Mars, Mart- 3m
10. Minerva, Minerv- 1f
11. uxor, uxōr- 3f
12. homō, homin- 3m
26

Translating nouns in the accusative case

In English we usually write the verb before its object, but in Latin these are often
written the other way round.
pater fīlium pūnīvit. The father punished the son.
This means that when you meet an accusative noun in Latin you may need to
read on and translate the verb first.
EXERCISE 1.11
1. pater fīliam laudāvit. 6. uxor lacrimāvit.
2. māter fīlium pūnīvit. 7. Vulcānus uxōrem pūnīvit.
3. Iuppiter uxōrem terruit. 8. rēx rēgīnam laudāvit.
4. Iūnō fīlium amāvit. 9. fīlia patrem amāvit.
5. Minerva patrem laudāvit. 10. māter fīlium terruit.
EXERCISE 1.12
1. tum Iuppiter fīliam pūnīvit.
2. saepe Mars Minervam terruit.
3. Iuppiter Iūnōnem amāvit et Iūnō Iovem amāvit.
4. pater fīlium amāvit.
5. saepe fīlius lacrimāvit.
6. Mars etiam Iūnōnem terruit.
7. māter fīlium pūnīvit sed etiam tum fīlius mātrem amāvit.
8. saepe rēx fīlium pūnīvit sed uxōrem laudāvit.
27

Adjectives: nominative and accusative

Adjectives also change their endings. Here are all the adjectives for Chapter 1: the
stem for each adjective is listed in the second column.
īrātus īrāt- angry

laetus laet- happy
pulcher pulchr- beautiful; handsome
Rōmānus Rōmān- Roman
saevus saev- savage; cruel
multus mult- much; many
We say that adjectives have to agree with their nouns.
● If the noun which the adjective describes is nominative masculine, then we

need the nominative masculine form of the adjective.
● If the noun which the adjective describes is accusative feminine, then we
need the accusative feminine form of the adjective.
This means that it is important to know the case and gender of each noun,
because the ending for the adjective will depend upon this. The table below shows
the endings used by the adjectives you will meet in Chapter 1.
Watch out! For masculine feminine

some adjectives,
nominative īrāt-us īrāt-a
the nominative
masculine ending is accusative īrāt-um īrāt-am
-er (e.g. pulcher).
In Latin, adjectives are usually written after the nouns they agree with; in English
they are usually before the noun they describe.
pater laetus fīlium laudāvit. The happy father praised his son.
EXERCISE 1.13
1. rēx uxōrem pulchram amāvit. 6. uxor saeva fīliam pūnīvit.
2. Iuppiter fīlium saevum 7. rēx laetus rēgīnam laudāvit.

pūnīvit.
8. Iuppiter fīlium īrātum pūnīvit.
3. dea laeta Martem laudāvit.
9. māter rēgem pulchrum
4. pater īrātus fīliam terruit. amāvit.
5. homō uxōrem laetam 10. rēx Rōmānus Iovem laudāvit.

laudāvit.
28

Singular and plural endings

All the case endings you have met so far have been singular. If the nouns are
plural then different endings are used.
nominative plural fēmin-ae de-ī rēg-ēs
accusative plural fēmin-ās de-ōs rēg-ēs
Verb endings change too if the subject is plural.
amāv-it he / she loved

amāv-ērunt they loved
EXERCISE 1.14
1. rēgīna līberōs terruit.
2. pater fīliōs amāvit.
3. fīliī patrem amāvērunt.
4. rēx hominēs terruit.
5. līberī rēgīnam nōn amāvērunt.
6. pater et māter fīliās pūnīvērunt.
7. deī et deae hominēs terruērunt.
8. māter fīliōs et fīliās laudāvit.
9. hominēs rēgem laudāvērunt.
10. līberī lacrimāvērunt.
GRAMMAR HUNT
From Exercise 1.14, can you find examples of the following?
1. a 2nd declension nominative pl noun
2. a 3rd declension accusative pl noun
3. a 1st declension accusative pl noun
4. a 3rd declension nominative pl noun
5. a plural verb
29

CW EXERCISE 1.15: MINERVA’S BIRTH
According to myth, Jupiter feared that one day one of his children would overthrow
him, just as he had overthrown his own father, Saturn. In an attempt to prevent this,
he ate Minerva’s mother, the Titan goddess Metis, when she was pregnant with
their daughter Minerva. Even so, Metis gave birth to Minerva inside Jupiter. Together
she and Minerva were so troublesome that they caused Jupiter constant headaches.
Vulcan came to the rescue: he struck Jupiter’s head open with his axe, and Minerva
– fully grown and fully armed – emerged. Many have seen this birth story as a
symbol of Minerva’s intelligence and her role as the goddess of wisdom as well as
the goddess of war.
Iuppiter uxōrem pulchram amāvit sed saepe fēminās aliās et deās amāvit.
Iuppiter deam, Mētem nōmine, amāvit. tum Mētis praegnāns erat. Iuppiter
īrātus erat. Iuppiter Mētem pūnīvit. Iuppiter Mētem cōnsumpsit.
tum Mētis intrā Iovem erat. Mētis īrāta erat. Mētis Iovem pūnīvit. intrā Iovem
Mētis fīliam peperit. Mētis intrā Iovem erat et etiam fīlia intrā Iovem erat. 5
saepe Mētis et fīlia intrā Iovem indomitae erant. Mētis et fīlia Iovem saepe
vexāvērunt. Iuppiter lacrimāvit.
tum Vulcānus Iovem percussit. ex capite fīlia appāruit. fīlia erat

Minerva. Minerva erat dea pulchra et sapiēns. Iuppiter Vulcānum
laudāvit. Iuppiter Minervam laudāvit. Minerva laeta erat et Iuppiter 10
laetus erat.
aliās (accusative pl) ‘other’

Mētis, Mēt- 3f Metis, a Titan goddess
nōmine ‘by name’
praegnāns (nominative sg) ‘pregnant’
cōnsūmpsit he / she ate
intrā (+ accusative noun) ‘inside’
peperit she gave birth to
indomitae (nominative pl) ‘wild; unrestrained’
vexāvērunt they annoyed
percussit he / she struck
ex capite ‘from his head’
appāruit he / she appeared
sapiēns (nominative sg) ‘wise’
30

Adjectives describing plural nouns

Adjectives also have different endings when they describe plural nouns.
masculine feminine
nominative plural īrāt-ī īrāt-ae
accusative plural īrāt-ōs īrāt-ās
We use the word number to refer to whether or not a word is singular or plural.
This means that we say that adjectives have to agree with their nouns in case,
gender and number.
EXERCISE 1.16
Translation tip:
most adjectives are
1. rēx multōs fīliōs et multās fīliās amāvit. written after their
2. Iūnō saeva hominēs terruit. nouns, but
adjectives like
3. Venus laeta multōs hominēs amāvit. multus, which
4. Iuppiter deōs īrātōs pūnīvit. describe quantity,
are often written
5. pater et māter fīliās laetās amāvērunt. before their noun
6. hominēs deōs saevōs laudāvērunt. rather than after it.
7. rēx īrātus hominēs pūnīvit.
8. Iuppiter et Iūnō multōs hominēs terruērunt.
9. līberī īrātī mātrem et patrem non amāvērunt.
10. rēx hominēs saevōs rēxit.
DERIVATION HUNT
Can you find in Exercise 1.15 the Latin words from which the following English words
derive? If you do not know the meaning of the English word, try and use the Latin
word to help you work it out.
1. consume 6. punishment
2. nominate 7. intravenous
3. indomitable 8. percussion
4. apparition 9. capital
5. filial 10. laudatory
31

CW EXERCISE 1.17: MARS TERRIFIES THE HUMANS
Many humans were frightened of the gods’ power. Mars, the god of war, was
especially terrifying because of the widespread devastation which war often caused.
Iuppiter erat deus saevus. Iuppiter deōs et hominēs rēxit. Iuppiter uxōrem
pulchram habēbat. uxor erat Iūnō. Iūnō fīlium habēbat. fīlius erat Mars.
Mars saevus et saepe īrātus erat. Mars multōs hominēs terruit: etiam multās
fēminās et multōs līberōs terruit. deī et deae Martem nōn amāvērunt. hominēs
Martem nōn amāvērunt. saepe Mars saevissimus erat. Mars multōs hominēs 5
dēlēvit. tum fēminae et līberī lacrimāvērunt sed Mars erat laetus.
habēbat ‘he had’

nōn not
saevissimus, saevissim- really savage
dēlēvit he / she destroyed
32

Chapter 1 Core Language Vocabulary List
Chapter 1: Core Language CW
Vocabulary List
amāvit, amāvērunt he / she loved, they loved
lacrimāvit, lacrimāvērunt he / she wept, they wept
laudāvit, laudāvērunt he / she praised, they praised
terruit, terruērunt he / she terrified, they terrified
rēxit, rēxērunt he / she ruled, they ruled
pūnīvit, pūnīvērunt he / she punished, they punished
erat, erant he / she was, they were
dea de- 1f goddess
fīlia fīli- 1f daughter
rēgīna rēgīn- 1f queen
fēmina fēmin- 1f woman
deus de- 2m god
līberī līber- 2m children
fīlius fīli- 2m son
māter mātr- 3f mother
pater patr- 3m father
rēx rēg- 3m king
uxor uxōr- 3f wife
homō homin- 3m man; human being
īrātus īrāt- angry
laetus laet- happy
pulcher pulchr- beautiful; handsome
Rōmānus Rōmān- Roman
saevus saev- savage; cruel
multus mult- much; many
tum then
et and; even
saepe often
sed but
etiam also; even
33

Chapter 1: Additional Language

SECTION A1: CHAPTER 1 VOCABULARY
Exercise A1.1: Derivations

Many English words have Latin origins. We say that these words derive from Latin.
Therefore, they are called ‘derivations’.
See if you can find English words which derive from these Latin words, and explain what
they mean.
Latin word meaning derivation explanation

e.g. īrātus angry irate very angry
1 pater
2 deus
3 multus
4 rēx
5 fēmina
Exercise A1.2: Parts of speech

Write out the meaning of each of the following Latin words and label it as either a noun,
verb or adjective.
Latin meaning part of speech

e.g. homō man noun
1 lacrimāvērunt
2 laetus
3 uxor
4 pater
5 īrātus
6 laudāvit
7 saevus
8 fēmina
9 terruit
10 rēx
34

Chapter 1 Additional Language
Exercise A1.3: Vocabulary crossword

The clues to this crossword are given in English. For each clue, the answer is its Latin 1
translation. Complete the crossword with the correct Latin words. 2
3 4 5
Across Down
4. mother 1. wife 6
9. happy 2. then 7 8
10. queen 3. children 9 10

12. he wept 5. even 11
13. and 6. they praised
12
14. often 7. angry
16. beautiful 8. son
13 14 15
17. goddess 11. savage
19. much 15. they were 16
20. he ruled 18. but 17
18
19 20
SECTION B1: WORD ENDINGS
Exercise B1.1: Nominative and accusative (sg) nouns

The nominative and accusative singular noun endings are as follows:
nominative fēmin-a de-us (rēx)
accusative fēmin-am de-um rēg-em
rēx is in brackets because each 3rd declension noun has its own nominative singular form
and so rēx cannot serve as a template for any other nominative.
Circle the ending in each of the following nouns and say whether it is nominative or
accusative. Remember that 3rd declension nominatives have no fixed ending: for these,
circle the whole word.
e.g. patrem accusative

1. homō 6. hominem
2. māter 7. fīliam
3. fīlius 8. uxor
4. deam 9. fīlia
5. rēgīnam 10. deum
35

Exercise B1.2: Nominative and accusative (sg) adjectives

Choose the right form of the adjective to agree with each noun and translate each phrase.
noun adjective meaning
e.g. rēx īrātus / īrātum/ īrāta / īrātum the angry king

1 rēgīnam saevus / saevum / saeva / saevam
2 patrem laetus / laetum / laeta / laetam
3 māter pulcher / pulchrum / pulchra / pulchram
4 dea īrātus / īrātum / īrāta / īrātam
5 rēgem Rōmānus / Rōmānum / Rōmāna / Rōmānam
Exercise B1.3: Nominative and accusative (pl) nouns

The nominative and accusative plural noun endings are as follows:
nominative pl fēmin-ae de-ī reg-ēs
accusative pl fēmin-ās de-ōs reg-ēs
Each of the following nouns is nominative plural. Write out the meaning for each noun and
state its accusative plural.
e.g. līberī children → l¬-bero-s

1. rēgīnae 6. patrēs
2. rēgēs 7. fīliī
3. fīliae 8. mātrēs
4. deī 9. hominēs
5. deae 10. uxōrēs
36

Exercise B1.4: Nominative and accusative (pl) adjectives

The plural nominative and accusative endings for īrātus are as follows:
masculine feminine
nominative pl īrāt-ī īrāt-ae
accusative pl īrāt-ōs īrāt-ās
Make the adjective īrātus agree in case, gender and number with each of the following
plural nouns, and then translate each phrase.
e.g. f īliae f -¬ liae -¬ ra-tae → angry daughters

1. līberī 6. patrēs (accusative pl)
2. rēgēs (nominative pl) 7. fīliōs
3. rēgīnae 8. uxōrēs (accusative pl)
4. deās 9. mātrēs (nominative pl)
5. hominēs (nominative pl) 10. deī
Exercise B1.5: Verbs

Translate each of these verbs. Use the ending to help you work out whether the subject
is he / she or they.
e.g. pūnīvit he / she punished

1. lacrimāvit 6. rēxērunt
2. amāvērunt 7. laudāvērunt
3. laudāvit 8. amāvit
4. pūnīvērunt 9. rēxit
5. terruit 10. terruērunt
SECTION C1: ENGLISH TO LATIN SENTENCES
Exercise C1.1: Nominative and accusative nouns

Label each of the nouns in purple as subject or object, and then translate the noun into Latin.
Remember, the subject will be in the nominative case and the object will be in the
accusative case.
e.g. The father praised his son.

subject object
pater f -¬ liu m
1. The mother loved her daughter. 6. The god punished the humans.
2. The kings terrified the men. 7. The daughter praised the son.
3. The women punished the children. 8. The father praised his children.
4. The children loved their mother. 9. The gods punished the kings.
5. His wife praised the king. 10. The queen loved the king.
37

Exercise C1.2: Nouns and adjectives

Translate each of the adjective and noun pairs in purple into Latin; remember you will
need to work out the case, gender and number of the noun first so that you can make sure
that the adjective agrees with its noun.
e.g. The queen loved the happy king.

accusative masculine sg → re-gem laetu m
1. The savage king terrified the queen.
2. The queen punished her angry sons.
3. The happy men praised the gods.
4. Many gods terrified many men.
5. The handsome father loved his wife.
6. The mother punished her angry daughters.
7. The king praised his handsome sons.
8. The king punished his savage wife.
9. The children loved their happy mother.
10. The Roman kings terrified the children.
Exercise C1.3: Sentences to translate into Latin

Translate each of the following sentences into Latin: remember, you will not need a Latin
word for a, the, his, her, their, they, he or she.
1. The angry king punished his son.

2. He punished his daughter.
3. The king and queen praised their daughters.
4. They praised their king.
5. The handsome god loved the beautiful goddess.
6. The savage wife punished her daughter.
7. The king often terrified many children.
8. Even then the angry king terrified his wife.
9. Often the children terrified their mother.
10. The king loved his wife but his wife terrified their children.
38

CHAPTER 2
ROMAN HEROES

CW
Heroes
In Greek myths, the gods often took a direct interest in the things that people did. People
who were special enough to capture the gods’ attention were thought of as heroes. You may
already know some of the stories told about Greek heroes who went on incredible quests and
faced strange monsters. We know that the Romans also enjoyed stories about the heroes
from Greek mythology. Many of these stories were re-told by Roman writers such as Ovid
and Livy, and archaeologists digging in Roman ruins have found statues and paintings
relating to Greek heroes like Perseus, who cut off the head of the snake-haired Medusa, and
Theseus, who killed the Minotaur in the labyrinth.
The Romans also had their own heroes. To the Romans, a hero was someone who did
something extraordinary, usually for the sake of Rome. While stories of Greek heroes tell of
fantastic journeys and fearsome creatures, stories of Roman heroes tend to focus on the
history of Rome. Greek heroes were often seen as semi-divine, but most of the heroes of
Rome were men and women who showed qualities that were particularly important to the
Romans, such as excellence in fighting, bravery, endurance and, most importantly, devotion
to Rome.
Hercules and Cacus

Hercules was a Greek hero who was famous for the twelve remarkable feats of strength and
FIGURE 2.1 The bravery which he had to complete as a punishment for killing his own wife and children. He
Farnese Hercules
played an important part too, however, in stories of Rome’s history. In Rome’s most famous
This statue is a 3rd
epic poem, the Aeneid, the 1st century BC Roman poet Virgil includes a section of the
century AD Roman copy
of a 4th century BC Hercules story which highlights the connection between Hercules and Rome.
Greek bronze original For the tenth of Hercules’ labours, he had to travel to the ends of the earth to capture cattle
and is yet another that belonged to a three-headed giant, Geryon. When Hercules was on his way back through
example of the Greek Italy with the cattle, he stopped to let them graze and, while they were grazing, he fell asleep.
influence on Roman
Although the place he chose was at that time a field of fresh grass, it would one day be part
religion and culture.
Sculptors of the 4th of the city of Rome.
century BC liked to Hercules did not know that a fire-breathing giant named Cacus lived in a cave nearby.
humanise gods and Cacus lived on human flesh and nailed the heads of his victims to the door of his cave. While
heroes: notice how Hercules was asleep, Cacus stole some of the cattle. When Hercules woke up, the remaining
tired Hercules looks
cows were mooing and lowing, calling to those who had been stolen. Hercules heard an
after his labours.
answering ‘moo’ coming from the stolen cattle in Cacus’ cave.
40

Hercules charged towards the cave: he found that Cacus had blocked the entrance with a
boulder. Enraged, Hercules began to tear away at the top of the mountain to reach Cacus.
Cacus responded by breathing fire and smoke. Eventually, Hercules strangled Cacus with so
much strength that Cacus’ eyes popped right out of his head.
The local people were so grateful that they set up an altar to Hercules as if he were a god.
The area where Hercules had grazed his cattle became the Forum Boarium, the large open
public space which included, among other things, the cattle market of Rome. In the 2nd
century BC a round temple dedicated to Hercules was built there.
Hercules was a hero because of his incredible strength. He used that strength to perform
tasks no one else could do.
Aeneas
Though his name may be less familiar to us than heroes like Hercules, one
of the greatest Roman heroes was Aeneas. The Romans believed that
Aeneas was the founding father of the Roman race; his story is told by the
poet Virgil and the historian Livy.
Aeneas was the son of a mortal man and the goddess Venus. He was
brought up in the city of Troy and fought in the Trojan War. Aeneas fought
valiantly as Troy was falling around him, but the gods commanded him to
flee the city. The gods told Aeneas of a prophecy that one day his
descendants would become the citizens of new and powerful city. The
name of this city would be Rome.
As we shall see in Exercise 2.5, Aeneas endured a long and difficult
journey from Troy to Italy. The goddess Juno made things very difficult for
him. Juno was angry with Aeneas because she had heard another prophecy
that the future Romans would one day destroy her favourite city of Carthage
in north Africa. The story of his travels, as told by Virgil, describes how
terribly Aeneas suffered. Aeneas lost his homeland, his wife and his father
and he had to make many personal sacrifices. When he fell in love with FIGURE 2.2 Wounded Aeneas
Dido, Queen of Carthage, Aeneas had to leave her and continue his journey This Roman fresco from the town of
because it was his destiny to settle in Italy. Pompeii dates from the 1st century AD . It
is probably based on Virgil’s account of
When Aeneas finally arrived in Italy, he was at first welcomed by the
the battles Aeneas had to fight in Italy.
local king, Latinus. There had been a prophecy that Latinus’ only child, his Here Aeneas stands with his wounded
daughter Lavinia, would marry someone from another land. Latinus leg slightly bent, leaning against a spear.
decided that Aeneas must be the one destined to marry his daughter. He gazes towards his mother Venus, who
Unfortunately, Turnus, son of a neighbouring king, was also determined to brings him medicinal plants. At the right
hand side of the fresco, Aeneas’ son
marry Lavinia. This meant war. Aeneas, who had already suffered so much
Ascanius is crying. On the left hand side
and escaped from war in Troy, had to lead his men into battle again. After a doctor, with a long beard and a tunic,
much blood had been spilled, Aeneas and Turnus fought against each other tries to remove an arrow from Aeneas’
in single combat. Aeneas killed Turnus and married Lavinia. Many years leg. The soldiers behind them indicate
later, his descendants went on to found the city of Rome and to build a that the battle is not yet over and Aeneas
will be called on to fight again.
great empire.
41

Chapter 2 Roman Heroes
Aeneas was a hero to the Romans because he put duty to Rome and obedience to the gods
first, in spite of his personal feelings. He did his duty even when he lost things that were
important to him. The Romans thought this was so important a virtue that they had a special
label for it: pietas.
Romulus and Remus

Although Aeneas was considered to be the original father of the Roman people, the
foundation of the city of Rome itself was traced back to another hero, Romulus. Many
Roman authors, including Livy and Ovid, told the story of Romulus and Remus, who were
the twin sons of the princess Rhea Silvia and the god Mars. In one version of this story, an
Italian king feared that one day his great-nephews Romulus and Remus would take his
throne. He ordered the boys to be left in a basket by the river Tiber to die. Remarkably, a
she-wolf found the baby boys and saved them.
The she-wolf cared for Romulus and Remus until a shepherd found the twins and raised
them as his own. When they were grown up, the brothers wanted to create their own city.
The twins chose the place where Rome is located today, but each brother wanted to place the
city on a different hill. Remus thought the city should be on the Aventine Hill. Romulus
preferred the Palatine Hill and began building a wall around it. However, Remus made fun
of Romulus’ unfinished wall, jumping over it and laughing to show Romulus how easy it
was to cross. This made Romulus angry and he killed Remus. Romulus continued to build
his city and later Romans believed that he officially founded it in 753 BC . Romulus made
himself king and named the city Rome after himself.
FIGURE 2.3 Capitoline Wolf

This famous bronze statue shows
the she-wolf nursing Romulus and
Remus. It is often shown as a
symbol of Classical Rome, but it is
not the work of Roman artists.
Some experts believe that the wolf
was created in the 5th century BC
by the Etruscans, a neighbouring
Italian tribe who were conquered
by the Romans, and that the twins
were added in the 15th century.
Other experts suggest that the
wolf itself was created in the 13th
century.
42

Romulus was a hero because he was truly exceptional: he was the

son of a god and the founder of a remarkably successful city. He
killed his own brother, but this did not diminish his status as a hero.
Unlike today, a hero for the Romans did not need to be someone
morally good or without great flaws. A hero simply had to be an
extraordinary Roman.
Heroes of the early Roman Republic

Hercules, Aeneas and Romulus were all heroes to the Romans in a
way that the ancient Greeks would have understood. Hercules,
Aeneas and Romulus each had one parent who was a god. Each of
these heroes accomplished great deeds or conquered monsters.
However the Romans also told stories of uniquely Roman heroes
who demonstrated the characteristics that were particularly important
to the early history of Rome. Three of these heroes were Horatius
Cocles, Mucius Scaevola and Cloelia, all of whom did remarkable
things in the wars that took place against Rome’s Etruscan neighbours
in the early history of the Roman Republic.
As explained on p2, in 509 BC Rome went through a major political
revolution. The Romans expelled the last of their kings, Tarquinius
Superbus, in order to set up a new system of government in which
power was shared between two elected leaders who changed every
year. Tarquinius Superbus went to the nearby Etruscan city of
Clusium and asked their leader, Lars Porsena, to help him get his FIGURE 2.4 Mucius Scaevola
throne back. This statue of Mucius Scaevola placing his hand

in a fire looks like a piece of classical art, but it
Lars Porsena agreed. His Etruscan army attacked Rome by
was sculpted in Paris in 1791 by Louis-Pierre
surprise. The people who lived near Rome ran to find safety in the Deseine. Notice how the artist has positioned
city across a wooden bridge over the river Tiber. Lars Porsena and his Mucius Scaevola: he plunges his hand in the
army were right behind them. The bridge had to be destroyed because flames but stares straight ahead with a defiant
if the enemy crossed the bridge, they would attack the city itself. As expression. It is currently held in the Louvre.
you will read in Exercise 2.8, the Romans started to work on
destroying the bridge, but because the army of Lars Porsena was so close, most of the
soldiers of the Roman army ran off in fear. One soldier, Horatius Cocles, remained to face
the oncoming army. Two of his comrades, inspired by his courage, stayed by his side. The
three of them fought bravely and managed to hold off the entire Etruscan army until the
bridge fell. Horatius Cocles was left on the wrong side of the river, so he jumped into the
Tiber in full armour and swam back his men.
At this point, the Romans decided they needed to deal with Lars Porsena once and for
all. They agreed that a young Roman named Mucius Scaevola should sneak into Porsena’s
camp and try to murder him. Unfortunately, he did not recognise the king and killed
the wrong man by mistake. When Mucius Scaevola was captured, he told Porsena that
he was only one of many Roman youths willing to endure pain or death in order to kill
him. To prove how serious he was, Mucius Scaevola put his right hand into a fire.
43

He continued to hold his hand there without flinching. Porsena was so impressed with
Mucius Scaevola’s bravery that he sent him back to Rome. Porsena also sent ambassadors
to offer peace with Rome.
As part of the peace treaty which ended the war between the Romans and Etruscans in
508 BC , ten daughters and ten sons were sent by Rome’s noble families as hostages to Lars
Porsena. One was a young woman named Cloelia, whom you will read about in Exercise
2.9. Cloelia managed to escape to Rome by crossing the Tiber, persuading her female
companions to swim after her. In order to preserve the peace-treaty, the young women were
sent back by the Romans but Porsena, in admiration of Cloelia’s courage, restored her
freedom and offered to release any other hostages she chose. The Romans, like Porsena,
admired her courage and set up a statue of Cloelia on horseback. This was an honour no
other Roman woman had ever been awarded.
FIGURE 2.5 Cloelia

crossing the Tiber
This Renaissance
painting was created by
the 16th century Italian
painter Cristofano
Gherardi. Here we see
Cloelia escaping from
the Etruscan camp by
crossing the river Tiber
to Rome. It is currently
held in the Capitoline
Museum in Rome.
44

Source 2.1: Hercules and Cacus

This passage is taken from Virgil’s account of the fight between Hercules and the
fire-breathing monster Cacus which took place on the site of what would one day
be the city of Rome. As detailed earlier in this chapter, Hercules was enraged
because Cacus had stolen some of the cattle Hercules had captured as one of his
twelve labours. In terror at Hercules’ fury, Cacus had shut himself inside his cave
and blocked the entrance with a boulder. Undeterred, Hercules found an alternative
way in.
Above the ridge on top of the cave, there stood a sharp needle of flint with sheer FIGURE 2.6 Temple of Hercules
Victor
rocks falling away on either side. It rose to a dizzy height and was a favourite
nesting-place of carrion birds. Hercules put his weight on the right-hand side of it The location of this temple, the
Forum Boarium, is a large public
where it leaned over the ridge towards the river on its left. He rocked it, loosened it,
space which was used for one of
wrenched it free from its deep base and then gave a sudden heave, a heave at which Rome’s oldest markets. Tradition
the great heavens thundered, the banks of the river leapt apart and the river flowed holds that this was the area in
backwards in alarm. The cave and whole huge palace of Cacus were unroofed and which Hercules killed Cacus. This
exposed to view and his shadowy caverns were opened to all their depths. temple is one of the oldest
So Cacus was caught in the sudden rush of light and trapped in his cavern in the surviving marble buildings in Rome,
dating from about the 2nd century
rock, howling as never before, while Hercules bombarded him from above with
BC . While most Greek and Roman
any missile that came to hand, aiming at him with branches of trees and rocks the temples are rectangular in shape,
size of millstones. There was no escape for Cacus now, but he vomited thick smoke the Temple of Hercules Victor is one
from his monstrous throat and rolled clouds of it all round his den to blot it from of the few round temples in Rome.
sight. Deep in his cave he churned out fumes as black as night and the darkness
was shot through with fire.
Hercules was past all patience. He threw himself straight down, leaping through the
flames where the smoke spouted thickest and the black cloud boiled in the vast cavern.
There, as Cacus vainly belched his fire in the darkness, Hercules caught him in a grip and
held him, forcing his eyes out of their sockets and squeezing his throat till the blood was
dry in it. Then, tearing out the doors and opening up the dark house of Cacus, he brought
out into the light of heaven the stolen cattle whose theft Cacus had denied, and dragged the
foul corpse out by the feet. No one could have enough of gazing at his terrible eyes and
face, at the coarse bristles on his beastly chest and the throat charred by fires now dead.
Virgil, Aeneid Book 8, 233–267 (with omissions)

1 From the description in the first paragraph, draw a sketch to show Cacus’
cave, Hercules’ position, the river nearby and the sharp needle of flint.
2 How did Hercules break into Cacus’ cave and how did he attack him?
3 How did Cacus try to defend himself against Hercules?
4 What did Hercules do next and how did he kill Cacus?
5 Why do you think the local people were so keen to stare at Cacus’ corpse?
6 Which do you think is the most dramatic moment in this story and why?
45

Source 2.2: Romulus and Remus

This scene was carved upon a marble altar which was made in the 1st century AD and used
at Ostia, Rome’s coastal harbour. The altar was dedicated to Mars and Venus. On this
section, the carvings tell of the founding of the city of Rome. Romulus and Remus, and the
she-wolf who saved them, are clearly shown. We can also see the shepherd who later found
the twins and brought them up. The male figure lying in the lower right corner is a
representation of the spirit of the river Tiber, which flows through Rome.
FIGURE 2.7 Altar depicting origins of Rome

1 Draw a sketch of this carving and label the different characters.
2 How many different animals can you see on this carving? Why do you think
the sculptor has included them?
3 Based on your reading earlier in this chapter, why do you think this sculptor
chose to include Romulus and Remus on an altar dedicated to Mars?
4 Consider the details included in this scene: what message do you think the
sculptor was trying to give about the Romans?
46

Source 2.3: Horatius Cocles

Livy was a Roman historian who wrote at the very end of the 1st century BC. In this passage,
Livy tells the story of Horatius Cocles’ daring attempt to save Rome from the Etruscan attack
led by Porsena. In terror, the Roman troops had fled back to their city in confusion, followed by
the Etruscans. When the Etruscan army reached the bridge over the river Tiber, Horatius Cocles
made a stand, urging his comrades to demolish the bridge while he held back the Etruscans.
For his bravery Horatius received a statue in his honour, a large portion of land, and gifts from
many individual Romans. A version of this story is re-told in Latin in Exercise 2.8.
Horatius advised and urged them to break down the bridge using weapons, fire, and
whatever force they could. He said that he himself would take the brunt of the enemy’s
attack, insofar as it could be withstood by a single body.
Then he strode to the head of the bridge. Conspicuous amid those who were clearly
fleeing and running from the fight, he brandished his weapons, ready to fight hand to hand,
thereby stunning the enemy with amazement at his audacity. A sense of shame kept two
men by his side, Spurius Larcius and Titus Herminius, both distinguished for their high birth
and their achievements. With them, for a while, he withstood the dangerous first onset and
the stormiest part of the battle. Then he forced them also to make for safety, since very little
of the bridge remained and those who were cutting it down were calling them to come back.
Darting savage and threatening glances at the Etruscan leaders, Horatius now
challenged them individually, now taunted them collectively, calling them the slaves of
arrogant kings who had come to attack the freedom of others, unmindful of their own.
They hesitated for a moment, each looking for another to begin the fight. Then a sense of
shame moved the battle line. Raising the battle cry, from all directions they hurled weapons
at their solitary opponent. All the spears stuck fast in the shield Horatius held up against
them, but, no less resolute, he held the bridge with a mighty stance. Now they were trying
to dislodge the hero by a charge, but their assault was checked by the sudden panic caused
by the crash of the broken bridge and the simultaneous cry that arose from the Romans at
the rapid completion of their task. Then Horatius cried, ‘Father Tiber, I solemnly pray that
you might receive these arms and this soldier favourably in your stream.’ With this prayer,
he leaped fully armed into the Tiber and, with many missiles falling upon him, swam
across to his own men unharmed, a deed of daring that was destined to make him famous
amongst future generations, even if they did not quite believe it to be true.
Livy, The History of Rome, Book 2.10 (trans. slightly adapted)

1 At the start of this passage how does Horatius show his qualities as a leader?
2 Why did Spurius Larcius and Titus Herminius stay with Horatius?
3 When and why did Horatius tell Spurius Larcius and Titus Herminius to go?
4 What did Horatius do when he was left to face the Etruscan army on his own?
5 The Etruscans decided to charge at Horatius: what saved him?
6 How did Horatius manage to get back across the Tiber to safety?
7 Do you think it matters if the Romans did not believe this story to be true?
47

Source 2.4: Cloelia

Like Source 2.3, this passage was written by the historian Livy. In it, Livy tells the story of
Cloelia, the young woman who was one of the hostages given to the Etruscan king Lars
Porsena as part of the peace treaty between the Etruscans and the Romans.
Cloelia decided to escape and she led a group of the other hostages in a daring swim
across the river Tiber. For her courage, Cloelia was given an honour no other woman had
ever received: a statue of herself on a horse at the top of the Sacred Way, the main road in
ancient Rome which led past some of the city’s most important religious sites and temples. A
version of this story is re-told in Latin in Exercise 2.9.
Cloelia, an unmarried girl, was one of the hostages held, as it happened, in the Etruscan
camp not far from the Tiber; she slipped past the guards and, acting as the leader of a unit of
girls, she swam across the river under a hail of enemy missiles and brought her company
safe to Rome, where they were all restored to their families. Porsena was furious, and sent
to Rome to demand Cloelia’s return, adding that the loss of the other girls did not trouble
him. Soon, however, his anger gave way to admiration: he said that her deed was better than
those of any old Horatius or Mucius Scaevola, and he made it clear that though he would
regard the treaty as broken if she were not returned, he would nevertheless, if the Romans
surrendered her, himself restore her safe and sound to her family.
Both sides acted honourably: the Romans, as the terms of the treaty required, sent the
hostage back, and Porsena not only protected the brave girl but praised her publicly, and
said that in recognition of her courage he would grant her a certain number of the other
hostages, to be chosen by herself. Friendly relations were thus restored, and the Romans
paid tribute to Cloelia’s courage, unprecedented in a woman, by an equally unprecedented
honour: a statue representing her on horseback was set up at the top of the Sacred Way.
Livy, The History of Rome, Book 2.13.6–11 (with omissions, trans. adapted)

1 Where was the Etruscan camp?
2 How did Cloelia manage to escape back to Rome?
3 How did Porsena feel when he heard about Cloelia’s escape?
4 How and why did Porsena’s feelings change?
5 Who were Horatius and Mucius Scaevola and why did Porsena mention
them? You may need to refer back to the introduction to this chapter to
answer this question.
6 Why did the Romans send Cloelia back to Porsena?
7 Do you think a statue was a good reward for Cloelia? Explain your answer.
8 What do you think were Cloelia’s main characteristics?
9 Imagine you are Cloelia and writing your own version of your escape: what
might you write?
48

Chapter 2 Questions for Discussion
1 What characteristics did a Roman hero need to have?

● heroes from myth
● heroes of the early Roman Republic
● characteristics a hero did not need to have
2 From what you have read in this chapter, whom do you consider to be the
best hero?
● what they did
● what difficulties they overcame
● what characteristics they had
● what others thought about them
3 How much do you think has changed between the Roman idea of a hero and
our own?
● examples of actions which would be considered ‘heroic’ today
● your own heroes
● the role of the gods in some of the Roman stories
49

CW
Chapter 2: Core Language
Vocabulary List
You will see several things which are new in this vocabulary list:
● Verbs are now listed in a slightly different way; this will be explained on p58.
● Some nouns are listed as n: this means they are neuter in gender; this will be
explained on p51.
● There is a new type of adjective; this will be explained on p53.
mānsī I remained
īvī I went
timuī I feared; I was afraid
cucurrī I ran
vīcī I conquered; I was victorious; I defeated
iēcī I threw
interfēcī I killed
cēpī I captured; I took
inquit, inquiunt he / she said, they said
silva silv- 1f wood
hasta hast- 1f spear
sagitta sagitt- 1f arrow
gladius gladi- 2m sword
arma arm- 2n plural arms; weapons
bellum bell- 2n war
perīculum perīcul- 2n danger
corpus corpor- 3n body
flūmen flūmin- 3n river
Graecus Graeca, Graecum Greek
audāx audāc- bold; daring
fortis fort- brave; strong
ingēns ingent- huge
ad + accusative to; towards; at
contrā + accusative against
in + accusative into
per + accusative through; along
prope + accusative near
trāns + accusative across
fortiter bravely
nōn not
50

Heroes
The following feature in the sentences and stories in this chapter.
Aenēas, Aenē- 1m Aeneas was the mythical Trojan hero who travelled to
Italy and became the father of the Roman race.
Rōmulus, Rōmul- 2m Romulus was possibly the most famous of Rome’s
heroes: he was the son of Mars and the founder of
the city of Rome.
Remus, Rem- 2m Remus was Romulus’ twin brother. He was killed by
his own brother in the midst of a furious row.
Horātius, Horāti- 2m Horatius Cocles was a daring Roman military hero
from the early history of Rome.
Cloelia, Cloeli- 1f Cloelia was a fearless young noblewoman who led a
bold escape mission during the early history of Rome.
Nouns: three genders Note that for most

nouns, their gender
In Chapter 1 you met masculine and feminine nouns, but in Latin some nouns are
is not obvious: this
neuter.
is why the gender
Each declension contains masculine and feminine nouns and within a declension of each noun is
masculine and feminine nouns have the same endings. given in vocabulary
In the 2nd and 3rd declensions, some nouns are neuter. There are no neuter lists.
nouns in the 1st declension. Neuter nouns have slightly different endings from
the endings used for masculine and feminine nouns. Examples of these are given
in the table below.
It is helpful to remember the following principles.
● neuter accusatives are always the same as the nominative
● neuter nominative and accusative plurals always end in -a
2nd declension neuter 3rd declension neuter
nominative sg bell-um (flūmen)

Remember: there is
accusative sg bell-um (flūmen) no fixed ending for a
3rd declension
nominative pl bell-a flūmin-a nominative singular;
this applies to
accusative pl bell-a flūmin-a
neuter nouns too.
EXERCISE 2.1
1. Aenēas arma cēpit. 4. Rōmulus bellum nōn timuit.

2. Cloelia perīculum nōn timuit. 5. Aenēas arma amāvit.
3. bellum Horātium nōn terruit. 6. Horātius flūmen nōn timuit.
51

2-1-2 adjectives: masculine, feminine and neuter

Adjectives have to agree with their nouns in case, gender, and number. Like
nouns, adjectives also have slightly different neuter endings. Here are the
masculine, feminine and neuter endings for the adjective īrātus.
masculine feminine neuter
nominative sg īrāt-us īrāt-a īrāt-um
accusative sg īrāt-um īrāt-am īrāt-um
nominative pl īrāt-ī īrāt-ae īrāt-a
accusative pl īrāt-ōs īrāt-ās īrāt-a
Many adjectives use these endings and you may have noticed that they are the
same as the case endings for nouns in the 1st and 2nd declensions. We refer to
these adjectives as 2-1-2 adjectives, because when they describe masculine
nouns they use 2nd declension endings, when they describe feminine nouns they
use 1st declension endings, and when they describe neuter nouns they use 2nd
declension endings.
Note that adjectives From now on, 2-1-2 adjectives will be listed as below. We can work out their stem
like pulcher use -er as follows.
as their masculine
nominative sg ending, īrātus, īrāta, īrātum angry
but otherwise they pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum beautiful; handsome
are exactly the same
Here are all the 2-1-2 adjectives you have met so far.
as any other 2-1-2
adjective.
īrātus īrāta, īrātum angry
laetus laeta, laetum happy
pulcher pulchra, pulchrum beautiful; handsome
Rōmānus Rōmāna, Rōmānum Roman
saevus saeva, saevum savage; cruel
multus multa, multum much; many
Graecus Graeca, Graecum Greek
52

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Aenēas uxōrem pulchram amāvit.
2. perīculum nōn multōs Rōmānōs terruit.
3. Horātius laetus arma pulchra laudāvit.
4. Aenēas multās sagittās iēcit.
5. Rōmulus flūmen pulchrum laudāvit.
6. multae fēminae et multī līberī Cloeliam laudāvērunt.
7. Rōmulus hominēs saevōs rēxit.
8. Rōmulus Remum iratum interfēcit.
9. fīlius mātrem pulchram laudāvit.
10. multī deī Graecōs pūnīvērunt.
3rd declension adjectives

Latin has another type of adjective, known as a 3rd declension adjective. ingēns
(huge) or fortis (brave; strong) are 3rd declension adjectives. These adjectives are
called 3rd declension adjectives because their endings are very similar to 3rd
declension noun endings.
There are two main types of 3rd declension adjectives: adjectives such as fortis
which have separate endings for their neuter nominative sg, and adjectives such
as ingēns which do not.
In the table below are the nominative and accusative endings for fortis and ingens.
masculine / neuter masculine / neuter Note that as with

feminine feminine 3rd declension
nouns, there is no
nominative sg fort-is fort-e (ingēns) (ingēns) fixed nominative sg
ending for adjectives
accusative sg fort-em fort-e ingent-em (ingēns)
like ingēns. This is
nominative pl fort-ēs fort-ia ingent-ēs ingent-ia why its nominative
sg form is listed as
accusative pl fort-ēs fort-ia ingent-ēs ingent-ia (ingēns).
As with 3rd declension nouns, the stem for a 3rd declension adjective is listed
separately in the vocabulary lists. Here are the 3rd declension adjectives you will
meet in this chapter.
fortis fort- brave; strong
ingēns ingent- huge
audāx audāc- bold; daring
53

Noun and adjective endings by case and declension

So far you have been introduced to the endings for nouns and adjectives separately,
but from now on it will be important to think about these endings as groups of
endings which are used by both adjectives and nouns. For each noun and adjective,
you will need to remember which declension’s endings to use, and that 2-1-2
adjectives such as īrātus will use endings from different declensions, depending
on the gender of the noun described.
The table below is a summary of all the nominative and accusative case endings.
1st 2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd

declension declension declension declension declension
neuter neuter
Note that the -is nominative sg -a -us / -er -um (—) / (-is) (—) / (-e)
and -e endings are
in brackets because accusative sg -am -um -um -em / -em (—) / (-e)
they are only used
nominative pl -ae -ī -a -ēs / -ēs -a / -ia
for adjectives like
fortis. accusative pl -ās -ōs -a -ēs / - ēs -a / -ia
N.B. For the 3rd declension, the endings in blue are used by nouns and the
endings in red are used by adjectives. There are one or two exceptions to this rule
and these are listed on p215.
EXERCISE 2.3
1. Horātius hominēs fortēs interfēcit.
2. Aenēas hastam ingentem iēcit.
3. Rōmānī Horātium audācem laudāvērunt.
4. deae hominēs fortēs nōn pūnīvērunt.
5. bellum ingēns līberōs terruit.
6. multī hominēs Graecōs audācēs interfēcērunt.
7. Rōmulus Remum īrātum nōn laudāvit.
8. Horātius hominēs multōs et audācēs terruit.
54

Prepositions
A preposition is a word such as through, towards, into, against. Prepositions are
positioned before a noun. Each preposition in Latin has to be followed by a noun
in a particular case. The prepositions in this chapter are all followed by nouns in the
accusative case.
EXERCISE 2.4
1. Cloelia in silvam cucurrit.
2. Horātius hastam trāns flūmen iēcit.
3. Aenēas ad Graecōs fortiter cucurrit.
4. Rōmulus et Remus prope silvam mānsērunt.
5. multī trāns flūmen ingēns nōn īvērunt.
6. Rōmānus audāx per sagittās hastam iēcit.
7. Aenēas per perīculum ingēns īvit.
8. perīculum erat prope flūmen.
VOCABULARY HUNT
From Exercise 2.4, can you find the Latin for the following and specify whether each
word is a noun, adjective, preposition or verb?
1. she ran 6. huge
2. he threw 7. near
3. bold 8. many
4. river 9. danger
5. spear 10. they remained
55

CW EXERCISE 2.5: AENEAS TRAVELS FROM TROY TO ITALY
According to Roman myth, Aeneas was a Trojan prince who fought in the Trojan War
against the Greeks. Troy was conquered by the Greeks, but Aeneas was ordered by
the gods to take a group of Trojan exiles and flee to Italy. Aeneas and his Trojans
joined with the Latin people to create a new race; this race was the beginning of the
people who later became known as the Romans.
Aenēas erat hērōs fortis. corpus pulchrum habēbat. multa arma et gladium
ingentem habēbat. contrā multōs Graecōs pugnāvit et multōs hominēs interfēcit.
sed Graecī audācēs erant. Graecī contrā Trōiānōs fortiter pugnāvērunt. Graecī
Trōiānōs vīcērunt. Aenēas lacrimāvit.
Iuppiter Trōiānōs nōn amāvit sed Aenēam audācem laudāvīt. ‘Aenēas fortiter 5
pugnāvit,’ inquit Iuppiter. ‘Aenēas fīet pater Rōmānōrum.’
Aenēas per multa perīcula et in Ītaliam īvit. Latīnī nōn laeti erant quod Aenēas
aliēnus erat. tum erat bellum ingēns. tandem Aenēas Latīnōs vīcit. Aenēas
Lāvīniam, fēminam Latīnam, amāvit. tum Aenēas rēx erat et Lāvīnia rēgīna erat.
hērōs, hērō- 3m hero

habēbat ‘he had’
pugnāvit he fought
Trōiānus, Trōiāna, Trōiānum Trojan
fīet ‘he will become’
Rōmānōrum ‘of the Romans’
Ītalia, Ītali- 1f Italy
Latīnus, Latīna, Latīnum Latin
quod because
aliēnus, aliēna, aliēnum foreign
tandem at last
Lāvīnia, Lāvīni- 1f Lavinia (daughter of King Latinus)
56

Adjectives used without nouns

It is possible in Latin to use adjectives on their own without a noun to refer to
men, women and things. The gender of the ending shows how to translate it.
rēx multōs rēxit. The king ruled many men.

multae rēgem amāvērunt. Many women loved the king.
rēx multa nōn timuit. The king did not fear many things.
EXERCISE 2.6
1. Rōmulus multās cēpit.
2. Iuppiter multōs pūnīvit.
3. patrēs laetī multa laudāvērunt.
4. Horātius multōs interfēcit.
5. Rōmānī fortēs saepe vīcērunt.
DERIVATION HUNT
1. pugnacious
2. audacious
3. alienate
4. multitude
5. fortitude
6. patronymic
7. bellicose
8. femininity
9. contradict
10. corpulent
57

The perfect tense

The perfect tense is Latin’s most common past tense. A perfect tense verb such
as rēxi can be translated as I ruled or I have ruled.
Latin verbs change their endings to show who their subject is. We often refer to
the different subjects as the different persons of the verb.
All Latin verbs in the perfect tense use the following endings. The part of the verb
which does not change is called the stem.
1st person (sg) I ruled rēx-ī
2nd person (sg) you ruled rēx-istī
3rd person (sg) he / she / it ruled rēx-it
1st person (pl) we ruled rēx-imus
2nd person (pl) you ruled rēx-istis
3rd person (pl) they ruled rēx-ērunt
Irregular verbs: inquit, inquiunt

In this chapter you have also met the verb inquit, inquiunt. This verb has
unusual endings: inquit and inquiunt (he / she / it said and they said) are the only
forms of this verb which you will meet in de Romanis. Because this verb does not
use the usual verb endings, it is called an irregular verb.
EXERCISE 2.7
1. multōs Graecōs interfēcimus.
2. ‘hastam ingentem,’ inquit Horātius ‘iēcī’.
3. fīliās pūnīvistī.
4. ad silvam cucurristis et prope flūmen mānsistis.
5. in Rōmānōs multās sagittās iēcit.
6. patrem et mātrem amāvimus.
7. Horātium audācem laudāvērunt.
8. etiam rēgem fortem terruistī.
58

EXERCISE 2.8: HORATIUS FIGHTS BRAVELY AT THE BRIDGE
In the very early history of Rome Horatius was one of Rome’s great heroes: in the
6th century BC he and two comrades bravely stood their ground and defended the
bridge over the river Tiber. On their own, these three men held off the enemy attack
and saved the city.
In Source 2.3 you can read a translation of Livy’s version of this story.
Horātius erat Rōmānus audāx et fortis. multī hostēs et rēx saevus contrā
Rōmānōs pugnāvērunt. hostēs Rōmānōs terruērunt; Horātium tamen hostēs
nōn terruērunt. Horātius et duo mīlitēs prope flūmen mānsērunt. hostēs ad
pōntem cucurrērunt. Horātius et duo mīlitēs fortiter prope pōntem mānsērunt.
5 fortiter contrā hostēs pugnāvērunt. hostēs sagittās ad Horātium iēcērunt sed
Horātius fortiter mānsit. hostēs hastās ad Horātium iēcērunt sed etiam tum
Horātius fortiter mānsit. Horātius et duo mīlitēs multōs hostēs gladiīs
interfēcērunt. Rōmānī pōntem frēgērunt. hostēs trāns flūmen nōn īvērunt.
‘hostēs Rōmānōs nōn vīcērunt!’ inquit Horātius. Rōmānī laetī erant. Rōmānī
10 Horātium laudāvērunt quod mīles erat fortis et audāx.
hostis, host- 3m enemy

pugnāvī I fought
tamen however
duo two
mīles, mīlit- 3m soldier
pōns, pōnt- 3m bridge
gladiīs ‘with their swords’
frēgi I broke
59

CW EXERCISE 2.9: CLOELIA SWIMS TO SAFETY
Cloelia was one of Rome’s most famous heroes. She was among the hostages
taken by the Etruscan king Porsena as part of the peace treaty he made with Rome
in the 6th century BC . Undaunted, she made the daring decision to escape and swim
back to safety across the river Tiber, taking many of the other young women with
her. Porsena was so impressed by her bravery that he granted freedom to her and
half the remaining hostages. To commemorate her courageous escape, the Romans
later built a statue of Cloelia on horseback.
In Source 2.4 you can read a translation of Livy’s version of this story.
Porsena contrā Rōmānōs pugnāvit. Porsena multōs Rōmānōs interfēcit. Porsena

multās puellās cēpit. Porsena laetus erat. ‘multōs Rōmānōs interfēcī,’ inquit, ‘et
multās puellās cēpī. Rōmānōs terruī. rēx fortis sum.’
Cloelia erat puella audāx. Porsena Cloeliam nōn terruit. ‘Porsena mē cēpit,’
inquit Cloelia, ‘et Porsena multōs interfēcit. sed fortis sum. effugiam!’ 5
Cloelia effūgit; multae puellae aliae effūgērunt. Cloelia et puellae per silvās ad
flūmen cucurrērunt. Cloelia in flūmen fortiter cucurrit; puellae aliae in flūmen
cucurrērunt. Cloelia et puellae trāns flūmen natāvērunt. Cloelia et puellae ad
urbem cucurrērunt. Cloelia ad patrem et mātrem cucurrit. ‘perīculum nōn
timuī,’ inquit, ‘Porsenam nōn timuī. Porsena mē cēpit sed effūgī!’ māter et pater 10
laetī erant. ‘fortiter effūgistī,’ inquiunt, ‘et trāns flūmen fortiter natāvistī.’
pater et māter Cloeliam laudāvērunt. Rōmānī Cloeliam laudāvērunt. etiam

Porsena Cloeliam laudāvit: ‘Cloelia,’ inquit, ‘mē nōn timuit. fortiter effūgit.
Cloelia fortis et audāx erat.’
Porsena, Porsen- 1m Porsena (an Etruscan king)

puella, puell- 1f girl; young woman
pugnāvī I fought
sum ‘I am’
me (accusative) ‘me’
effugiam ‘I shall escape’
effūgī I escaped
aliae (feminine nominative pl) other
natāvi I swam
urbs, urb- 3f city
iterum again
60



Find the Latin word from which the English words below derive, then explain the meaning
of the English word.
English word Latin word explanation
e.g. gladiator gladius a gladiator was a fighter who

carried a sword
1 armour
2 perilous
3 transfer
4 audacity
5 victory
Exercise A2.2: Prepositions

Unscramble the anagrams to find the Latin preposition and then translate each preposition
into English.
anagram preposition translation
e.g. actron contra- against

1 reppo
2 erp
3 ni
4 da
5 ranst
61


Sort these Latin words into groups of nouns, adjectives, prepositions and verbs, and then
write the meaning for each Latin word next to it.
ingēns audāx bellum contrā cucurrī
fortis corpus ad perīculum īvī interfēcī
noun adjective preposition verb
inge-ns - huge
Exercise B2.1: Nouns in different genders: masculine,

feminine and neuter
This exercise practises nouns from the vocabulary lists for Chapter 1 and Chapter 2.
Here are all the nominative and accusative singular and plural noun endings:
1st 2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd

declension declension declension declension declension
neuter neuter
nominative sg fēmin-a de-us bell-um (rēx) (flūmen)
accusative sg fēmin-am de-um bell-um rēg-em (flūmen)
nominative pl fēmin-ae de-ī bell-a rēg-ēs flūmin-a

accusative pl fēmin-ās de-ōs bell-a rēg-ēs flūmin-a
Put the following nouns into the nominative plural. Remember that within each declension,
the nominative plural endings are different for neuter nouns.
noun meaning nominative pl
e.g. bellum, bell- 2n war bella

1 homō, homin- 3m
2 perīculum, perīcul- 2n
3 flūmen, flūmin- 3n
4 sagitta, sagitt- 1f
5 corpus, corpor- 3n
6 uxor, uxōr- 3f
7 gladius, gladi- 2m
8 arma, arm- 2n pl
62

Exercise B2.2: 2-1-2 adjectives

The nouns and adjectives in this exercise are from the vocabulary lists for Chapter 1 and
Chapter 2.
Here are all the nominative and accusative endings used by nouns and adjectives.
1st 2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd Note that for the

declension declension declension declension declension 3rd declension, the
neuter neuter endings in blue are
used by nouns and
nominative sg -a -us / -er -um (—) / (-is) (—) / (-e)
the endings in red
accusative sg -am -um -um -em / -em (—) / (-e) are typically used by
adjectives. There
nominative pl -ae -ī -a -ēs / -ēs -a / -ia
are one or two
accusative pl -ās -ōs -a - ēs / -ēs -a / -ia exceptions to this
rule and these are
Identify the case, gender and number of each noun in the table below. The gender of the listed on p215.
noun may not be obvious; if this is the case, you will need to find it out from the
vocabulary lists for Chapter 1 and Chapter 2.
Next, complete the adjective so that it agrees with its noun. Remember that 2-1-2 adjectives
use endings from different declensions, depending on the gender of the noun described.
Then translate each noun and adjective phrase.
noun case gender number adjective translation
e.g. patrēs nominative masculine plural īrāt-- the angry fathers

1 gladium pulchr-
2 mātrem laet-
3 homō laet-
4 līberōs mult-
5 perīculum mult-
6 corpora Rōmān-
7 hastae mult-
8 uxor pulchr-
9 rēgem saev-
10 flūmen Graec-
63

Exercise B2.3: 3rd declension adjectives

Chapter 2.
Match the 3rd declension adjective to the noun it agrees with in case, gender and number,
and then translate the noun and adjective phrase. It might be helpful to refer to the case
endings table printed for Exercise B2.2.
noun adjective meaning

silva audācēs brave gods
fīlium fortia _________________________
hastās ingēns _________________________
corpora audācem _________________________
deōs ingentēs _________________________
rēgīna fortis _________________________
Exercise B2.4: 2-1-2 and 3rd declension adjectives

Chapter 2.
This exercise practises agreement using nouns from all three declensions and both types
of adjective. It may be helpful to use the summary of case endings below. Remember that
for an adjective to agree with its noun, it needs to be the same case, gender and number
as its noun. 2-1-2 adjectives use endings from different declensions, depending on the
gender of the noun they describe.
Note that for the 1st 2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd

3rd declension, the declension declension declension declension declension
endings in blue are neuter neuter
used by nouns and
the endings in red nominative sg -a -us / -er -um (—) / (-is) (—) / (-e)
are typically used by
accusative sg -am -um -um -em / -em (—) / (-e)
adjectives. There
are one or two nominative pl -ae -ī -a - ē s / - ēs -a / -ia
exceptions to this
rule and these are accusative pl -ās -ōs -a - ē s / - ēs -a / -ia
listed on p215.
64

Select the correct form of the adjective to agree with its noun in case, gender and
number. Then translate the phrase.
e.g. arma (ingēns / ingentia) arma ingentia - huge weapons

1. sagittās (multam / multās)
2. fīliōs (audācem / audācēs)
3. fēmīnae (fortis / fortēs)
4. corpora (multa / multae)
5. flūmen (ingentēs / ingēns)
6. deōs (fortem / fortēs)
7. hominēs (īrātī / īrātus)
8. fīliī (audāx / audācēs)
9. rēx (Graecum / Graecus)
10. rēgīna (audāx / audācem)
Exercise B2.5: Chapter 1 verbs in the perfect tense

Translate the following verbs from the Chapter 1 vocabulary list. Remember that you will
need to use the ending to work out who is the subject; for each verb, the ending is
highlighted in purple.
verb meaning
e.g. amāvit he / she / it loved

1 rēximus
2 lacrimāvī
3 laudāvistis
4 terruimus
5 rēxērunt
6 pūnīvistī
7 laudāvī
8 terruērunt
9 amāvistī
10 lacrimāvit
65

Exercise B2.6: Chapter 2 verbs in the perfect tense

Fill in the meaning of each of these verbs from the Chapter 2 vocabulary list.
perfect tense meaning
mānsī
īvī
timuī
cucurrī
vīcī
iēcī
interfēcī
cēpī
inquit, inquiunt
Now translate the English verbs below into Latin. You will need to change the ending of
each verb in order to show who the subject is.
Remember that inquit, inquiunt is an irregular verb: it does not use the same endings
as the other verbs.
e.g. they threw ie-ce-runt

1. we captured
2. it remained
3. he ran
4. you (pl) killed
5. you (sg) conquered
6. she feared
7. they went
8. I went
9. she said
10. you (sg) threw
66

Exercise C2.1: Nominative and accusative nouns

In each of the following sentences, either the subject or the object is in purple. Look at
the Latin words in brackets and choose the right one to translate this noun: if the noun is
the subject, you need a noun in the nominative case; if the noun is the object, you need a
noun in the accusative case.
Remember to check whether the noun is singular or plural.
e.g. The king praised his son. ( rēx / rēgem)
1. The daring Greek threw the spear. (hasta / hastam)

2. The brave woman took the arrows. (sagittae / sagittās)
3. The sword was huge. (gladius / gladiī)
4. The bodies were near the river. (corpus / corpora)
5. The children feared the danger. (perīculum / perīcula)
6. The Greek spears remained near the river. (hastās / hastae)
7. We feared war. (bella / bellum)
8. The wood was not huge. (silva / silvam)
9. The river was near the wood. (flūmen / flūmina)
10. There was danger near the arrows. (perīculum / perīcula)
Exercise C2.2: Prepositions

Each of the prepositions you have met in Chapter 2 is followed by a noun in the accusative
case.
Translate into Latin each of the phrases in purple in the sentences below.
To find the right ending for the noun, you need to check which declension it is in, and
whether or not it is neuter. You can look up these endings on p54.
e.g. We remained near the Greeks. prope Graeco-s

1. He ran towards the weapons.
2. They went into danger.
3. I threw the spear into the river.
4. He went through the wood.
5. We remained near the weapons.
6. You ran across the river.
7. They threw arrows towards the Greeks.
8. You went into the wood.
9. We ran through the spears.
10. She ran against the Romans.
67


Translate the following sentences into Latin.
Remember to think about the case for each noun, and to make sure that adjectives agree
with their nouns in case, gender and number.
1. The children feared Greek wars.

2. The king killed the handsome men.
3. The daring sons conquered their fathers.
4. The mother praised the brave daughter.
5. A strong god threw the huge spear across the river.
6. We captured the savage men near the wood.
7. You (sg) loved but I feared the bold children.
8. The angry mother often wept.
9. You (pl) ran bravely through huge danger.
10. The sons and daughters feared a savage war.
68

CHAPTER 3
ROMAN GODS

CW
Roman gods
The Romans were polytheistic: this label means that they worshipped many different gods.
Some of these gods had originally been worshipped in other parts of the world first. There is
archaeological evidence that the Romans worshipped gods from as far away as Egypt, Persia
and even Britain.
The Romans, however, often worshipped these gods in ways which were unique to their
own community. In addition, they also had gods which were purely their own. Some of these
Roman gods were worshipped at home with the family. Others were worshipped in public as
a way to bring the entire community together.
Romans and the Olympians

In Chapter 1 you learned about the Olympian gods, and the way in which the Romans had
absorbed many of the stories told about these gods by the Greeks. Although the Romans had
taken on these Greek stories and ideas, they also worshipped the Olympians in a way which
was uniquely Roman.
The Romans believed that Jupiter had a special interest in protecting the city of Rome. An
important temple to Jupiter was built on the Capitoline hill, one of the seven hills in the city.
This temple was dedicated to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Jupiter was honoured there with the
name Jupiter Optimus Maximus, a title that means Jupiter, Greatest and Best. When a Roman
army went to war, its general would visit the temple on the Capitoline first. He would promise
to dedicate a laurel wreath to Jupiter if his army waged a successful campaign. If the general
was particularly victorious, he was granted the right to parade his army through the streets of
Rome, in a triumphant celebration. The great climax of this parade was a sacrifice for Jupiter
at the Capitoline temple. In Exercise 3.11 you will read a story about the Romans’ desperate
attempt to defend the Capitoline hill against an attack by the Gauls. The Romans believed that
it was essential to protect this hill because it was seen as a home for their most important gods.
Venus was also very special to the Romans because she was the mother of the hero
Aeneas, whom you read about in Chapter 2. The Romans believed that Aeneas was the
father of the Roman race and therefore the Romans had a direct link to Venus herself. The
Romans also believed that they had a direct link to Mars, because he was believed to be
the father of Romulus, Rome’s founder. One of Rome’s most important public spaces was
the Campus Martius, where there was an altar to Mars. Originally the Campus Martius
was a place to conduct military training, but by the 1st century BC there were many public
buildings there, such as temples, baths and a gymnasium.
70

Household gods: Vesta, Lares and Penates

One of the most important Olympian gods for the Romans was the goddess Vesta. Vesta was
the goddess of the hearth, the area where the household fire burned. This fire was essential
for warmth and cooking and therefore essential for life. In a Roman household, daily
offerings were made to the goddess Vesta.
Vesta was not the only deity to look after the home. There were two other sets of deities
who were also important: the Lares and the Penates. The Lares were the spirits of a Roman
family’s ancestors who guarded the home and family. Every Roman home had a household
shrine called a lararium where the Lares were worshipped. Offerings were also made to the
Lares on special occasions such as weddings and birthdays.
The Penates also protected the family, so they were often worshipped together with the
Lares at the lararium. In Rome’s earliest times, the Penates were believed to be responsible
for the pantry and the cupboards where food was stored. Later, the Penates were thought to
protect the wealth and prosperity of the household more generally.
FIGURE 3.1 Vestal Virgin FIGURE 3.2 Lararium from the FIGURE 3.3 Aeneas brings
This Roman marble head from House of Menander in Pompeii the Penates to Italy
the 2nd century AD portrays This lararium dates from This marble sculpture, created by
a Vestal Virgin, one of the approximately the 1st century the Italian sculptor Bernini
priestesses dedicated to AD . We can see that this around 1618–1619, is currently
Vesta. Scholars are confident household was probably wealthy held in Rome in the Galleria
that this bust is a priestess as their lararium is ornate and Borgese. It shows Aeneas, his
of Vesta because she is crafted with expensive materials father and his son fleeing the
wearing the distinctive and artwork. Note how this altar burning city of Troy. Aeneas’
headdress which Vestal resembles a tiny temple for the father carefully cradles the small
Virgins wore. This headdress household gods. Less wealthy statue of the Penates, obeying
was made of six bands of households would have had a the order of the gods that they
wool wrapped around the simple niche in the wall to should take their household
head. This head is currently house their Lares rather than a gods with them and establish
held in The British Museum. complex structure. them in their new community.
71

Chapter 3 Roman Gods
While every household had a hearth, where Vesta was worshipped, and a lararium in
honour of the Lares and Penates, Vesta also had a temple in the Roman forum. A sacred fire
was kept burning there by six priestesses called Vestal Virgins. In order to serve the goddess
exclusively, these priestesses could not marry and they were chosen from noble families
while they were still young girls. The Romans believed that Vesta’s sacred fire had been part
of their community from the very beginning, because it had been brought by the hero Aeneas
from Troy along with his own household gods. You can read more about this myth in Source
3.1 and Exercise 3.5. The Romans regarded the Penates Aeneas had rescued from Troy as
public Penates and they were also entrusted to the care of the Vestal Virgins. The Romans
believed that as long as these Penates were protected and Vesta’s sacred flame continued to
burn, then Rome would continue to stay safe.
Janus
Another god who was important to the Romans was Janus, the god of beginnings and endings,
entrances and exits, doorways, passages and transitions. In Exercise 3.10, you will read a
story of an important archway which will help illustrate how much the Romans valued the
idea of doing things properly at the start and end of things. Works of art from ancient Rome
show that Janus had two faces, one facing forwards and one facing backwards, because Janus
looked to the future and the past at the same time. Our month of January is named after Janus.
Because Janus was the god of doorways, shrines to Janus were often a set of doors
standing on their own: the name for this sort of shrine was a janus. One important janus was
the Janus Geminus, part of a temple to Janus in the centre of Rome. The Romans believed
that this temple had been built at the very beginning of their city, by Numa, their second king.
This janus was a set of rectangular bronze doors which acted as a symbol of whether Rome
was at war or at peace. When Rome was at peace, the doors were closed. When Rome was at
war, the doors were opened. As you can read in Source 3.3, the Roman historian Livy wrote
that the gates were only closed twice between the 7th century BC and the 1st century BC .
There were no special priests or festivals dedicated to Janus, but the Romans usually
offered prayers to him before walking out of the door of the house each morning. In addition,
whenever prayers were offered to the gods in public ceremonies, Janus was the first god on
the list.
According to the Roman poet Ovid, Janus once outwitted a nymph named Carna. Carna
was very beautiful and many young men wanted her attention. Carna liked to tease her
FIGURE 3.4 Coin showing an image of Janus

This coin dates from the 3rd century BC . On one side,
Janus is shown looking forwards and backwards. On
the other side, we see the word Roma and an image
of Jupiter driving a chariot. Jupiter holds two symbols
of his power: his thunderbolt and a sceptre. The
pairing of these images on the same coin suggests
that Janus, like Jupiter, should be worshipped for
his wide-reaching power.
72

suitors by telling them to wait for her in a cave. While each young man was in the cave,
Carna would amuse herself by running into the forest to hide, leaving her suitor waiting. One
day, Carna tried this trick on Janus. However, Janus, using his backwards-facing face, saw
Carna hiding behind a rock and caught her. To keep Carna busy so she would not have time
to fool any more suitors, Janus made Carna the guardian spirit of door hinges.
Personified deities
The Romans also recognised many divine beings who personified ideas, feelings or natural
features. These divinities were named for whatever concept they both controlled and
embodied. For example, the Latin word for hope is spes and the Roman goddess of hope
was Spes. The Romans had many gods that personified ideas, including Pax (Peace),
Salus (Safety), Pietas (Duty), Fortuna (Chance) and Victoria (Victory). Knowing the qualities
which the Romans considered important enough to be a god or goddess gives us a better
understanding of what the Romans valued.
FIGURE 3.5 The river

Tiber as a god
Here we see a statue of
the god Tiber, the
personified spirit of the
river which runs through
the city of Rome. In one
hand Tiber holds a
cornucopia, or horn of
plenty, representing
plentiful food. Tiber is
protecting Romulus and
Remus under his other
arm, who are shown
with the she-wolf who
nursed them as infants.
The statue was found
near the remains of a
temple in the Campus
Martius. It is now in the
Louvre in Paris.
73

Men become gods: Quirinus and Julius Caesar

As you read in Chapter 2, Romulus, the son of Mars, was the hero who began to build the
city of Rome and gave the city its name. According to legend, Romulus died in a very
mysterious way. As you will read in Exercise 3.8, during an assembly of the Romans he
disappeared in a whirlwind. There were rumours that maybe the Roman nobles felt Romulus
was being too controlling and so they killed him. To turn away suspicion, some Romans
suggested that Romulus was not dead, but had become a god instead. One even swore an
oath that he had seen Romulus go up into the sky, crying out that his name was now Quirinus.
Quirinus became an important god for the city and the people of Rome. Statues and paintings
of Quirinus often show him as a strong man, usually with a beard. A special priest, temples
and a yearly festival were created for him.
From the 1st century BC , the Romans began to declare that some of their rulers had
become gods after their deaths. One of the most famous of these Romans was Julius Caesar.
In 44 BC Caesar was killed by a group of Romans who believed that he wanted too much
power for himself. After Caesar was killed, a comet appeared in the sky. Some Romans
thought that this comet was a sign that Caesar was ascending into the realm of the gods. In
42 BC Caesar’s heir held a ceremony that declared Caesar a god. A special priest for the
divine Caesar was appointed and shrines were built in his honour.
Romans and the gods from other communities

As we have already seen from the influence of Greek culture on Roman religion, the Romans
sometimes combined the gods of other communities with their own. For example, in AD 43,
the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain. Claudius wanted to make Britain a province of the
Roman Empire and he needed the local people in this newly conquered territory to be
friendly to the Romans. To help Romanise the Britons, the Romans combined some of the
local beliefs and traditions with their own. When the Romans found the natural hot springs
in the modern town of Bath, they also discovered that the Britons had built an altar to their
own goddess Sulis there. The Romans thought that the Roman goddess Minerva seemed so
similar to the Celtic goddess Sulis that they must be the same goddess, known by two
different names. They decided to show this by combining these names and calling the
goddess Sulis Minerva. The Romans built a temple to this combined goddess; the remains
of this temple can still be seen in Bath today.
In the 2nd century AD the geographer Claudius Ptolemy wrote that something similar
happened further north in Britain. He noted that Britons who lived along the River Ribble
worshipped a goddess named Belisama who shared her name with the river. Once again, the
Romans associated this local goddess with their own goddess Minerva. A temple to Minerva
Belisama from the 1st century AD has been found by archaeologists in Ribchester.
74

Source 3.1: Aeneas is ordered to bring Vesta and the

Penates to Italy
The importance of Vesta and the Penates to the Romans is shown by their role in the story of
Aeneas. In Rome’s most famous epic poem, the Aeneid, Virgil creates a dramatic moment
when Aeneas describes a scene from the night of Troy’s final defeat. The dead Trojan hero
Hector came to Aeneas in a dream and urged him to leave the doomed city of Troy. Hector
told Aeneas to take the sacred fire of Vesta and the Penates with him and make them a part
of his new community.
In my dreams suddenly, before my eyes, a most grief-stricken Hector seemed to appear in

front of me. Tears streamed down his face, and he looked as he had when Achilles dragged
him with his chariot, black with bloody dust, his swollen feet pierced through with the
fastenings. Oh how he looked, how different he was from that Hector who came back
dressed in the armour of Achilles, or who hurled Trojan fire onto the ships of the Greeks:
his beard was filthy, his hair matted with blood, and I could see those wounds which he had
received – so many of them – while fighting around the walls of his city.
Groaning deeply from the depths of his heart, he said, ‘O son of a goddess, you must
flee, and save yourself from the flames. The enemy hold the city; Troy is falling. You have
given enough to Priam and to your country: if Troy could be saved by a warrior, then she
would have been saved by me. Troy gives to you now her sacred objects and her household
gods; take these as companions in your destiny, find a great city for them where, after a
long journey by sea, at last you might establish them.’
So he spoke, and with his hands he brought out from the depths of her shrine the mighty
goddess Vesta, her sacred ribbons and her everlasting fire.
Virgil, Aeneid Book 2.270–297 (with omissions)

1 In Aeneas’ dream, Hector has a horrifying appearance: describe in your own
words what he looked like.
2 Aeneas refers to the cruel way in which the Greek warrior Achilles treated
Hector after he had killed him: what did Achilles do to his corpse? What else
can you find out about the story of these two warriors?
3 How does Hector emphasise to Aeneas that Troy can no longer be saved?
4 What did Hector give to Aeneas when he had finished speaking?
5 How do you think this dream would have made Aeneas feel, and why?
75

Source 3.2: The deification of Romulus

The historian Livy wrote that after Romulus died he was worshipped as the god Quirinus. In
this passage, Livy tells the story that Romulus had called an assembly to review the troops.
This assembly was held in the Campus Martius, the area of land just outside Rome where the
army traditionally used to train. During the assembly there was a sudden storm and Romulus
mysteriously disappeared from view. The senators claimed that Romulus had been whisked
away into the sky by a whirlwind.
Romulus was one day holding an assembly of the people on the Campus Martius to review
the army. Suddenly a storm arose with loud claps of thunder, enveloping him in a cloud so
dense that it hid him from the view of the people. From then on Romulus no longer walked
on the earth. The Roman people finally recovered from their panic when, after so wild a
storm, bright and sunny daylight returned. The senators had been standing nearby, and
when the Roman people saw that the king’s throne was empty, they readily believed it
when the senators said that he had been snatched up on high by the storm. Nevertheless,
they remained sorrowful and silent for some time, stricken with fear as if they had been
orphaned. Then, on the initiative of a few, they all decided that Romulus should be hailed
as a god, son of a god, king, and father of the city of Rome. With prayers they begged him
for his goodwill, asking him to be supportive and favourable toward the Roman people and
to protect their descendants forever.
I suppose that there were some, even then, who privately claimed that the king had been
torn into pieces by the hands of the senators. This version of events also spread, although
in whispers, but men’s admiration for the hero and the panic felt at the time gave greater
authority to the other version.
Livy, The History of Rome Book 1.16 (with omissions; trans. adapted)

1 What made Romulus suddenly disappear from view?
2 How did the troops react to the storm?
3 The senators claimed that Romulus had been lifted into the sky by the storm.
How did the Romans feel about this at first?
4 What did the Roman people then decide to believe and why?
5 What was the alternative rumour about what really happened to Romulus?
6 What does this story suggest about Romulus’ relationships with the different
people within his community?
76

Source 3.3: Numa and the temple of Janus

Janus was the Roman god of beginnings and endings. The doors of his temple were used by
the Romans to symbolise whether Rome was at peace or at war. The historian Livy tells us
that this custom was established very early in Rome’s history by Numa, the second king of
Rome.
Rome had originally been founded by brute force and by fighting; the new king now
prepared to give the community a second beginning, this time on the solid basis of law and
religious observance. These lessons, however, could never be learned while his people
were constantly fighting; war, he well knew, was no civilising influence, and the proud
spirit of his people could be tamed only if they learned to lay aside their swords. Accordingly,
at the foot of the Argiletum he built the temple of Janus, to serve as a visible sign of peace Argiletum: the
and war: open, it was to signify that the city was at war; closed, that all neighbouring street between the
peoples were at peace with Rome. main marketplace in
Since Numa’s reign the temple has twice been closed: once in the consulship of Manlius Rome and the
at the end of the first war with Carthage and again on the occasion (which we ourselves Subura, the district
where the poorer
were allowed by heaven to witness) when after the Battle of Actium Augustus brought
citizens of Rome
peace to the world by land and sea. Numa himself closed it after first securing the goodwill
lived.
of all the neighbouring communities by treaties of alliance.
Livy, The History of Rome Book 1.19 (trans. slightly adapted)

1 This source suggests that Romulus and Numa ruled Rome in different ways.
What were the differences between them?
2 Why did Numa want there to be a break from fighting?
3 Explain what it meant when the doors of the temple of Janus were open and
closed.
4 Livy wrote at the very end of the 1st century BC and his account of Roman
history stretched from its very beginnings right up until his own time. During
this period, how many times had the doors to the temple of Janus been
closed? What do you think about this?
5 If Numa had been able to see into the future, what do you think he might have
thought about the number of times that the doors to the temple were closed?
77

Source 3.4: Augustus and the Julian star

This coin is a denarius, meaning it is worth ten of the smallest coins in the Roman currency. It
was minted by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, in 19–18 BC. Augustus was Julius Caesar’s
adopted son and heir, and he made frequent reference to Caesar’s deification. He often
referred to himself as divi filius, the son of a god. One side of the coin shows an image of
Augustus and his name. On the other side we can see a star and the words DIVUS IULIUS
(Divine Julius).
FIGURE 3.6 Denarius of Divus Julius

1 Why do you think Augustus wanted to put his image on coins?
2 Why do you think Augustus liked to refer to himself as the son of a god?
3 Based on your reading elsewhere in this chapter, can you explain why a star – or
comet – was used as a symbol for the divine Julius Caesar?
78

1 What do the Roman gods tell us about the things which Romans valued most?
● the Roman stories about the Olympian gods
● the household gods
● Janus
● deified Romans
● the personified deities
● the way in which Romans combined gods from other communities with
their own
2 If you were a busy Roman and decided to focus your energies on worshipping
the gods you believed to be most important to you, which ones would you
choose from the list below to worship and why?
● Jupiter
● Venus
● Quirinus
● Vesta
● Lares and Penates
● Janus
● Pax (Peace)
● Spes (Hope)
● Pietas (Duty)
3 What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of a polytheistic

religion?
● the number of gods whom you might need to worship
● the variety offered by these gods
● the contrast with a monotheistic religion such as Christianity, Judaism or
Islam
79

CW
Vocabulary List
Verbs are now listed in a slightly different way. This will be explained on p83.
pugnō pugnāre, pugnāvī fight

iubeō iubēre, iūssī order
ascendō ascendere, ascendī climb
dēscendō dēscendere, dēscendī go down; come down
petō petere, petīvī make for; seek; beg / ask for
cōnspiciō cōnspicere, cōnspexī catch sight of; notice
audiō audīre, audīvī hear; listen to
possum posse, potuī can; be able
terra terr- 1f ground; land; country

equus equ- 2m horse
caelum cael- 2n sky; heaven
auxilium auxili- 2n help
mōns mont- 3m mountain
mare mar- 3n sea
bonus bona, bonum good

magnus magna, magnum big; large; great
malus mala, malum evil; bad
difficilis difficil- difficult
facilis facil- easy
fēlīx fēlīc- fortunate; happy; lucky
ā, ab + ablative from; away from; by

cum + ablative with
dē + ablative from; down from; about
ē, ex + ablative from; out of; out from
in + ablative in; on
celeriter quickly
diū for a long time
ōlim once; some time ago
subitō suddenly
tandem at last; finally
80

Roman gods and people

The following feature in some of the sentences and stories in this chapter.
Aenēas, Aenē- 1m As you read in Chapter 2, Aeneas was a Trojan

warrior and the first father of the Roman race.
In this chapter you will hear how, when he fled
Troy, he took his ancestral gods with him.
These gods – Vesta and the Penates – became
central to Roman religion.
Rōmulus, Rōmul- 2m In Chapter 2, you also read about Romulus,

the founder and first king of Rome. In this
chapter you will hear how he was declared a
god after his death.
Iānus, Iān- 2m Janus was the Roman god of beginnings,

endings, entrances and exits.
Vesta, Vest- 1f Vesta was the goddess of the hearth and

home.
Penātēs, Penāt- 3m The Penates were the gods of the household

and its food supplies.
The ablative case

The ablative case is one of the most important cases in Latin. The noun and
adjective endings for the ablative case are in the table below. These endings are Remember that
used by all genders within a declension. 2-1-2 adjectives use
endings from
1st declension 2nd declension 3rd declension different
declensions
ablative sg -ā -ō -e / -ī depending upon the
gender of the noun
ablative pl -īs -īs -ibus
they describe. 3rd
As you can see above, there are two different endings for the 3rd declension declension
ablative sg: -e is the ending used for nouns; -ī is the ending used for adjectives. adjectives always
There are one or two exceptions to this rule, and these are detailed in the use endings from
Reference Grammar on p215. the 3rd declension.
81

Prepositions and the ablative case

The ablative case has many different roles: one of the most important of these is
for nouns which follow certain prepositions. All the prepositions in the table
below have to be followed by a noun in the ablative case.
cum + ablative with
The preposition in is exceptional in Latin: it is followed by nouns in the accusative

case and by nouns in the ablative case, but the meaning is different.
in perīculum (in + accusative) into the danger

in perīculō (in + ablative) in danger
EXERCISE 3.1
1. patrēs cum fīliīs dē montibus cucurrērunt.
2. Rōmānī saepe in magnō perīculō erant.
3. dē bellō multa audīvimus.
4. Rōmānī ā Vestā auxilium petīvērunt.
5. fīliī et fīliae ē silvā cucurrērunt.
6. in corpus pulchrum hastam iēcī.
Prepositions and compound verbs

Sometimes prepositions are used at the start of verbs to create a compound
verb.
flūmen trānsiit. He went across the river.
I went has two different stems in Latin: i- and īv-. In compound forms of this verb,
i- is the stem which is typically used.
82

EXERCISE 3.2
1. Aenēas mare trānsiit.
2. Rōmulus ā silvā abiit.
3. Aenēas mare adiit.
4. puerī silvam iniērunt.
5. ā flūmine abiimus.
Conjugations and principal parts

From this chapter on, verbs will be set out in vocabulary lists as shown below.
These verb forms are known as a verb’s principal parts.
amō amāre, amāvī love; like
The meaning of each principal part is as follows. Watch out! You can
see from these
amō – I love amāre – to love amāvī – I loved principal parts that
verbs in Latin have
Just as nouns in Latin belong to different groups (declensions), so too do verbs. more than one
There are four main groups of verbs; these groups are called conjugations. Every stem. This is
verb within the same conjugation shares the same endings, and each conjugation discussed in more
is associated with different vowels. detail on p89.
We can work out a verb’s conjugation by looking at the vowels in the first two
principal parts.
1st conjugation amō amāre, amāvī love; like
2nd conjugation terreō terrēre, terruī frighten; terrify
3rd conjugation regō regere, rēxī rule
4th conjugation audiō audīre, audīvī hear; listen to
Some verbs are a mixture of the 3rd and 4th conjugation. Their principal parts look
like the example below.
mixed conjugation capiō capere, cēpī take; capture
83

Infinitives
The 2nd principal part for each verb is its infinitive. The infinitive uses the same
stem as the 1st principal part: this is sometimes quite different from the stem
used for the perfect tense. The vowel that is used for the infinitive’s ending
depends upon the verb’s conjugation.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th

conjugation conjugation conjugation conjugation
infinitive amāre terrēre regere audīre

– to love – to frighten – to rule – to hear
Infinitives are often used in Latin just like in English.
difficile erat pugnāre It was difficult to fight.

Note that if an Rōmulus Rōmānōs pugnāre iūssit Romulus ordered the Romans to fight.
adjective is used
with an infinitive it The infinitives for all the verbs you met in Chapters 1 and 2 are included in the
will be neuter in principal parts in the following table.
gender.
amō amāre, amāvī love; like
lacrimō lacrimāre, lacrimāvī weep; cry
laudō laudāre, laudāvī praise
terreō terrēre, terruī frighten; terrify
maneō manēre, mānsī remain; stay
timeō timēre, timuī fear; be afraid
regō regere, rēxī rule
currō currere, cucurrī run
vincō vincere, vīcī conquer; win; be victorious; defeat
pūniō pūnīre, pūnīvī punish
iaciō iacere, iēcī throw
interficiō interficere, interfēcī kill
capiō capere, cēpī take; capture
EXERCISE 3.3
1. pater fīliōs dē montibus dēscendere iūssit.

2. difficile erat ad mare currere.
3. ōlim facile erat in montēs ascendere.
4. bonum erat deōs laudāre.
5. saepe rēx saevus rēgīnam iūssit fīliam terrēre.
6. fēlīx erat auxilium ā deīs petere.
7. nōn malum erat līberōs pūnīre.
84

8. ‘Rōmānōs,’ inquit rēx, ‘ fortiter pugnāre iūssī!’

9. bonum erat arma capere.
10. malum erat prope silvās manēre.
Irregular verbs: sum, eo, possum

In Chapter 1 you met two forms of the verb sum: erat (he / she / it was) and
erant (they were). The verb sum is irregular: this means that it does not belong
to any of the conjugations and it does not always have the same endings as other
verbs.
Here are the principal parts for sum, together with the principal parts for two
other very important irregular verbs.
sum esse, fuī be Remember: you

possum posse, potuī can; be able met the perfect
tense of eō in
eō īre, īvī / iī go Chapter 2, and its
alternative stem
possum is a new word for this chapter. It is a compound of sum: this means was discussed
that its forms are a combination of its own stem and the endings from sum. earlier in this
chapter on p82.
In the Latin sentences and stories in this chapter you will meet the infinitives from
these verbs, and also the following four forms:
erat – he / she / it was poterat – he / she / it was able
erant – they were poterant – they were able
EXERCISE 3.4
1. līberī in silvā manēre nōn poterant.
2. Rōmulus hominēs vincere poterat.
3. Iānus multa audīre et cōnspicere poterat.
4. ōlim deī hominēs terrēre poterant.
5. tandem rēx hastam iacere poterat.
6. diū Rōmānī trāns mare īre nōn poterant.
7. saepe Rōmānī Iānum laudāre poterant.
8. Vesta erat dea bona et pulchra.
9. deī ā caelō dēscendere poterant.
10. subitō fīlia patrem cōnspicere poterat.
85

EXERCISE 3.5: AENEAS, VESTA AND THE PENATES
The Romans believed that Aeneas had brought with him to Italy the sacred fire and
the Penates which were cared for by the Vestal Virgins in the Temple of Vesta.
Aeneas and the Trojans had been fighting against the Greeks for ten years, but
eventually the Greeks decided to build a large wooden horse. Some of the Greek
soldiers hid inside the wooden horse and were able to make a surprise night-time
attack on the city of Troy. During the same night, the hero Aeneas had a strange
dream: he saw the spirit of the dead Trojan prince Hector. Hector told Aeneas to flee
from Troy, and to take as many men as he could with him. Hector also told Aeneas
that he must take with him Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and the home, and the
Penates, their sacred household gods, so that they could continue to worship them
in their new life in Italy.
In Source 3.1 you can read a translation of Virgil’s version of part of this story.
diū Graecī cum Trōiānīs pugnāvērunt. difficile erat vincere quod Trōiānī audācēs
erant et fortiter pugnāvērunt. tandem multī Graecī equum ingentem et līgneum
clam fēcērunt. in equum līgneum ascendērunt. in equō clam manēre poterant.
Trōiānī equum cōnspexērunt: ‘fēlīx,’ inquiunt, ‘est equus līgneus!’ equum in

Trōiam trāxērunt. tum subitō de equō Graecī dēscendērunt. Graecī cum Trōiānīs 5
fortissimē pugnāvērunt. Graecī Trōiānōs vīcērunt.
tum in somniō Hector Aenēam iūssit ad Ītaliam īre. ‘fortiter pugnāvistī,’ inquit
Hector, ‘sed Graecī vīcērunt. non bonum est manēre.’ Hector Aenēam in
montēs cum patre et fīliō ascendere et tum trāns mare īre iūssit. Aenēam
iūssit Vestam et Penātēs capere, quod Vesta et Penātēs sānctissimī erant. 10
Hector Aenēam terruit: difficile erat ad Ītaliam īre. Aenēas ad Ītaliam īre
nōlēbat. tandem deī īrātī erant et Aenēam celeriter īre iūssērunt. tandem
Aenēas Vestam et Penātēs cēpit. Aenēas patrem et fīlium et multōs Trōiānōs
ad Ītaliam īre iūssit.
Aenēas et pater et fīlius et multī Trōiānī in montēs ascendērunt. Aenēas et 15

pater et fīlius et multī Trōiānī dē montibus dēscendērunt. Aenēas et pater et
fīlius et multī Trōiānī trāns mare īvērunt. tum Aenēas et pater et fīlius et multī
Trōiānī cum Vestā et Penātibus in Ītaliam īre poterant.
86


quod because
līgneus, līgneum, līgnea wooden
clam secretly
faciō, facere, fēcī make
est ‘he / she / it is’
Trōia, Trōi- 1f Troy
trahō, trahere, trāxī drag
fortissimē most bravely
somnium, somni- 2n dream
Hector, Hector- 3m Hector
Ītalia, Ītali- 1f Italy
sānctissimus, sānctissima,
sānctissimum very sacred
nōlēbat ‘he / she / it did not want’
87

Adverbs
Adverbs are most often used with verbs. In Latin, as in English, it is possible to
turn an adjective into an adverb by changing its ending.
The children were happy. → The children ran happily.
The two main adverb endings in Latin are -ē and -ter.
laetus, laeta, laetum happy → laetē happily

fortis, fort- brave; strong → fortiter bravely; strongly
There are also lots of other adverbs which are not formed from adjectives or which
do not have these endings, for example:
subitō suddenly
diū for a long time
EXERCISE 3.6
1. saepe Rōmānī audācter pugnāvērunt.

Note that in Latin,
adverbs are often 2. subitō Rōmānī Iānum cōnspicere poterant.
written either at the 3. laetē per silvam cucurrimus.
start of the
sentence or just 4. deī hominēs facile pūnīvērunt.
before their verb. 5. tum trāns mare fortiter īvistī.
TEST YOURSELF!
Can you remember the meanings of the following words from Chapters 1 and 2?
1. sagitta 11. per
2. rēgīna 12. līberī
3. fortis 13. īvī
4. pulcher 14. saevus
5. trāns 15. interfēcī
6. tum 16. erat
7. audāx 17. flūmen
8. saepe 18. uxor
9. cucurrī 19. perīculum
10. laudāvī 20. pūnīvī
88

Verb stems and the imperfect tense

A verb’s principal parts show us the two main stems for a verb as well as its
conjugation.
presentt stem
t perfect
f t stem
t Note that the
amō amāre, amāvī love; like present stem has
this name because
terreō terrēre, terruī frighten; terrify it is used for the
present tense as
regō regere, rēxī rule
well as the
audiō audīre, audīvī hear; listen to imperfect tense:
you will meet the
capiō capere, cēpī take; capture
present tense in full
in Chapter 5.
As well as the perfect tense, Latin has another past tense called the imperfect
tense.
The imperfect tense is used in Latin for actions that are viewed as beginning,
ongoing, or lasting quite a long time. In contrast, the perfect tense is used for
actions which are viewed as finished or brief.
Compare: I was running for a long time. imperfect tense

I ran quickly to the sea. perfect tense
Latin uses the present stem to form its imperfect tense; the differences across
the four conjugations are because each conjugation uses different vowels for any
endings which are added to the present stem.
imperfect 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

tense conjugation conjugation conjugation conjugation
I amābam terrēbam regēbam audiēbam
you (sg) amābās terrēbās regēbās audiēbās

Note that the
he / she / it amābat terrēbat regēbat audiēbat imperfect endings
for capiō (mixed
we amābāmus terrēbāmus regēbāmus audiēbāmus
conjugation) are the
you (pl) amābātis terrēbātis regēbātis audiēbātis same as for audiō.
These are listed in
they amābant terrēbant regēbant audiēbant full on p220.
89

The imperfect tense: using person endings

Notice that although verbs from different conjugations use different vowels as part
of the way they form the imperfect tense, the following person endings are
always used at the end to show who the subject is.
1st person (sg) I -m
2nd person (sg) you (sg) -s
3rd person (sg) he / she / it -t
1st person (pl) we -mus
2nd person (pl) you (pl) -tis
3rd person (pl) they -nt
Translating the imperfect tense

The imperfect tense can be translated in three main ways.
regēbam I was ruling

I used to rule
I began to rule
In Latin, the verbs used for past actions which typically lasted for some time are
very often in the imperfect tense, even though in English we are more likely to use
the perfect tense. This means that sometimes a Latin imperfect tense should be
translated as an English perfect tense.
diū deī hominēs terrēbant. For a long time the gods terrified the
humans.
EXERCISE 3.7
1. ad equōs currēbāmus.
2. ‘in bellō,’ inquit pater ‘diū fortiter pugnābam.’
3. Rōmānī hastās trāns flūmen ingēns iaciēbant.
4. fēminae bonae deōs laudābant.
5. saepe Rōmānī in bellō vincēbant.
6. diū Rōmānī Vestam amābant.
7. in montēs celeriter ascendēbās.
8. ōlim Rōmulus Rōmānōs regēbat.
9. fīliōs et fīliās saevē pūniēbātis.
10. saepe Rōmānī ā Iānō auxilium petēbant.
90

EXERCISE 3.8: ROMULUS IS TURNED INTO THE GOD QUIRINUS
In the very early history of Rome, Romulus was seen for the last time at a Roman
assembly in a large open public space known as the Campus Martius. His mysterious
disappearance during this assembly meant that many Romans believed he had been
instantly deified. He was given a new name, Quirinus, and worshipped as a god.
In Source 3.2 you can read Livy’s version of this story.
diū Rōmulus Rōmānōs regēbat. saepe in bellō fēlīx erat et per terram
clārus erat. ōlim Rōmulus Rōmānōs ad Campum Martium īre iūssit. in Campō
Martiō Rōmānī Rōmulum cōnspicere poterant et Rōmulum audīre poterant.
subitō nūbēs ingēns dē caelō dēscendēbat; subitō Rōmānī Rōmulum cōnspicere
5 nōn poterant; subitō Rōmānī
Rōmulum audīre nōn poterant.
Rōmānī timēbant: rēx in terrā

nōn erat. Rōmānī lacrimābant:
Rōmulum amābant quod pater
10 Rōmānōrum erat. tandem
Rōmānus quīdam ‘Rōmulum,’
inquit, ‘in caelō cōnspexī!
Rōmulus in caelum ascendit!
Rōmulus nunc deus est! nunc
15 facile est ā Rōmulō auxilium
petere quod deus est!’
tum Rōmānī laetī Rōmulum

laudāvērunt: Rōmulum ut
deum, Quirīnum nōmine,
20 adōrābant.
clārus, clāra, clārum famous; distinguished

Campus Martius, Camp- Marti- 2m the Campus Martius
nūbēs nūb- 3f cloud
quod because
Rōmānōrum ‘of the Romans’
quīdam a certain
nunc now
ut as
Quirīnus, Quirīn- 2m Quirinus
nōmine ‘by name’
adōrō, adōrāre, adōrāvī worship; entreat
91

Further uses of the ablative

So far you have met nouns in the ablative case after certain prepositions, but in
Latin a noun can be used on its own in the ablative case to convey the meaning
by, with or from.
fortiter hastīs pugnābāmus. We used to fight bravely with our spears.
EXERCISE 3.9
1. Rōmānī gladiīs saepe pugnābant.
2. homō uxōrem gladiō interfēcit.
3. ōlim deī hominēs armīs ingentibus terrēbant.
4. rēx rēgīnam hastā interfēcit.
5. fīlius equum celeriter sagittā interficere poterat.
CW EXERCISE 3.10: AN UNLUCKY GATEWAY
Janus was the god of doorways and he was worshipped as the god of beginnings. The
Romans built two arches in their city gates to symbolise the difference between good
and bad beginnings. Soldiers were supposed to leave the city through the left hand
arch. The route through the right hand arch was known as the Infelix Via (the Unlucky
Way). Livy writes that the source of this name was the disastrous defeat the Fabian
family suffered in the 470s BC after they marched out to war through the right hand arch.
The Fabii were a very noble family who offered to fight the Veientes (an Etruscan
tribe) on behalf of the Romans. All but one of the 306 Fabii who marched out to
battle were killed.
ōlim Vēientēs contrā Rōmānōs fortiter pugnābant. Rōmānī nōn laetī erant
quod Vēientēs timēbant. sed Fabiī erant gēns clārissima. omnēs Fabiī – patrēs
et fīliī – nōn timēbant. ‘nōn difficile est,’ inquiunt, ‘nōbis contrā Vēientēs
pugnāre. in multīs bellīs saepe gladiīs pugnāvimus! saepe hastīs pugnāvimus!
saepe in ingentibus bellīs vīcimus. bonum est Rōmā exīre! facile est vincere. 5
sōlī pugnābimus!’
tum Rōmānī laetī erant; Fabiōs laudāvērunt. Fabiī ad bellum īvērunt; sed per
iānuam dextram īvērunt. nōn fēlīx erat per iānuam dextram īre.
Fabiī fortiter pugnābant. prīmum fēlīcēs erant: multōs cēpērunt et interfēcērunt.

sed tum neglegentēs erant: erant magnae īnsidiae; Fabiī Vēientēs nōn 10
cōnspexērunt. subitō Vēientēs hastās et sagittās iēcērunt. Fabiōs interfēcērunt.
uxōrēs et fīliae nōn laetae erant: ‘deī īrātī erant,’ inquiunt. ‘Fabiōs pūnīvērunt:
nōn fēlīx erat per iānuam dextram īre.’
92

Vēientēs, Vēient- 3m pl the Veientes

quod because
Fabiī, Fabi- 2m pl the Fabii, a distinguished and noble
Roman family
gēns, gent- 3f tribe; family
clārissimus, clārissima, clārissimum very famous; very distinguished
omnis, omn- all; every
est ‘it is’
nōbis ‘for us’
sōlus, sōla, sōlum alone
pugnābimus ‘we shall fight’
iānua, iānu- 1f doorway; archway
dexter, dextra, dextrum right hand side
prīmum at first
neglegēns, neglegent- careless
īnsidiae, īnsidi- 1f pl ambush
93

CW EXERCISE 3.11: THE SACRED GEESE
The Capitoline hill was the most sacred of the seven hills of Rome. The Romans
believed that it was the home for their most important gods, and Jupiter, Juno and
Minerva had a temple there. At the start of the 4th century BC the Romans suffered
many defeats at the hands of the Gauls. Eventually many Romans fled Rome,
seeking safety elsewhere. A committed group of Romans stayed to defend the
Capitoline hill. The Gauls, however, tried to make a surprise attack by climbing up the
sheer rock face on one side of the hill. They nearly succeeded, until the geese which
were kept as sacred to Juno made such a noise that they woke the Roman forces.
ōlim Rōmānī contrā Gallōs diū pugnābant. multī Rōmānī abiērunt quod
timēbant. cēterī Rōmānī in Capitōliō manēbant: ‘Capitōlium sacrum est,’
inquiunt. ‘Iuppiter et Iūnō et Minerva in Capitōliō habitant. bonum est
Capitōlium fortiter dēfendere.’
diū Rōmānī in Capitōliō manēbant et fortiter dēfendēbant. Gallī vincere nōn 5

poterant quod difficile erat ad Capitōlium ascendere. tandem Gallī cōnsilium
bonum cēpērunt. prope flūmen erat saxum praeruptum: Gallī saxum praeruptum
clam ascendere poterant.
tum Gallī saxum ascendēbant. Rōmānī dormiēbant; Rōmānī Gallōs nōn

audīvērunt. subitō anserēs sacrī Gallōs cōnspexērunt. subitō anserēs clangōrēs 10
fēcērunt. subitō Rōmānī anserēs audīvērunt et Gallōs cōnspexērunt. Rōmānī
ad Gallōs celeriter cucurrērunt et audacter pugnābant. Rōmānī Gallōs dē saxō
iaciēbant; corpora, arma, gladiī et sagittae dē saxō cadēbant. Rōmānī multōs
Gallōs interfēcērunt.
Rōmānī laetī erant. ‘in Capitōliō mānsimus,’ inquiunt, ‘quod sacrum est. ā deīs 15
auxilium petīvimus: deī Rōmam servāvērunt.’
94

Gallī, Gall- 2m pl Gauls

quod because
cēterī, cēterae, cētera the others
Capitōlium, Capitōli- 2n Capitoline hill
sacer, sacra, sacrum sacred
est ‘it is’
habitant ‘they live’
dēfendō, dēfendere, dēfendī defend
cōnsilium, cōnsili- 2n plan
saxum, sax- 2n cliff
praeruptus, praerupta, praeruptum sheer
clam secretly
dormiō, dormīre, dormīvī sleep
anser, anser- 3m goose
clangor, clangōr- 3m noise
faciō, facere, fēcī make
cadō, cadere, cecidī fall
Rōma, Rōm- 1f Rome
servō, servāre, servāvī save
95


See if you can find English words which derive from these Latin words, and explain what
they mean.

e.g. celeriter quickly accelerate to get faster
1 magnus
2 mare
3 ex
4 terra
5 possum
6 dēscendō
7 ascendō
8 fēlīx
9 equus
10 audiō

Sort these Latin words into groups of adverbs, adjectives, prepositions and verbs; write
the meaning of each Latin word next to it.
celeriter dē bonus iubeō

subitō possum ab difficilis ōlim
diū cum cōnspiciō fēlīx
adverb adjective preposition verb
celeriter – quickly
96

Exercise A3.3: Categorising nouns

Sort the nouns below according to their gender and write the meaning of each Latin word
next to it.
Remember that the gender of a word is not necessarily predictable and you may need to
check the Chapter 3 vocabulary list.
equus caelum auxilium

terra mōns mare
terra – ground; land; country
Exercise B3.1: Nouns in the ablative case

This exercise uses nouns from the Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 vocabulary lists.
Here are the endings for the ablative case. Remember that in the 3rd declension,
nouns will use -e as their ablative sg ending and adjectives will use -ī.

ablative sg -ā -ō -e / -ī
ablative pl -ī s -ī s -ibus
Give the meaning for each noun, and then its ablative sg and ablative pl forms.
noun meaning ablative sg ablative pl

e.g. silva, silv- 1f wood silva- silv¬-s
1 terra, terr- 1f
2 equus, equ- 2m
3 caelum, cael- 2n
4 auxilium, auxili- 2n
5 mōns, mont- 3m
6 gladius, gladi- 2m
7 sagitta, sagitt- 1f
8 perīculum, perīcul- 2n
9 flūmen, flūmin- 3n
10 hasta, hast- 1f
97

Exercise B3.2: Nouns and adjectives: agreement and the

ablative case
This exercise uses nouns and adjectives from the vocabulary lists for Chapters 1, 2 and 3.
Here are the ablative case endings. Remember that in the 3rd declension, nouns will use
-e as their ablative sg ending and adjectives will use -ı̄.
ablative sg -ā -ō -e / -ī
ablative pl -ī s -ī s -ibus
Each of the adjectives in the table below is a 2-1-2 adjective. This means that each adjective
will need a 2nd declension case ending if it describes a masculine noun, it will need a 1st
declension case ending if it describes a feminine noun, and it will need a 2nd declension
case ending if it describes a neuter noun. The gender of each noun may not be obvious
from its meaning and you may need to look it up.
The following nouns are all in the ablative case. Identify the gender and number of each
noun; then make each 2-1-2 adjective agree with its ablative noun. Translate the noun and
adjective phrase.
noun gender number adjective translation

e.g. fīliā feminine sg bon-a- good daughter
1 montibus magn-
2 maribus mal-
3 flūmine Graec-
4 fīliō īrāt-
5 uxōre saev-
6 deā pulchr-
7 gladiīs magn-
8 bellō bon-
9 hominibus mult-
10 feminā mal-
98

In the table below, each of the adjectives is a 3rd declension adjective. This means that it
will use 3rd declension endings whatever the gender of the noun it describes. Remember
that in the 3rd declension, nouns will use -e as their ablative singular ending and
adjectives will use -ı̄.
The following nouns are all in the ablative case. Identify the gender and number of each
noun; then make each 3rd declension adjective agree with its ablative noun. Translate the
noun and adjective phrase.
noun gender number adjective translation
e.g. flūminibus neuter plural ingent- ibus huge rivers

1 fēminā fēlīc-
2 bellō facil-
3 homine fēlīc-
4 bellīs difficil-
5 uxōre fort-
6 patre audāc-
7 caelō ingent-
8 deīs fort-
9 equīs audāc-
10 montibus ingent-
Exercise B3.3: Identifying nouns and adjectives in the

accusative and ablative cases
This exercise uses nouns and adjectives from the vocabulary lists for Chapter 2 and
Chapter 3.
In the table below, label each word as a noun or an adjective, identify its declension, and
then state whether it is in the accusative or the ablative case. Remember that you may
need to look the word up to check its declension.
noun or adjective? declension accusative or ablative?
e.g. feminam noun 1st accusative sg

1 difficilibus
2 malum
3 equīs
4 fēlīcī
5 montēs
99

Exercise B3.4: Verb conjugations

Here are all the regular verbs from the vocabulary lists for Chapters 1, 2 and 3.
Give the meaning of each verb in the table below and identify its conjugation.
Remember that to identify conjugation we need to use the first two principal parts of the
verb:
amō, amāre, amāvī 1st conjugation

terreō, terrēre, terruī 2nd conjugation
regō, regere, rēxī 3rd conjugation
audiō, audīre, audīvī 4th conjugation
capiō, capere, cēpī mixed conjugation
verb meaning conjugation
e.g. regō, regere, rēxī rule 3rd

1 amō, amāre, amāvī
2 lacrimō, lacrimāre, lacrimāvī
3 audiō, audīre, audīvī
4 currō, currere, cucurrī
5 terreō, terrēre, terruī
6 dēscendō, dēscendere, dēscendī
7 timeō, timēre, timuī
8 regō, regere, rēxī
9 laudō, laudāre, laudāvī
10 vincō, vincere, vīcī
11 pūniō, pūnīre, pūnīvī
12 pugnō, pugnāre, pugnāvī
13 interficiō, interficere, interfēcī
14 capiō, capere, cēpī
15 petō, petere, petīvī
16 iubeō, iubēre, iūssī
17 ascendō, ascendere, ascendī
18 maneō, manēre, mānsī
19 iaciō, iacere, iēcī
20 cōnspiciō, cōnspicere, cōnspexī
100

Exercise B3.5: Imperfect tense Latin into English

This exercise uses verbs from the Chapter 3 vocabulary list.
The verbs below are all in the imperfect tense. Translate each verb; look at the ending
carefully to make sure you get the subject right.
verb translation
e.g. pugnābāmus we were fighting

1 iubēbant
2 poterat Remember that

possum is an
3 ascendēbat
irregular verb and so
4 dēscendēbātis its imperfect
endings are
5 petēbam different.
6 cōnspiciēbat
7 poterant
8 audiēbās
9 pugnābam
10 poterant
Exercise B3.6: Translating the perfect and imperfect tenses

This exercise uses verbs from the Chapter 3 vocabulary list.
The following pairs of verbs each contain an imperfect and a perfect tense form, each with
a different subject. Put the verbs into the correct columns in the table below and translate
each one.
pugnābam / pugnāvērunt ascendēbant / ascendit petēbātis / petīvistī

cōnspiciēbat / cōnspeximus iubēbās / iūssī audiēbāmus / audīvistis
perfect tense imperfect tense
pugn a- ba m – I was fighting
101

Exercise B3.7: Imperfect tense English into Latin

Here are some of the verbs you have met in the vocabulary lists for Chapters 1, 2 and 3.
pugnō, pugnāre, pugnāvī fight
iubeō, iubēre, iūssī order
ascendō, ascendere, ascendī climb
petō, petere, petīvī make for; seek; beg / ask for
audiō, audīre, audīvī hear; listen to
maneō, manēre, mānsī remain; stay
lacrimō, lacrimāre, lacrimāvī weep; cry
pūniō, pūnīre, pūnīvī punish
Translate the English imperfect verbs below into Latin. Remember that you will need to
work out the Latin verb’s conjugation first.
The imperfect endings are on p220.
e.g. they were fighting pugna-bant

1. he was climbing 6. it was remaining
2. he used to order 7. you (sg) began to weep
3. we began to climb 8. you (pl) were fighting
4. I was seeking 9. they used to punish
5. she was listening 10. we were listening
Exercise B3.8: Imperfect and perfect tenses

The verbs below are from the vocabulary lists in Chapters 1–3.
The following sentences include a mix of imperfect and perfect verbs; only one of each
pair in brackets has the right ending for the subject of the sentence.
Select the correct verb to complete the sentence and then translate the sentence into
English, making sure that you translate the tense of the verb accurately.
e.g. pater līberōs (laudāvit / laudāvērunt). The father praised the children.
1. rēx hominem pugnāre (iūssit / iūssērunt).
2. deī (pugnābant / pugnābat).
3. rēgīna montem (ascendit / ascendērunt).
4. fēminae mare (cōnspexit / cōnspexērunt).
5. pater līberōs audīre nōn (poterant / poterat).
6. homō auxilium (petēbant / petēbat).
7. dea fīliōs (amābat / amābant).
8. deus dē caelō (descendit / descendērunt).
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SECTION C3: ENGLISH INTO LATIN SENTENCES
Exercise C3.1: Prepositions with the accusative and

the ablative
Remember that some prepositions are followed by nouns in the accusative case, and
some are followed by nouns in the ablative case.
The preposition in can be followed by either the accusative or the ablative, depending on
what it means in the sentence.
Circle the noun in the correct case for its preposition. Then write out the Latin for each
preposition and noun phrase.
If you cannot remember which case is needed for each preposition, you can find all the
prepositions in the Reference Grammar on pp217–218.
e.g. The children were in the river. (flūmen/ flūmine) in fl u- mine

1. We ran towards danger. (perīculum / perīculō)
2. They fought against the Romans. (Rōmānīs / Rōmānōs)
3. You went away from the war. (bellō / bellum)
4. The god was in the sky. (caelum / caelō)
5. I threw the spear through the men. (hominēs / hominibus)
6. He went out of the wood. (silvā / silvam)
7. She was running across the river. (flūmen / flūmina)
8. The king ruled with his daughters. (fīliās / fīliīs)
9. Men went into the river. (flūmen / flūmine)
10. The goddess came down from the mountain. (monte / montem)
103

Exercise C3.2: Cases of nouns and adjectives

Identify the case, gender and number of the nouns and adjectives in purple below and
translate them into Latin.
Remember that
● the adjective ending will depend on the declension(s) the adjective is in, and the
case, gender and number of the noun it describes.
● within a declension, there are different endings for neuter nouns.
● if the noun follows a preposition, it will need to be in the case required by that
preposition.
e.g. We feared the savage horses. accusative masculine pl equ o-s

1. The land was great.
2. The danger was great.
3. We caught sight of the mountains.
4. We climbed a mountain.
5. The horses fought in the war.
6. You remained near the great sea.
7. They were throwing many arrows.
8. He caught sight of the body.
9. She took the huge sword.
10. The angry gods went into the sky.

Translate these sentences into Latin.
1. The angry men threw spears into the sky.

2. It was easy to run down from the mountains.
3. The beautiful wives were not able to catch sight of their sons.
4. The father was ordering his children to run.
5. Roman men used to fight bravely with swords.
6. The savage horses were running quickly across the river.
7. It was difficult to fight bravely.
8. The king ordered his sons and daughters to climb the mountain bravely.
9. It was brave to fight in war.
10. For a long time the goddess happily praised the fortunate men.
104

CHAPTER 4
FAVOUR AND PUNISHMENT

CW
The gods were an important part of the everyday lives of the ancient Romans. They
worshipped them regularly because they believed that the gods had the power to affect their
lives. They believed that sometimes the gods would show favour and bring good fortune to
mortals, but at other times they would punish them.
Temples
Interaction with the gods often centred
around a temple. A temple was thought of
as a house where a divine being lived.
Temples usually had treasuries to hold gifts
that Romans offered to the gods. Like so
many other aspects of Roman culture, the
architecture of temples was inspired by the
Greeks. Temples in both Greece and Rome
often had many of the same features, such
as tall columns and decorative sculpture.
Usually each temple was dedicated to
one god or goddess and often included a
statue of the relevant deity. Sometimes,
however, temples were shared by groups of
gods. You read about one of these in
Chapter 3: the temple to Jupiter, Juno and
Minerva on the Capitoline hill. In 27 BC ,
Marcus Agrippa, one of Rome’s most
successful generals at the time, built a
FIGURE 4.1 Pantheon temple in Rome that was dedicated to all the
gods at once. This temple was called the
The dedicatory inscription can still be seen on the front of the
Pantheon in Rome. This inscription reads ‘Marcus Agrippa, son of Pantheon; the name comes from the Greek
Lucius, consul three times, made it’. The Pantheon is an excellent for ‘everything divine’. In AD 118–128 the
example of Classical architecture: you can see the beautiful emperor Hadrian rebuilt the Pantheon, but
symmetry of the building, the grand dimensions, and the fine detail
Agrippa’s dedication is still there as an
of the decorations.
inscription on the front of the building. The
temple is still standing in Rome and it is a
popular place to visit.
106

Priests and priestesses

The Romans tried to make sure they understood what the gods wanted so that they would
please the gods and be rewarded rather than anger them and be punished. Unfortunately, it
was sometimes difficult to tell what this was. To help them understand the will of the gods,
the Romans looked to priests and priestesses.
In ancient Roman society, a small number of priesthoods required their priests to change
their whole way of life. As you read in Chapter 3, the Vestal Virgins were not allowed to
marry and they had to spend their days tending the sacred fire of Vesta. The special priest of
Jupiter Optimus Maximus, called the flamen dialis, spent his whole life living under special
restrictions: these affected what he was allowed to eat, wear and do. As a mark of his
importance, however, the Romans paid for his house and he was automatically made a
member of the senate. Most priesthoods, however, did not impose any restrictions and only
very few came with benefits like these. Typically, priests only had to carry out priestly duties
on particular occasions. This meant that being a priest in ancient Rome was usually neither
a way of life nor a full time job. Many Romans wanted to be priests for the social prestige,
and holding a priesthood could help ambitious Romans in their political careers.
Favour: sacrifices and offerings

Romans who wanted help from the gods went about it in an almost businesslike way. A
Roman would make offerings to a god or goddess in exchange for favour or good fortune.
One of the things a Roman could offer to a god or goddess was a sacrifice. Sacrifices could
be small or, as you will read in Exercise 4.10, very large. Romans might offer the gods grain,
cakes or vegetables as a sacrifice, but they believed that the gods liked animal sacrifices best.
Romans offered only the very best animals as sacrifices: these animals had to be healthy and
perfect. However, even if the very best animal was offered, there was no guarantee the
FIGURE 4.2 A priest about to make a

sacrifice
In this carving from the 1st century AD a
priest is about to oversee a special sacrifice
to Mars of three animals: a pig, a ram and a
bull. This triple offering was traditionally
made to Mars after a successful military
campaign. You can see the priest at the
right hand side of the image: he is wearing
a toga as a sign of his status, and he is
ready to give instructions to others. The two
other figures are carrying axes in order to
slaughter the animals.
107

Chapter 4 Favour and Punishment
offering would be accepted by the gods, or that the gods would grant favours or fortune to
the person who had made the sacrifice.
There were many different rituals for different sacrifices but they all had some things in
common. To make a sacrifice, everyone involved had to be clean. The sacrificial victims
were also washed and sometimes they were decorated with ribbons or wool. Some ancient
authors, such as Virgil and Plutarch, even describe how the hooves and horns of animals
could be covered in a thin sheet of gold before they were sacrificed.
The Romans carried out sacrifices on altars that were outside the temples, such as the
altar to Hercules which you will read about in Exercise 4.3. After everyone was ready,
the people and animals would walk in a procession to the altar. Upon reaching the altar, the
person conducting the sacrifice would wash their hands again and offer prayers. These
prayers would state very clearly which god or goddess they were honouring. The prayers
would also clearly state what was expected in return, or, if the sacrifice was being made in
thanks for something a god or goddess had already done, the prayers would explain that.
FIGURE 4.3 Preparation for a sacrifice

This relief carving from the 2nd century AD in Rome shows a bull being led to the altar by
two men; notice the way in which the bull has been decorated with an elaborate
headpiece. A flute player can also be seen piping a tune; flute players were a regular
feature of Roman sacrifices. It was thought that the music of the flute would prevent any
bad omens being heard during the sacrifice. The figure on the left, who is wearing a toga,
might be the citizen who has arranged for the sacrifice or perhaps the priest who will
conduct the ceremony.
108

Then wine or grain was poured over the animal’s head and the animal was
slaughtered.
Once the priest in charge had sacrificed the animal, the animal was gutted. The
animal’s internal organs, known as the entrails, were carefully inspected. If the
entrails were not healthy and perfect, the sacrifice was thought to be displeasing
to the gods. If this happened, the person offering the sacrifice would have to start
the entire process again with another animal. If everything looked good, the
Romans believed that the gods were happy with the sacrifice. Sometimes, if the
victim was something like a pig or a sheep, it was then divided up and eaten. A
FIGURE 4.4 A votive offering of
portion was given to the gods first. The Romans believed that the gods liked the an eye
thigh bones of the animal, wrapped in fat. These would be burned and the smoke
This terracotta model dates from
would take the sacrifice up to the gods. The rest of the animal was eaten by those the 3rd–1st century BC . It was part
who had attended the ceremony. of a find of votive offerings
Sacrifices were expensive. If a Roman could not afford to slaughter an animal, dedicated to a healing god. It is
there were other ways to try to win the favour of the gods. One common way to currently on display in the British
Museum.
show respect to the gods
was by offering a libation. A
libation was an offering of liquid,
usually wine. Romans also offered
honey, oil and, more rarely, milk as
libations. There were many different
ways of offering a libation to a god. A
Roman might fill a cup or bowl and set
it on an altar with a prayer telling the
god or goddess that it was a gift for
them. It was also possible to offer a
libation to the gods of the Underworld
by pouring the liquid directly onto the
ground.
When the Romans wanted help from
the gods, they might make a promise to
give a gift after the god had given
assistance. This type of gift was called a
votive offering. For instance, if a
Roman were ill or in pain, they might
FIGURE 4.5 A bronze votive offering of a leg promise a votive offering of a model of
This votive offering dates from around the 1st
the part of the body they wanted the god
or 2nd century AD . It includes a plaque with or goddess to cure. After they were
the name of the person who dedicated it: T.R. cured, the Roman would then fulfil their
Caledus. It is currently held in the British vow and give the promised votive
Museum.
offering to the god.
109

Punishment
The Romans believed that the gods could punish anyone who had violated the laws of the
gods or anyone who had made them angry. As you have read in stories from Chapters 1 and
2, the Romans did not believe that their gods were particularly kind. It was easy to anger the
gods and this anger was to be feared.
The Romans believed that the gods would punish individuals or even an entire city when
they were displeased. The historian Cassius Dio recorded some examples of divine
punishment. Dio wrote that in 54 BC there was a terrible flood in Rome. The Romans believed
that this flood was a sign that the gods were angry because they had helped an Egyptian
leader to regain power by force. When disease and
famine ran through Rome in 22 BC , many Romans
believed that the sickness and hunger were a
punishment from the gods because Rome’s ruling
nobles had not voted for the leader that the Roman
people wanted.
Offences against the gods were taken very
seriously because of the fear that angering the gods
might cause harm to the community. It was
particularly important that the priests and priestesses
carried out their roles correctly and did not anger the
gods. If they failed in their duties, the punishments
the Romans put in place could be very severe. For
example, if any Vestal Virgin allowed the sacred fire
to go out, she would be beaten. Even more seriously,
if a Vestal Virgin had a lover, she would be
condemned to death. In 114 BC the Vestal Virgin
Marcia was found guilty of losing her virginity. The
agreed punishment was death, but the Romans
believed that Vestal Virgins belonged to Vesta
herself: they were worried that killing Marcia might
anger the gods further. To avoid this anger, the
Romans decided to leave her death in the hands of
FIGURE 4.6 Prometheus Bound by Peter Paul Rubens the gods themselves. They forced Marcia to dress in
This powerful image, painted in the 17th century, captures well funeral clothes and paraded her through the streets
the horror of punishments sent by the gods. It shows of Rome to a tomb. She was then made to enter the
Prometheus, a Titan who was punished by Jupiter for stealing tomb and given a small amount of food and water
fire from the gods to give to mankind. According to myth,
and a lamp with a bit of oil in it. The tomb was
Prometheus was chained to a rock and an eagle pecked out his
liver. Each night, Prometheus’ liver grew back and the same sealed up with Marcia inside. The Roman believed
torture started again the next day. The painting conveys that the gods could choose to save Marcia if
Prometheus’ agony as his twisted muscular figure writhes in they wished, or they could punish her by leaving her
pain, bound fast to the rock.
to die.
110

Curses
Sometimes Romans would specifically ask the gods to punish others. One way of doing this
was by writing on small tablets called defixiones. These could be thin sheets of lead, clay,
wood or papyrus, an early type of paper. The curses were inscribed and addressed to a god,
asking that someone be punished. Sometimes these curse tablets would include the name of
a deceased person, asking that the spirit of the dead would help to convey the message to the
gods. A number of tablets have been found with words or symbols that seem like pure
nonsense but must have had meaning for the person who wrote the tablet.
Once the curses were written, they were often rolled up and thrown into water, buried in
the ground or placed somewhere significant, such as a tomb. You can read the text of one of
the many curse tablets that have been found from settlements in Roman Britain in Source 4.3.
FIGURE 4.7 Curse tablet

from Roman Britain
This lead curse tablet, written
between the 2nd and 3rd
century AD , was excavated from
the Roman amphitheatre in
London. The four holes at the
corners show that it was once
nailed to something, perhaps a
wall. Because it was found
buried in an amphitheatre,
scholars think that the
inscription is likely to be the
name of a gladiator, though the
tablet is too damaged to read it
properly.
The Underworld
In ancient Greek myths, the Underworld was a place where those who were particularly good
in life were rewarded and those who had offended the gods punished. There was a special
area of the Underworld which was called Elysium or the Elysian Fields. The Elysian Fields
were a place of perfect happiness. If a Roman had lived an exceptionally good life, they
might be permitted to go to the Elysian Fields in the afterlife. There was also a place in the
Underworld where punishment was inflicted on those who had truly angered the gods. This
was called Tartarus. Most souls, however, ended up wandering about somewhere in between.
Some of the Greek myths tell tales of the gruesome punishments in Tartarus, such as the
story of Sisyphus, who was condemned to roll a boulder up a hill for eternity, or Ixion who
was tied to a flaming, spinning wheel, or the Danaides, who had to spend eternity trying to
fill up with water a basin which was full of holes. The Romans inherited some of these
stories from the Greeks, and many writers, such as Virgil, made use of them in their own
poetry, but the Romans seemed to have told very few stories of their own about punishment
after death. Instead, many Romans seemed to believe that if the gods were going to inflict a
punishment, it would happen before death.
111

Source 4.1: The gods intervene and change

Servius Tullius’ life
This passage is from Livy’s account of the early history of Rome and it shows that the
Romans believed signs of the gods’ favour could bring remarkable consequences. Livy tells
the story of the young Servius Tullius, who lived as a slave in the house of Tarquin and
Tanaquil, the king and queen of Rome. Some versions of this story suggest that Servius had
been born a slave; later in his account, Livy suggests that he might have been the son of a
local prince, captured as a prisoner of war. After the gods intervened, however, Servius’
status changed and he went on to become the sixth king of Rome.
There was a sign from the gods in that palace at this time, miraculous in both its appearance
and outcome. The story is that the head of a child named Servius Tullius burst into flames
as he was lying asleep, a sight that many people saw. The great uproar caused by this
amazing miracle brought the king and queen to the scene. One of the household slaves was
bringing water to put out the flame, but the queen restrained him. Calming the uproar, she
ordered that the boy not be moved until he awoke of his own accord. Soon, as sleep left
him, so too did the flames. Then Tanaquil took her husband aside and said, ‘You see this
boy that we are raising in such humble circumstances? We should realise that he will be a
light for us in times of darkness and a safeguard for our royal house when it is in difficulty.
Henceforth let us rear him with every kindness that we can, since he will be a source of
great distinction to the state and our family.’
From then on, Servius was looked on as their son and trained in those skills by which
men are prepared to aspire to great fortune. It worked out easily because it was the will of
the gods. The young man turned out to be truly of a royal disposition. When Tarquinius was
looking for a son-in-law, none of the Roman youth could be compared to Servius in any
regard, and so the king betrothed his daughter to him.
Livy, The History of Rome, Book 1.39 (trans. slightly adapted)

1 What did the gods do to show their favour towards Servius Tullius?
2 How did the different members of the royal household react?
3 What do you think Tanaquil meant by describing Servius Tullius as ‘a light for
us in times of darkness and a safeguard for our royal house when it is in
difficulty’?
4 What does this source show us about the difference between life as a slave
and life as a member of the royal family?
5 When Servius Tullius grew up, what relation did he become to the king and
queen?
6 What are we told about Servius Tullius’ character and talents? Does this affect
your views about the Romans’ attitude to slavery?
112

Source 4.2: Offerings are made to the gods in gratitude

The Arval Brothers were a group of 12 priests whom the Romans believed were first appointed
by Romulus. Every year the Arval Brothers offered sacrifices of thanksgiving for the fertility
of the fields and votive offerings in recognition of the safety of the Roman ruler during the
previous year. The priests would also promise additional votive offerings the next year if the
ruler lived for another year in health and safety.
This passage contains the vows made in AD 29 by the chief priest Lucius Calpurnius
Piso. He asks the gods to protect Tiberius, the second emperor of Rome, and his mother Julia
Augusta. Offerings are promised in return to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva and Dea Dia, a goddess
of fertility and growth.
Jupiter, Greatest and Best, if Tiberius Caesar Augustus [. . .] and Julia Augusta, whom I
consciously mention, shall be alive and well for the state and Roman People, the Quirites, The records of the
Arval Brethren have
on 4th January in the next year for the Roman People, the Quirites; and if you preserve
some bits missing
those people, whom I consciously mention, from dangers which happen or are to happen
because parts of
before that day; and if you grant them as prosperous a situation as I consciously name; and
the original source
if you see to it that you preserve them in the same condition as at present or better, then I have been
vow, on behalf of the college of Arval Brothers, a golden ox to you. Jupiter, Greatest and damaged. The
Best, on the terms according to which I have vowed that you will have a golden ox which missing portions are
I have vowed this day, if you do this accordingly, I vow, on behalf of the Arval Brothers marked in this
that [. . .] pounds of gold and [. . .] pounds of silver will be offered as a gift to you, from extract with this
their resources. symbol: [. . .].
Queen Juno, on the terms according to which I have vowed that Jupiter, Greatest and
Best, will have a golden ox which I have vowed this day, if you do this accordingly, I vow
a golden cow to you, on behalf of the Arval Brothers.
Minerva, on the terms according to which I have vowed that Jupiter, Greatest and Best,
will have a golden ox which I have vowed this day, if you do this accordingly, I vow a
golden cow to you, on behalf of the Arval Brothers.
Dea Dia, on the terms according to which I have vowed that Jupiter, Greatest and Best,
will have a golden ox, which I have vowed this day, if you do this accordingly, I vow a
golden cow to you, in the grove, on behalf of the Arval Brothers.
Acts of the Arval Brothers 5a-e (with omissions)

1 ‘Quirites’ is another name for the Romans, and it is linked to the name of one
of their most important gods. Which god was this, and what can you
remember about him?
2 Explain in detail what this prayer is asking for.
3 What is offered to Jupiter in return for Tiberius and Livia’s safety?
4 What is offered to Juno, Minerva and Dea Dia?
5 What do you think of the tone of the language used in this prayer? What does
it show us about the relationship between the Romans and their gods?
113

Source 4.3: Curse tablets request divine punishment

More than 300 curse tablets have been found in Roman Britain, including the two below:
Tablet A was found in a temple to Mercury in Gloucestershire and Tablet B was found in
London. Both seem to have been written at some point between the 1st and 4th century AD .
Tablet A
This sheet of lead is given to Mercury so that he take revenge for the gloves which have
been lost; I ask that he take the blood and the good health from the person who has stolen
Some parts of this
them, and that the thing which we ask for is done as quickly as possible to the person who
tablet are missing
has taken them.
and so the text is
incomplete. As Uley 80 tablet (trans. adapted).
with Source 4.2, the
Tablet B
missing portions are
I curse Tretia Maria and her life and mind and memory and liver and lungs mixed up
marked with this
together, and her words, thoughts, and memory; thus may she be unable to speak what
symbol [. . .].
things are concealed, nor be able [. . .] nor [. . .]
RIB 7

1 Consider tablet A: what do you think it means to ‘take the blood and
good-health’ from a person? Does this seem like a reasonable response to the
theft of a pair of gloves?
2 Consider tablet B: in your own words explain the curse upon Tretia Maria.
3 Why do you think the writer of tablet B might be cursing Tretia Maria?
4 Compare both tablets: what do they have in common? How are they
different?
Source 4.4: Cicero mocks the idea of punishment

in the Underworld
Cicero was a statesman and writer who lived in the 1st century BC . In this passage, he mocks
the idea of punishment in the Underworld in a written version of a conversation between
himself and his friend, Atticus.
Cicero lists some of the more terrifying aspects of the Underworld, including its guard-
dog Cerberus, the rivers Cocytus and Acheron, the punishments suffered by Sisyphus and
Tantalus, and the formidable judges of the underworld who decide whether or not the dead
souls are to be sent to be punished.
Cicero: Tell me, you are not frightened, are you, by the stories of three-headed Cerberus
in the lower world, the roar of Cocytus, the passage of Acheron, and Tantalus, tortured by
thirst, who can touch just the surface of the water with his chin? Indeed, are you frightened
at the tale that Sisyphus rolls his rock, sweating with the effort, but makes not even a bit of
progress? Or perhaps you are scared too of the merciless judges Minos and Rhadamanthus?
114

You too will have to plead your case in person before a huge audience. Maybe you shudder
at these thoughts and therefore consider death an eternal evil.
Atticus: Do you think I am crazy enough to believe such tales?
Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 1.10 (with omissions; trans. adapted)

1 Which details make Cerberus and Cocytus seem frightening?
2 What punishment did Tantalus suffer?
3 What is the meaning of the English word tantalise? Explain the link with this
story.
4 What punishment did Sisyphus suffer?
5 What do you think Cicero means by describing Minos and Rhadamanthus as
‘merciless judges’?
6 Which aspects of this description do you find most frightening, and why?
7 Atticus tells Cicero he is not crazy enough to believe these stories. Does this
change your view of Roman religion?
8 Do you think that punishment after death (as presented here) would be a fair
system of punishment for crimes committed during one’s lifetime?
1 What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of performing

sacrifices in the hope of buying the favour of the gods?
You might like to consider:
● the role that wealth played
● the decisions that needed to be made about what to offer
● the experience of making a sacrifice
2 Do you think the belief in divine intervention would have helped the Romans
to act well?
● whether or not the gods were good role models
● whether fear of punishment promotes good actions
● whether examples of divine intervention are enough to help humans
decide what is the right thing to do
3 In what ways do different religions today encourage people to believe they

can win favour by acting in a certain way?
● the role of sacrifice and other offerings
● the role of rules
● the beliefs about punishment
115

CW
Vocabulary List
Nouns and 3rd declension adjectives are now listed in a different way. This will be explained
on p124.
aedificō aedificāre, aedificāvī build
dō dare, dedī give
habeō habēre, habuī have; hold
persuādeō persuādēre, persuāsī + dative persuade
crēdō crēdere, crēdidī + dative believe; trust
pōnō pōnere, posuī put; place; set up
faciō facere, fēcī make; do
nōlō nōlle, nōluī not want; refuse
volō velle, voluī want
ferō ferre, tulī bring; carry; bear
īra īrae, f anger
pecūnia pecūniae, f money
ager agrī, m field
aurum aurī, n gold
dōnum dōnī, n gift; present
templum templī, n temple
nōmen nōminis, n name
miser misera, miserum miserable; wretched; sad
perterritus perterrita, perterritum terrified
crūdēlis crūdēle cruel
trīstis trīste sad
semper always
quod because
tamen however
-ne . . . ? (introduces question)
nōnne . . .? surely . . . ?
num . . . ? surely . . . not?
ubi? where?
quandō? when?
cūr? why?
116

Gods, men and monsters

The following are included in the stories and sentences in this chapter.
Herculēs, Herculis, m In Chapter 2 you read about the hero Hercules;

Cācus, Cācī, m in this chapter you will read about the altar
Evander, Evandrī, m which was set up in his honour and the yearly
sacrifices which were given to him. The local
king, Evander, started this tradition after
Hercules had saved his people from the hideous
flesh-eating and fire-breathing monster Cacus.
Aenēas, Aenēae, m Aeneas’ story continues in this chapter: you will

read about his terrifying journey down to the
Underworld.
Cerberus, Cerberī, m Cerberus was the hideous three-headed guard

dog of the Underworld and one of the monsters
who made the Underworld seem like a
frightening place of punishment and judgement.
Hannibal, Hannibalis, m Hannibal was a Carthaginian noble and Rome’s

Fabius, Fabiī, m greatest enemy. In fear at the threat he posed,
the Romans appointed Quintus Fabius
Maximus as dictator in 217 BC to help Rome
deal with the crisis. Fabius persuaded the
Roman people to fund huge sacrifices in an
attempt to win divine support against Hannibal.
Augustus, Augustī, m Augustus was Rome’s first emperor: he

acknowledged the role he believed the gods had
played in his victories by building or restoring
many great temples in Rome.
Iuppiter, Iovis, m Because Jupiter was the most powerful of the

gods, many Romans tried to win his support.
117

Imperfect tense: sum, possum

The irregular verbs sum and possum have imperfect endings which look nothing
like the imperfect endings for other verbs. The imperfect forms for sum and
possum are as follows.
I was eram I was able poteram
you (sg) were erās you (sg) were able poterās
he / she / it was erat he / she / it was able poterat
we were erāmus we were able poterāmus
you (pl) were erātis you (pl) were able poterātis
they were erant they were able poterant
More irregular verbs: ferō, volō, nōlō

So far you have met the following irregular verbs:
sum, esse, fuī be

Note that all these possum, posse, potuī can; be able
verbs – except eō eō, īre, īvī / iī go
– have infinitives
which have a double In this chapter you will meet three more:
consonant in the
ferō, ferre, tulī bring; carry; bear
middle.
volō, velle, voluī want
nōlō, nōlle, nōluī not want; refuse
In the perfect tense, all these verbs use their perfect stem and the same perfect
tense endings as all other verbs.
In the imperfect tense, eō, ferō, volō, nōlō have endings which are very similar
to the imperfect endings for regular verbs.
Here is a summary of the perfect and imperfect for all six irregular verbs. Only the
1st person (sg) form is given for each verb; the full endings can be found on
pp223–227 of the Reference Grammar.
sum possum eō ferō volō nōlō

imperfect eram poteram ībam ferēbam volēbam nōlēbam
perfect fuī potuī īvī / iī tulī voluī nōluī
For sum, possum, volō and nōlō it is quite rare to meet their perfect tense in
Latin; the imperfect tense is much more common. The imperfect forms volēbam
and nōlēbam are often best translated as I wanted and I did not want.
118

EXERCISE 4.1
1. Evander dōna ad templum ferēbat.
2. dē montibus dēcurrere volēbāmus.
3. Herculēs Cācum interficere volēbat.
4. Aenēas trāns mare īre nōlēbat.
5. mātrem audīre nōn poteram.
6. Rōmānī templa ingentia aedificāre poterant.
7. equōs pulchrōs habēre volēbās.
8. crūdēlem rēgem timēre nōlēbam.
9. diū līberī perterritī per silvam ībant.
10. ad flūmen celeriter adīre volēbātis.
LOOK IT UP!
Here is a list of verbs in the perfect tense. See if you can remember their principal
parts. If not, look them up in the vocabulary list on p232. Remember that the first
principal part uses a different stem, and so the verb may be listed under a different
spelling from the one used for its perfect tense.
1. iūssī
2. pūnīvī
3. cucurrī
4. audīvī
5. rēxī
6. cōnspexī
7. mānsī
8. cēpī
9. īvī
10. tulī
119

Direct questions
Like English, Latin has question words which are used at the start of a sentence
to show that it is a question.
ubi. . . .? where . . .?
quandō . . . . .? when . . .?
cūr. . . . ? why . . .?
Latin also has three other words which are used if the expected answer to the
question is yes or no.
-ne invites the answer yes or no

nōnne invites the answer yes
num invites the answer no
-ne is used at the end of the first word of the sentence; for these types of question,
the first word is usually the verb.
tulistīne ad templum dōna? Did you bring gifts to the temple?

nōnne ad templum dōna tulistī? Surely you brought gifts to the temple?
num ad templum gladium tulistī? Surely you didn’t bring your sword to
the temple?
EXERCISE 4.2
1. cūr rēgīnam bonam pūnīvērunt?
2. quandō in agrīs equum cōnspexistis?
3. lacrimāvistīne quod māter crūdēlis līberōs terrēbat?
4. nōnne bonum erat dōna ad templum ferre?
5. num diū in agrīs manēbātis?
6. cūr Hannibal saepe audācēs Rōmānōs interfēcit?
7. quandō ad montēs ascendere volēbant?
8. cūr perterritī ad mare cucurrērunt?
9. pugnāvēruntne fortiter in bellō Graecī?
10. cūr hastam ingentem et multās sagittās ferēbat?
120

EXERCISE 4.3: EVANDER MEETS THE HERO HERCULES AND

TOGETHER THEY BUILD THE ARA MAXIMA
The Romans believed that long before Romulus founded the city of Rome, the
territory was ruled by the Greek exile Evander. The Roman historian Livy records the
myth that Evander met the hero Hercules just after Hercules had killed Cacus, a
hideous and fire-breathing monster. In gratitude to the hero, Evander established
the custom of regular sacrifice to Hercules at the site where they met. The altar built
there was called the Ara Maxima and it later became an important altar in Rome.
ōlim hērōs, Herculēs nōmine, trāns mare in Ītaliam īvit. in Ītaliā erat gigās
crūdēlis, Cācus nōmine. Herculēs bovēs pulchrōs habēbat, sed Cācus bovēs
capere volēbat. Herculēs in agrīs dormiēbat; tum gigās bovēs cēpit. subitō
Herculēs bovēs audīvit; bovēs tamen cōnspicere nōn poterat. Herculēs
5 īrātissimus erat: ‘ubi sunt bovēs?’ inquit, ‘cēpitne Cācus bovēs?’ Herculēs
Cācum invēnit et gigantem fortiter interfēcit.
rēx, Evander nōmine, Herculem cōnspexit. Herculēs in agrīs erat. bovēs

pulchrī in agrīs erant. gigās crūdēlis in agrīs nōn erat. Evander laetissimus
erat: ‘ubi est Cācus?’ inquit Evander. ‘num Cācum interfēcistī? quandō cum
10 Cācō pugnāvistī? diū Cācum timēbāmus.’
‘Herculēs sum,’ inquit Herculēs. ‘Cācum interfēcī. hērōs sum fortis et audāx.’
Evander Herculem laudāvit. Evander āram ingentem aedificāre volēbat. ‘ad

āram,’ inquit, ‘multa dōna ferēmus quod Cācum interfēcistī.’
Evander āram ingentem aedificāvit. diū ibi āra manēbat. diū hominēs ad āram
15 multa dōna ferēbant. diū hominēs laetī erant quod ōlim Herculēs Evandro
auxilium dedit et gigantem interfēcit.
hērōs, hērō- 3m hero

gigās, gigant- 3m giant
bōs, bov- 3m ox; cow
dormiō, dormīre, dormīvī sleep
īrātissimus, īrātissima, īrātissimum very angry
sunt ‘they are’
inveniō, invenīre, invēnī find
sum ‘I am’
āra, ār- 1f altar
ferēmus ‘we shall bring’
ibi in that place
Evandrō ‘to Evander’
121

Genitive and dative cases

Latin has two more cases which are used frequently: the genitive and dative
cases.
● The genitive case is used to show that one noun is connected to another.
Most often it is used to show that one noun belongs to another. It is often
useful to translate the genitive with the word of.
fīlius patris trīstis erat. The son of the father was sad.
The father’s son was sad.
● The dative case is used for the indirect object: this means a noun which is
involved in an action, but not as closely as either the subject or the object. It is
often best translated as to or for.
pater dōnum deō tulit. The father brought a gift for the god.
The noun and adjective endings for the genitive and dative cases are in the table
below. These endings are used by all genders of nouns and adjectives within a
declension. Remember that 2-1-2 adjectives use endings from different declensions
depending upon the gender of the noun they describe. 3rd declension adjectives
always use endings from the 3rd declension.
Watch out! Don’t 1st declension 2nd declension 3rd declension

confuse these
endings with those genitive sg -ae -ī -is
for the nominative, dative sg -ae -ō -ī
accusative and
ablative cases. genitive pl -ārum -ōrum -um / -ium
Always think about
dative pl -ī s -ī s -ibus
the declension of a
noun or adjective in N.B. There are two different endings for the 3rd declension genitive pl: -um
order to work out is the ending used for most nouns; -ium is the ending used for adjectives.
which case it might There are one or two exceptions to this rule, and these are detailed in the
be. Grammar Reference section on p215.
Examples of nouns and adjectives in each declension are listed in full with all their
case endings in the Reference Grammar on pp214–215.
EXERCISE 4.4: GENITIVE CASE
1. Evander corpus Cācī cōnspexit.
2. Herculēs terram Evandrī adiit.
3. Rōmulus templum Iovis aedificāvit.
4. audīvistīne fīlium mātris saevae?
5. dē caelō fīlia Iovis dēscendit.
122

6. etiam fortēs īram deōrum timēbant.
7. cūr pecūniam rēgis capere nōn poteram?
8. uxor rēgis crūdēlis erat trīstis.
9. gladiī Graecōrum Aenēam terruērunt.
10. difficile erat fīliās rēgum pūnīre.
EXERCISE 4.5: DATIVE AND GENITIVE CASE
1. Herculēs auxilium Evandrō dedit.
2. patribus pecūniam dedimus.
3. aedificāvistisne templum magnum deīs?
4. Romulus Rōmānōs dōna deīs dare iūssit.
5. nōlēbant aurum rēgī dare.
6. fīlius Evandrī mare trānsiit.
7. difficile erat fēminae per silvās currere.
8. diū rēgēs terrās Graecōrum regēbant.
9. dea arma ingentia Aenēae dedit.
10. cūr sagittās patris iaciēbat?
EXERCISE 4.6: GENITIVE, DATIVE AND ABLATIVE CASES
1. ad templum Iovis cucurrimus.
2. pulchram fīliam rēgīnae saevae amābam.
3. patrēs in agrīs Evandrī manēbant.
4. templa deōrum magnōrum laudāvit.
5. facile erat pecūniam līberōrum capere.
6. difficile erat audācī Herculī Cācum gladiō interficere.
7. nōn facile erat Rōmānīs contrā Hannibalem pugnāre.
8. nōnne aurum rēgis cōnspexērunt?
9. quandō uxor Iovis Aenēam terruit?
10. nōmen deī erat Iuppiter.
123

Finding noun stems and declensions

From this chapter on, nouns are listed in the way that is typical for Latin dictionaries
and word lists. The nominative sg, genitive sg and gender are given.
The genitive sg allows us to work out the declension of the noun from its ending.
We can also see the noun’s stem.
1st declension (-ae) fēmina, fēminae, f stem = femin-
2nd declension (-ī) deus, deī, m stem = de-
3rd declension (-is) rēx, rēgis, m stem = rēg-
Finding adjective stems

As detailed in Chapter 2, we can use a vocabulary list to find out the stem of a
2-1-2 adjective in the following way.
īrātus, īrāta, īrātum angry

pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum beautiful; handsome
For a 3rd declension adjective, however, it is a little more complicated because

there are two main types of 3rd declension adjectives, and each type is listed in a
dictionary in a different way.
fortis, forte brave; strong

ingēns, ingentis huge
For adjectives like fortis, the nominative sg (m / f) and the nominative sg (n) are
listed; these forms have set endings, and so it is possible to work out the stem by
removing these endings.
fortis, forte
Adjectives like ingēns, however, do not all have a fixed nominative ending and so
the stem is not apparent from the nominative form. This means that their genitive
sg needs to be listed separately so that it is possible to work out the stem.
ingēns, ingentis
124

EXERCISE 4.7
For each of the following words, state whether the word is a noun or an adjective,
identify the declension and the stem, and then give the meaning.
1. perterritus, perterrita, perterritum
2. trīstis, trīste
3. nōmen, nōminis, n
4. fēlīx, fēlīcis
5. īra, īrae, f
6. crūdēlis, crūdēle
7. miser, misera, miserum
8. ager, agrī, m
9. dōnum, dōnī, n
10. audāx, audācis
LOOK IT UP!
Here is a list of ten words you will meet in the next two chapters. Look each of them
up in the vocabulary list on p232, and use this list to help you work out whether each
word is a noun or an adjective, which declension it is, and how to spell its stem.
1. agricola
2. puer
3. fessus
4. noster
5. servus
6. vīnum
7. sacer
8. novus
9. urbs
10. iuvenis
125

CW EXERCISE 4.8: CERBERUS, THE GUARD DOG FOR THE UNDERWORLD
Roman writers such as the poet Virgil presented the Underworld as a terrifying
place. At its entrance was a monstrous guard dog called Cerberus. In Virgil’s great
epic poem, the Aeneid, the hero Aeneas is ordered by the gods to go down to the
Underworld to visit the soul of his dead father. He is helped by the Sibyl, a priestess
of Apollo. She acts as his guide and helps Aeneas to find a way past the terrifying,
three-headed Cerberus.
In this passage, the Underworld is referred to by one of its Roman names, Erebus.
deī Aenēam iūssērunt in Erebum īre. Aenēas īre nōlēbat; trīstis erat quod in
Erebum dēscendere timēbat. sed deī Aenēam īre iūsserant et Aēneas īram
deōrum timēbat. tandem Aenēas auxilium ā Sibyllā petīvit et in Erebum
dēscendit. prope Erebum erat flūmen magnum. Aenēas et Sibylla flūmen nāve
trānsiērunt. Aenēas et Sibylla ad portās Erebī advēnērunt. 5
in Erebō erat canis ingēns, Cerberus nōmine: Cerberus corpus ingēns habēbat;
tria ingentia capita habēbat. Cerberus hominēs terrēre volēbat. semper
Cerberus prope portās Erebī manēbat.
Aenēas Cerberum cōnspexit: corpus ingēns Cerberī cōnspexit; tria capita

ingentia Cerberī cōnspexit. Cerberus erat crūdēlis. Cerberus Aenēam terrēre 10
volēbat. Aenēas perterritus erat. Sibylla tamen nōn perterrita erat quod dōnum
Cerberō habēbat. dōnum erat cibus sopōrātus. Sibylla cibum Cerberō dedit.
Cerberus cibum Sibyllae amāvit. Cerberus obdormīvit. Aenēas et Sibylla per
portās Erebī īvērunt. Aenēas erat laetus quod Sibylla Cerberum vīcit!
Erebus, Erebī, m Erebus

iūsserant ‘they had ordered’
Sibylla, Sibyllae, f the Sibyl
nāvis, nāvis, f boat
porta, portae, f gate
adveniō, advenīre, advēnī arrive
canis, canis, m dog
trēs (m,f), tria (n) three
caput, capitis, n head
cibus, cibī, m food
sopōrātus, sopōrāta, sopōrātum soporific
obdormiō, obdormīre, obdormīvī fall asleep
126

Verbs taking the dative

Some verbs in Latin do not have an accusative object; instead, they are used with
a noun in the dative case. Two of the new verbs for Chapter 4 use the dative case
for their object, as you can see from the way the verbs are set out in the vocabulary
list.
persuādeō persuādēre, persuāsī + dative persuade
crēdō crēdere, crēdidī + dative believe; trust
These verbs are used, therefore, as follows.
pater mātrī persuāsit. The father persuaded the mother.

māter patrī crēdēbat. The mother believed the father.
EXERCISE 4.9
1. rēx rēgīnae persuāsit quod rēgīna rēgem timēbat.
2. līberī patribus saepe crēdēbant.
3. tandem deī Aenēae persuāsērunt.
4. quandō Rōmānī rēgibus crēdēbant?
5. nōnne hominibus fēlīx erat deīs persuādēre?
DERIVATION HUNT
1. auxiliary
2. impetus
3. conspicuous
4. navy
5. advent
6. dormitory
7. portal
8. canine
9. jussive
10. tricycle
127

CW EXERCISE 4.10: THE ROMANS OFFER A HUGE SACRIFICE TO THE GODS
In 217 BC the Carthaginian leader Hannibal was wreaking havoc in Italy. In a daring
move, Hannibal had led his African troops through Spain, over the Alps, and down
into Italy. Hannibal had won several huge battles against Roman forces, including a
massacre at Lake Trasimene. In this battle, 15,000 Roman soldiers died. In terror at
Hannibal’s success, the Romans appointed one man to take charge: Quintus Fabius
Maximus. Fabius persuaded the Romans to offer the gods sacrifices of an unusual
size and scale, if the gods kept Rome safe for five years.
Hannibal erat dux Carthāginiensum. Carthāginiensēs saepe cum Rōmānīs

pugnābant; saepe Carthāginiensēs multōs Rōmānōs interfēcērunt. Rōmānī
miserī erant. Rōmānī Hannibalem timēbant. Rōmānī auxilium ā deīs petere
volēbant.
Fabius erat dux Rōmānōrum. Fabius īram deōrum timēbat. ‘deī īrātī sunt,’ 5
inquit Fabius, ‘quod mala sacrificia fēcimus.’ Fabius Rōmānīs persuāsit. Rōmānī
Fabiō crēdēbant quod Fabius dux bonus erat. Fabius Rōmānōs iūssit bona
sacrificia facere.
‘necesse est multōs bovēs Iovī dare,’ inquit Fabius. ‘necesse est multa
dōna deīs dare.’ Rōmānī in ārā Iovis trecentōs bovēs interfēcērunt. ‘post 10
quīnque annōs,’ inquit Fabius, ‘multa dōna deīs dabimus: dabimus multōs
bovēs, multa animālia.’ Fabius Rōmānīs persuāsit; Rōmānī deōs laetōs facere
volēbant.
dux, ducis, m leader

Carthāginiensis, Carthāginiense Carthaginian
sunt ‘they are’
sacrificium, sacrificiī, n sacrifice
necesse ‘necessary’
bōs, bovis, m ox; cow
āra, ārae, f altar
trecentī, trecentae, trecenta 300
post quīnque annōs ‘after 5 years’
dabimus ‘we shall give’
animal, animālis, n animal
128

EXERCISE 4.11: AUGUSTUS BUILDS MANY TEMPLES
Augustus was the first of Rome’s emperors. In 31 BC he defeated his opponent,

Mark Antony, and ended Rome’s long-running civil wars. In the peace that followed
and to celebrate his victory, he built or rebuilt many temples to the gods, offering
sacrifices in gratitude for his military success and as a symbol of the divine support
he believed he had received.
diū Rōmānī in multīs bellīs contrā Rōmānōs pugnābant. diū Rōmānī trīstēs
erant quod multī Rōmānī multa mala faciēbant. tandem Augustus Antōnium
vīcit. Augustus erat Rōmānōrum prīnceps. Augustus deōs laudāvit: ‘fēlīx sum,’
inquit, ‘quod deī mihī auxilium dedērunt. deī volēbant mē Antōnium vincere.
5 multa templa deīs aedificābō.’
Augustus multam pecūniam habēbat. Augustus templa multa et pulchra

aedificāvit. Augustus templum Apollinis aedificāvit. in ārā Apollinis multōs bovēs
interfēcit. ‘Apollinem laudāvī,’ inquit Augustus, ‘quod Apollō mihī auxilium dedit.’
Augustus templum Martis aedificāvit. ‘Martem laudāvī,’ inquit Augustus, ‘quod

10 in multīs bellīs vīcī.’
Augustus templum Iovis aedificāvit. ‘multum aurum,’ inquit Augustus, ‘Iovī

dedī quod Iuppiter est deus maximus.’
Augustus erat laetus: ‘multa templa aedificāvī; multa dōna in ārīs posuī. multa
animālia interfēcī. semper deī auxilium Rōmānīs dabunt.’ Rōmānī laetī erant
15 quod Augustō crēdēbant
Antōnius, Antōniī, m Mark Antony

prīnceps, prīncipis, m princeps (the title
given to Augustus
as emperor)
sum ‘I am’
mihī ‘to me’
mē ‘me’
aedificābō ‘I shall build’
Apollō, Apollinis, m Apollo
āra, ārae, f altar
bōs, bovis, m ox; cow
Mars, Martis, m Mars
maximus, maxima,
maximum greatest
dabunt ‘they will give’
129



Complete the crossword below. Each clue is an English derivation of a Latin word found in
the Chapter 4 vocabulary list. Write the Latin word in the crossword.
1 2 3
4 5
10
Across Down
2. irate 1. factory
6. credit 3. agriculture
7. misery 4. transfer
8. volunteer 5. nominate
9. donation 9. dedicate
10. position
130

Exercise A4.2: Verbs

Here are the new verbs for Chapter 4. Fill in the table below with their meaning, their
conjugation, their infinitive and their perfect stem. A verb from Chapter 3 is given as an
example.
verb meaning conjugation infinitive perfect stem
e.g. iubeō, iubēre, order 2nd iube-re iu-ss-

iūssī
1 aedificō, aedificāre,
aedificāvī
2 crēdo, crēdere,
crēdidī
3 habeō, habēre,
habuī
4 pōnō, pōnere,
posuī
5 dō, dare,
dedī
6 persuādeō, persuādēre,
persuāsī
7 faciō, facere,
fēcī
8 nōlō, nōlle,
nōluī
9 volō, velle,
voluī
10 ferō, ferre,
tulī
131

Exercise A4.3: Question words

Unscramble the anagrams to find the Latin question words from Chapter 4 and then
translate each word into English.
anagram Latin word meaning
e.g. nenon no-nne surely. . . .?

1 urc
2 douanq
3 en
4 ibu
5 mnu
Exercise B4.1: Infinitives (including irregular verbs)

The following infinitives are from verbs in the vocabulary lists for Chapter 3 and Chapter 4.
Translate each English infinitive into Latin.
English infinitive Latin infinitive
e.g. to order iube-re

1 to build
2 to fight
3 to make
4 to be able
5 to give
6 to not want
7 to put
8 to want
9 to believe
10 to bring
132

Exercise B4.2: Nouns in the genitive case

Here are the genitive case endings you have learned in Chapter 4.
genitive sg -ae -ī -is
genitive pl -ārum -ōrum -um / -ium
Remember that there are two different endings for the 3rd declension genitive pl: -um
is the ending used for most nouns; -ium is the ending used for adjectives. There are
one or two exceptions to this rule, and these are detailed in the Reference Grammar
on p215.
The nouns below are all in the genitive case. We can use the genitive case to find the stem
and declension of each noun.
Give the meaning of each noun, and identify its stem and declension.
meaning stem declension
e.g. pecūniae money pecu-ni- 1st

1 auxiliī
2 nōminis
3 agrī
4 dōnī
5 īrae
6 templī
7 aurī
8 montis
9 equī
10 maris
133

Exercise B4.3: Nouns in the dative case

Here are the dative case endings you have learned in Chapter 4.
dative sg -ae -ō -ī
Give the meaning for each noun and its dative singular and dative plural forms. Remember,
you will need to use the genitive of each noun to work out the stem and the declension.
noun meaning dative sg dative pl
e.g. pecūnia, pecūniae, f money pecu-niae pecu-ni-¬ s

1 caelum, caelī, n
2 nōmen, nōminis, n
3 ager, agrī, m
4 dōnum, dōnī, n
5 terra, terrae, f
6 templum, templī, n
7 auxilium, auxiliī, n
8 mōns, montis, m
9 equus, equī, m
10 mare, maris, n
134

Exercise B4.4: Adjectives and nouns in the genitive case

This exercise focuses on adjectives from the vocabulary lists for Chapter 3 and Chapter 4.
genitive sg -ae -ī -is
genitive pl -ārum -ōrum -um / -ium
N.B. There are two different endings for the 3rd declension genitive pl: -um is the
ending used for most nouns; -ium is the ending used for adjectives. There are one or
two exceptions to this rule, and these are detailed in the Grammar Reference section
on p215.
Some of the adjectives in the sentences below are 2-1-2 adjectives, others are 3rd
declension adjectives. The table above shows the different genitive endings for the
different declensions.
In each of these sentences the adjective needs to agree with a noun in the genitive case.
Choose the correct adjective and then translate the sentence.
e.g. fīlius hominis (miserī / miserōrum) erat laetus.
The son of the wretched man was happy

1. fīlia mātris (perterritae / perterritārum) lacrimābat.
2. equus deae (crūdēlis / crūdēlium) hominem terrēbat.
3. pater fīliārum (trīstis / trīstium) prope templum manēbat.
4. uxorēs regum (bonī / bonōrum) laetī erant.
5. dōna līberōrum (fēlīcium / fēlīcis) bona erant.
135

Exercise B4.5: Adjectives and nouns in the dative case

This exercise focuses on adjectives from the vocabulary lists for Chapter 3 and Chapter 4.
dative sg -ae -ō -ī
Some of the adjectives in the sentences below are 2-1-2 adjectives, others are 3rd
declension adjectives. The table above shows the different dative endings for the different
declensions.
In each of these sentences the adjective needs to agree with a noun in the dative case.
Choose the correct adjective and then translate the sentence.
e.g. Rōmānī deīs (fēlīcī / fēlīcibus ) crēdēbant.
The Romans trusted the happy gods.

1. deō (fēlīcibus / fēlīcī) templum posuit.
2. pater uxōrī (bonae / bonīs) pecūniam dedit.
3. rēgīnae (miserae / miserīs) persuādēbat.
4. rēx hominibus (malō / malīs) nōn crēdēbat.
5. deīs (crūdēlibus / crūdēlī) templa aedificāvērunt.
136

Exercise C4.1: Nouns and adjectives in the nominative,

genitive and dative cases
Each of the noun and adjective pairs in purple below is either in the nominative, genitive
or dative case. Choose the correct Latin for each noun and adjective pair.
e.g. He wanted to give a gift to the happy king.

(rēx laetus / rēgis laetī / rēgī laetō )
1. We built a temple for the cruel goddess.
(deae crūdēlis / deae crūdēlī / dea crūdēlis)
2. They were the wives of the daring Romans.
(Rōmānī audācēs / Rōmānīs audācibus / Rōmānōrum audācium)
3. I loved the daughter of the good father.
(patrī bonō / pater bonus / patris bonī)
4. You took the weapons of the brave Greeks.
(Graecōrum fortium / Graecī fortēs / Graecīs fortibus)
5. She gave help to the terrified wives.
(uxōrēs perterritae / uxōribus perterritīs / uxōrum perterritārum)
6. They persuaded the evil fathers.
(patrum malōrum / patrēs malī / patribus malīs)
7. He trusted the fortunate daughter.
(fīliae fēlīcis / fīliae fēlīcī / fīlia fēlīx)
8. You brought gold for the great gods.
(deīs magnīs / deī magnī / deōrum magnōrum)
9. Once I was a fortunate daughter.
(fīlia fēlīx / fīliae fēlīcis / fīliae fēlīcī)
10. The brave women punished the bad queen.
(fēminae fortēs / fēminārum fortium / fēminīs fortibus)
137

Exercise C4.2: Imperfect and perfect tense verbs

All the verbs below are in either the perfect tense or the imperfect tense. Translate the
verb in purple in each sentence into Latin.
Remember that
● the perfect and imperfect forms of the verb use different stems, and you may
need to check the principal parts for each verb in the vocabulary lists.
● the imperfect endings depend upon conjugation, and you may need to check the
principal parts for each verb to work out which conjugation it is.
● you need to watch out for irregular verbs (see p118).
e.g. He was praising the king lauda- bat

1. They were praising the gods.
2. She was able to kill the horse.
3. We fought for a long time.
4. You (pl) fought against the Romans.
5. I began to run.
6. Why were the mothers angry?
7. Did you (sg) build a temple?
8. For a long time we wanted to cry.
9. He brought help to the queen.
10. Were you (sg) able to run?

1. Why did you (sg) trust the gods of the river?

2. We brought many things to the temple of the goddess.
3. It was easy for the strong Romans to throw the huge spears.
4. They were not able to persuade the miserable fathers with gold.
5. Surely you (sg) didn’t trust the cruel Greeks?
6. Surely they used to fear the anger of the Romans?
7. Where did he put the gifts for the mother and daughter?
8. Did you (pl) give money to the king because he was building a temple?
9. In the war, it was brave to bring arrows to the Romans.
10. The king did not want the queen to be sad.
138

CHAPTER 5
FESTIVALS, GAMES
AND SHOWS

CW
Religious ceremonies and festivals

We saw in Chapter 4 that worshipping the gods was sometimes done to gain favour, and
sometimes to avoid punishment. Worshipping could also reinforce a sense of community
and was often a great deal of fun. Religious ceremony was at the heart of the many holidays
the Romans celebrated. Romans had many more holidays than we do today. These holidays
were probably quite welcome, as the Romans did not have the idea of weekends. During
some months of the year, there were more than 15 holidays or special religious ceremonies.
These might be as simple and quiet as a special prayer or offering to a god, or they could
involve large festivals with exciting events such as gladiatorial shows, chariot races or grand
feasts, as you will read in Exercise 5.5.
Some Roman holidays were huge public events that lasted for several days and included
major religious festivals. During these major festivals all businesses, law courts and schools
were closed throughout the celebrations. Major holidays and their festivals, such as the
Saturnalia and the Lupercalia, were a time for all Romans to stop their regular business and
honour the gods together as a city. Other major holidays were celebrated more privately at
home, such as the Parentalia in mid-February, during which the Romans honoured their
ancestors.
Minor public festivals were also celebrated, although they were less grand and regular
business continued. They included the Fornacalia, which was held in the middle of February.
This was a festival in honour of Fornax, the goddess of ovens; the festival honoured the
proper baking of bread. Another minor public holiday was the Fontinalia held on October
13th in honour of Fons, the god of fountains and wells. During the Fontinalia, the public
fountains of Rome were covered with garlands of flowers.
Sometimes the gods were worshipped in smaller ceremonies, such as the Lemuria, which
was held in the middle of May to get rid of any evil spirits in the house. According to the
Roman author Ovid, a special ceremony was required to do this. The head of the household
would wash his hands, then walk around the outside of the house with bare feet at midnight.
During this walk, he would throw black beans over his shoulder and repeat nine times,
‘I throw these beans; with these beans I release myself and my family.’ Meanwhile,
everyone inside the house would help out by banging bronze pots together. The ritual was
complete when the head of the household had repeated nine times, ‘Ghosts of my ancestors,
be gone!’
140

FIGURE 5.1 Fasti Amiternini (from the town of Amiternum)

In order to keep track of religious ceremonies and holidays, the Romans recorded
important dates on calendars called fasti. Fasti were often displayed in public places
where everyone could see them, such as temples or the forum. This way everyone
would know when ceremonies or festivals would take place. Fasti also told people
on which days official business, such as law courts, could or could not be conducted
for religious reasons. Here we can see important dates from the 1st century AD .
Saturnalia
The Saturnalia, which took place every year in late December, honoured Saturn, whom we
read about in Chapter 1. It celebrated Saturn as the god of seeds and sowing and marked the
return of light after the winter solstice. Most of our accounts of Saturnalia celebrations are
from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD . During this period, the celebrations lasted for
several days. The law courts were closed, no wars were waged, and schools and businesses
shut down. The Saturnalia was unusual because everyone in Rome participated, even slaves.
The holiday began with prayers and the sacrifice of a young pig at the temple of Saturn.
After the sacrifice there was a public banquet which all Roman citizens could attend. The
Romans believed that Saturn also attended this banquet in spirit and a statue of him was set
up at one of the tables as if he were a guest.
In the temple of Saturn there was an ivory statue of the god which usually had wool tied
around its feet, symbolising chains. These wool chains represented restraint, but the wool
was removed during the festival. This was thought to give the god the same freedom that
everyone else enjoyed during the Saturnalia, because this was the time when all rules were
relaxed.
141

Chapter 5 Festivals, Games and Shows
FIGURE 5.2 Wall painting of a dice game

Dice games were especially popular during the Saturnalia. Gambling and games of chance such as dice games were
played by everyone, including slaves. In this 1st century AD fresco from Pompeii, we can see a group of people
participating in one of these dice games. Many sets of dice have been recovered from Pompeii; some of them were
specially weighted so their owners could cheat.
After the public sacrifice and banquet, everyone continued to celebrate at home or in the
streets or wherever they fancied. Throughout the whole city there were parties, games and
feasting for days. Everything was topsy-turvy. Masters served their slaves. A member of a
household was named the King of Saturnalia and ruled the house for the entire festival. At
the orders of this King, everyone ate, drank, sang songs, played games or gambled for coins
and nuts. Practical jokes and pranks were played and slaves wore their masters’ clothing.
Often, gifts were exchanged and children were given toys and sweets.
Lupercalia
The Lupercalia was held in Rome annually on the 15th of
February. The historian Plutarch wrote that the festival
honoured Lupercus, the Roman god of fertility and
purification. The Lupercalia also honoured Romulus, the
founder of Rome. To celebrate the Lupercalia, a dog and
some goats were sacrificed in the Lupercal cave. This
cave was where the Romans believed Romulus and
Remus had been cared for by the she-wolf. After the
sacrifice, two youths were smeared with the sacrificial
blood. Then they cut up the skins of the goats into thin
FIGURE 5.3 Lupercalia bloody strips called februa and ran through the Roman
In this 16th century painting by Domenico di Pace Beccafumi forum, whipping spectators with them.
we can see the young men running through the streets of It was thought that being struck with a februum
Rome after the sacrifice of a dog and goats. Along their would help anyone who wanted to have a child to
route, we can see young women anxious to be hit by the thin conceive a baby. If a woman was already pregnant, the
bloody strips of goat-skin in the hope that this will make
Romans believed that being hit by a februum would help
them fertile or grant them healthy children.
ensure that she had an easy birth and a healthy baby.
142

Chariot races
Chariot racing was part of some of Rome’s earliest festivals. It is thought
that the Romans adopted chariot racing from their neighbours, the
Etruscans, at the very beginning of their history. Chariot races were
originally part of religious celebrations honouring the gods who drove
chariots: Sol, the sun, and Luna, the moon. Over time chariot races lost
much of their original religious purpose and any wealthy Roman could
sponsor a race to entertain the people of Rome.
Some holidays, however, continued to include chariot races as a part
of the festivities honouring the gods. For example, every year in
FIGURE 5.4 Bronze and ivory chariot
September, the Ludi Romani were held. The Ludi Romani were believed
This ancient chariot dates from the 6th century
to be among the first games instituted by the Romans. You can read
BC . It is 130cm in height and the length of the
more about them in Source 5.1 and Exercise 5.5. On 15th October the pole is just over 2m. As we have seen in
Romans celebrated the festival of the Equus October. This was a holiday previous chapters the Romans were very
dedicated to Mars. On 25th April the Robigalia was held to protect interested in stories from Greek mythology.
against diseases in grain crops. Each of these festivals included chariot On this chariot there are three decorative
panels which depict scenes from the life of
races.
the Greek hero Achilles. The chariot is currently
Chariot racing was an exciting event regardless of whether it was held in the Metropolitan Museum in New York.
part of a festival or just an entertainment for the day. Chariots were
small, two-wheeled vehicles, but they could be drawn by teams of two,
four or six horses. Four to twelve chariots competed in a race. Normally
a race consisted of seven laps around a racecourse known as a circus.
The largest and oldest circus in Rome was the Circus Maximus. By the
time of the emperor Augustus, the Circus Maximus included areas for
seating about 150,000 spectators. Unlike many other entertainment
arenas, men, women and children could all sit together. The racecourse
had a long barrier, filled with statues and monuments, that ran down the
middle of the track.
By the 1st century AD the teams of chariots in Rome were divided
into four factions, each managed by a different association. The teams,
and their fans, wore the colour of their faction: red, white, blue or green.
Just like sports fans today, many Romans were enthusiastic supporters
of one colour. You can read more about this in Source 5.2. Fights
between the fans of different factions were not uncommon and FIGURE 5.5 Mosaic of a Charioteer
sometimes full-scale riots broke out. Though they were often slaves, This beautiful Roman mosaic, which dates
successful charioteers were enormously popular in much the same way from the 3rd century AD , was discovered in a
that professional football players are sometimes regarded today. You villa in Italy. It formed part of a larger piece
can read about one such charioteer named Scorpus in Exercise 5.11. depicting different chariot teams wearing their
different colours. Charioteers in Rome were
usually slaves, but, because of their skill in
this dangerous and fast-paced sport, it was
possible for them to achieve celebrity status.
This mosaic is now housed in the Museo
Nazionale Romano di Palazzo Massimo.
143

Gladiatorial shows
Some holidays and festivals included gladiatorial shows as a part of their celebrations and
they were a popular form of entertainment in Rome. Originally, these contests were part of
the funeral ceremonies for wealthy men who had died. Later, wealthy citizens sponsored
gladiatorial shows as free entertainment to earn popularity. Politicians often put on
gladiatorial shows to gain the favour of the voters. Over time the gladiatorial shows became
increasingly lengthy and lavish.
Gladiatorial shows were an all-day entertainment; some gladiator shows lasted for several
days. The combat of trained gladiators was the main event. Other events might include the
execution of common criminals. Criminals were put to death in a variety of ways. Some
criminals were made to re-enact historic battles or scenes from mythology. Others were
thrown to exotic wild beasts with few or no weapons. By modern standards, gladiatorial
shows were unpleasantly cruel and bloodthirsty events. As you can read in Source 5.4, at
least some ancient Romans agreed.
There were different types of gladiators and each gladiator was trained in a particular
style, each with its own weapons and armour. It took a great deal of time and money to train
a gladiator properly. This meant that gladiators were expensive investments and their lives
would not have been thrown away lightly. Fights had strict rules and referees made sure they
were followed. Although the death of a gladiator would end a fight, opponents would not
always kill one another. If one gladiator defeated another, he would look to the sponsor of
the show to be told if he should kill his opponent. If the defeated gladiator had fought well
and entertained the crowd, the crowd might cheer, showing that they thought he should live.
If the gladiator had not fought bravely and skilfully, the crowd might cry out for his death.
As you will read in Exercise 5.9, spectators could become so enthusiastic about gladiatorial
shows that they sometimes got out of hand and even rioted.
Most gladiators were captives of war, criminals, or slaves, although there were also a few
free men who became gladiators by choice. A successful gladiator could make a great deal
of money, both in pay and in presents from enthusiastic fans. If a gladiator fought well, he
had a chance to win his freedom. The life of a gladiator, however, was not an easy one.
Training to fight in the arena was hard and brutal work and it could be as dangerous as the
real thing. In Exercise 5.7, you will read about one gladiator, called Spartacus, who hated his
life as a gladiator so much that he persuaded his fellow gladiators to join him in a major
rebellion against their Roman owners.
FIGURE 5.6 Colosseum

The Colosseum is one of the most famous
sites in Rome. Known to the ancient
Romans as the Flavian Amphitheatre, it
could hold somewhere between 50,000
and 80,000 spectators. Completed in AD
80, the Colosseum was in use as the site
of shows and other public entertainments
for almost 500 years.
144

Source 5.1: The origin of the Circus Maximus

Chariot racing was an ancient part of Roman festivals and games. The historian Livy tells
us that in the 6th century BC , Tarquinius Priscus, one of the kings of Rome, created the race
track which would one day become the Circus Maximus and established the Ludi Romani.
You can read more about what happened in the Ludi Romani in Exercise 5.5.
Tarquinius Priscus waged his first war against the Latins and took by storm the town of
Apiolae. When greater booty was brought back than might have been expected, he
celebrated games on a more lavish and elaborate scale than had the earlier kings. Then for
the first time a site was selected for the race track, which is now known as the Circus
Maximus. Areas were assigned to senators and equestrians where each class might build
tiered seats for their own use; they watched the games from raised seating, twelve feet high
off the ground. The show consisted of horses and boxers, most of whom came from
Etruria. Thereafter the games were held at regular annual intervals, and they were called Etruria was the land
the Ludi Romani. of the Etruscans.
Livy, The History of Rome, Book 1.35 (with omissions; trans. adapted)

1 Why was Tarquinius Priscus able to put on such elaborate games for the
people?
2 What became the name of the main race track in Rome?
3 Why do you think the senators and equestrians had special areas to sit in?
4 What else are we told about the seating arrangements?
5 Do you think it was a good idea to spend so much money in this way?
145

Source 5.2: Disgust at the chariot races

Pliny was a Roman noble who lived towards the end of the 1st century AD . Unlike many
other Romans, he took no interest in the chariot races at all. In this letter he explains why he
has chosen to stay at his country villa rather than return to Rome to watch the races, and he
is scorchingly rude about both the races and their spectators.
I have been spending all the last few days amongst my notes and papers in most welcome
peace. How could I in the city? The races were on, a type of spectacle which has never had
the slightest attraction for me. I can find nothing new or different in them: once seen is
enough, so it surprises me all the more that so many thousands of adult men should have
such a childish passion for watching galloping horses and drivers standing in chariots, over
and over again. If they were attracted by the speed of the horses or the drivers’ skill one
could account for it, but in fact it is the racing-colours that they really support and care
about, and if the colours were to be exchanged in mid-course during a race, they would
transfer their favour and enthusiasm and rapidly desert the famous drivers and horses
whose names they shout as they recognise them from afar. Such is the popularity and
importance of a worthless shirt. When I think how this futile, tedious, monotonous business
can keep them sitting endlessly in their seats, I take pleasure in the fact that their pleasure
is not mine. And I have been very glad to fill my idle hours with literary work during these
days which others have wasted in the idlest of occupations.
Pliny, Letters of the Younger Pliny 9.6.(with omissions; trans. slightly adapted)

1 What has Pliny chosen to do rather than watch the races?
2 Why does Pliny have no interest in the races?
3 What two features of chariot racing does Pliny say might deserve interest?
4 What does Pliny say is the thing that the people really support and care
about? How does Pliny make it clear that he thinks this is a foolish thing to
support?
5 Pliny describes the races as ‘futile, tedious, monotonous’. What do these
words mean?
6 How many of Pliny’s criticisms could be applied to modern-day sports fans?
146

Source 5.3: An advertisement for a gladiatorial show

from Pompeii
The advertisement below is from Pompeii and dates from the middle of the 1st century AD .
The show advertised was funded by Decimus Lucretius Satrius Valens and his son. It is likely
that they paid a significant sum of money hiring 30 pairs from a gladiator school, and that
they did this to gain popularity. This number of gladiators must have made for a sizeable
show, but this does not seem exceptional for shows at this time: other adverts have been
found which mention shows with a similar number. In 2018, however, an inscription was
found near Pompeii which refers to a show there with a staggering 416 gladiators.
20 PAIRS OF GLADIATORS OF
DECIMUS LUCRETIUS SATRIUS VALENS,
PERPETUAL PRIEST OF NERO CAESAR, SON OF AUGUSTUS,
AND 10 PAIRS OF GLADIATORS OF DECIMUS LUCRETIUS VALENS,
HIS SON, ON 28 MARCH.
THERE WILL BE A HUNT AND AWNINGS.
CIL 4.7995

1 Find three different details which suggest this was designed to be an
impressive show.
2 The advertisement refers to a hunt: what can you find out about the different
types of animals which were used at the games by the 1st century AD ?
3 What is an awning? What does this tell us about the experience of watching
the games?
4 Why do you think Decimus Lucretius Satrius Valens refers to his position as a
priest?
5 Do you think it would be right for politicians or public figures today to put on
free entertainment as a way to boost their popularity and win support?
147

Source 5.4: Animals in the arena

The text below is an extract from a letter written by the statesman Cicero in 55 BC , which he
sent to his friend Marcus. Cicero describes the crowd’s reaction to seeing elephants in the
arena. The image in Figure 5.8 was found in Spain, and dates from roughly 100 years later.
There remain the two sets of wild-animal fights, lasting five days, magnificent – nobody
denies it – and yet, what pleasure can it be to a man of refinement, when either a weak man
is mauled by an extremely powerful animal, or a splendid animal is pierced right through
by a hunting spear? Even if these things are worth seeing, you have often seen them before;
indeed, those of us who watched these fights did not see anything new.
The last day was given over to the elephants, at whom there was a great deal of
astonishment on the part of the crowd and the general public, but no pleasure whatever.
Instead, the elephants gave rise to a certain feeling of compassion, and the thought that this
breed of animal has something in common with mankind.
Cicero, Letters to his Friends 7.1 (trans. adapted)
FIGURE 5.7 A man fighting a lioness

This painting was discovered in a tomb near an amphitheatre
in Spain. It dates from the late 1st century AD .

1 Why does Cicero think that the wild-animal fights are not worth watching?
2 What does Cicero tell us about the crowd’s reaction to seeing elephants in
the arena?
3 Figure 5.8 shows a man fighting a lioness: do you think the man was likely to
win?
4 Consider Source 5.4 and Figure 5.8: do you think these are evidence that
attitudes to animal fighting changed over time?
5 How do you think you would respond if you were invited to watch an animal
fight in an arena today?
148

1 What do Roman festivals tell us about Roman society and its values?
● religious festivals such as the Saturnalia and Lupercalia
● the chariot races
● gladiatorial shows
● the animal hunts
● the role of slaves
2 What do you think it would have been like to attend a Roman festival?
● the length of the festivals
● the role of sacrifice at the festival
● the entertainments on offer
● the size and scale of the different festivals
3 How do Roman festivals compare with modern-day public ceremonies and

celebrations?
You might like to compare the Roman festivals with the following
● religious ceremonies such as Christmas or Easter
● non-religious ceremonies such as Bonfire Night
● major sporting events
● music festivals
● national saints’ days such as St Patrick’s Day
149

CW
Vocabulary List
clāmō clāmāre, clāmāvī shout
festīnō festīnāre, festīnāvī hurry
parō parāre, parāvī prepare; provide
spectō spectāre, spectāvī look at; watch
vocō vocāre, vocāvī call
rīdeō rīdēre, rīsī laugh; smile
bibō bibere, bibī drink
cōnsūmō cōnsūmere, cōnsūmpsī eat
veniō venīre, vēnī come
absum abesse, āfuī be absent; be away; be distant from
adsum adesse, adfuī be here; be present
agricola agricolae, m farmer
ancilla ancillae, f slave-girl; slave-woman
aqua aquae, f water
cēna cēnae, f dinner; meal
taberna tabernae, f shop; inn
vīlla vīllae, f house; country villa
cibus cibī, m food
servus servī, m slave
lūdus lūdī, m school; game; public games / festival (pl)
vīnum vīnī, n wine
urbs urbis, f city
cēterī cēterae, cētera the rest; the others
fessus fessa, fessum tired
mortuus mortua, mortuum dead
sacer sacra, sacrum sacred
iterum again
magnopere greatly
mox soon
nunc now
150

People
The following people feature in the sentences and stories in this chapter.
Sabīnae, Sabīnārum, f pl The Sabine Women became the wives of the

first Romans. They were stolen by the Romans
from their Sabine families during a festival.
Spartacus, Spartacī, m Spartacus was one of Rome’s most famous

gladiators: he rebelled against the cruel life he
was forced to endure as a gladiator and he
became the leader of a major slave revolt in the
1st century BC .
Pōmpēiānī, The citizens of Pompeii and the citizens of

Pōmpēiānōrum, m pl Nuceria, a nearby town, became embroiled in a
Nūcerīnī, major crowd riot during a gladiator show in the
Nūcerīnōrum, m pl 1st century AD . They were punished by the
Roman state for their appalling behaviour at the
games.
Scorpus, Scorpī, m Scorpus was a glamorously successful

charioteer in the 1st century AD ; the stories told
about him show the fame and fortune which
could be won as a successful competitor at the
games.
151

Present tense: sum, possum, eō

As discussed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4, sum, possum and eō are all irregular
verbs.
So far, you have learned the infinitives of these verbs and their forms in the
imperfect and perfect tenses.
In some of the stories in Chapters 1– 4, however, you have met some of the
present tense forms of these verbs, for example est – he / she / it is.
Here are their present tense forms in full.
I sum – I am possum – I am able eō – I go
you (sg) es potes īs
he / she / it est potest it
we sumus possumus īmus
you (pl) estis potestis ītis
they sunt possunt eunt
EXERCISE 5.1
1. potest ā perīculō celeriter festīnāre.
2. agricolae trīstēs in urbem eunt.
3. fīliāsne possumus ad cēnam vocāre?
4. māter, quod saepe rīdēre potest, nōn misera est.
5. īmus ad mare sed difficile est festīnāre.
6. rēx diū regere potest.
7. cūr in agrōs cum fīliīs ītis?
8. nōnne īram deōrum timēre potes?
9. sacra dōna ad templum ferre possunt.
10. fīlia perterrita nōn in silvam it.
152

adsum and absum

possum is not the only verb which is a compound of sum. In this chapter you
will meet two more.
adsum, adesse, adfuī be here; be present

absum, abesse, āfuī be absent; be away; be distant from
Because these verbs are compounds of sum, their endings are the same as for
sum. Here are their present and imperfect forms.
I adsum – I absum – I aderam – I aberam – I Note that like sum,

am present am absent was present was absent these verbs are
rarely used in the
you (sg) ades abes aderās aberās
perfect tense
he / she / it adest abest aderat aberat because in Latin the
imperfect tense is
we adsumus absumus aderāmus aberāmus the typical past
tense for actions
you (pl) adestis abestis aderātis aberātis
which are by nature
they adsunt absunt aderant aberant ongoing.
EXERCISE 5.2
1. agricolae in agrīs aderant.
2. cūr ā bellō abes?
3. facile est in tabernā adesse.
4. hominēs fēlīcēs prope templum adsunt.
5. quandō pater et māter ab villā aberant?
6. num Rōmulus in caelō aderat?
7. ancillae et servī in villā aderant.
8. cūr in tabernā nōn adsumus?
9. diū ab urbe aberam.
10. quandō in urbe aderātis?
153

EXERCISE 5.3: THE THEFT OF THE SABINE WOMEN
One of the oldest stories about a Roman festival is the story of the theft of the
Sabine Women. The story is sometimes referred to as the Rape of the Sabine
Women. In this context ‘rape’ means theft or abduction because it is derived from
the Latin verb rapiō - I steal.
Romulus had persuaded many men to join his new city, but he had not been able to
persuade any of the neighbouring Italians to offer any women for them to marry. In
desperation, the Romans decided to steal women from the nearest Italian
community, a tribe called the Sabines. They invited their neighbours to a festival and
then stole the women while everyone was watching the show.
Rōmulus urbem pulchram aedificāvit: multī ad urbem vēnērunt quod erant

vīllae magnae et tabernae bonae. fēminae tamen in urbe nōn aderant. Rōmulus
et Rōmānī trīstēs erant: ‘uxōrēs habēre nōn possumus,’ inquiunt Rōmānī miserī.
‘līberōs habēre nōn possumus; mox mortui erimus; quī tum erunt Rōmānī?’
cēterae tamen urbēs fēminās Rōmānīs dare nōlēbant: ‘Rōmānī,’ inquiunt, ‘sunt 5
malī. iūssimus fēminās in urbibus nostrīs manēre.’
tum Rōmānī trīstissimī erant. Rōmulus tamen cōnsilium cēpit: ‘potestis,’ inquit,
‘fēminās rapere!’ Rōmulus Rōmānīs persuāsit; Rōmānōs iūssit lūdōs Neptūnālēs
facere et fēminās ad lūdōs vocāre. Rōmānī fēminās lūdōs spectāre volēbant,
quod volēbant capere fēminās nēsciās. 10
multae fēminae ad lūdōs ex urbibus cēterīs festīnāvērunt. multae fēminae

lūdōs spectābant; Rōmānī tamen nōn lūdōs spectābant sed fēminās. subitō
Rōmulus sīgnum dedit; subitō Rōmānī fēminās rapuērunt! fēminae quaedam
perterritae erant et magnopere lacrimābant, sed cēterae fēminae erant īrātae
et magnopere clāmābant: ‘cūr Rōmānī nōs rapuērunt? nōnne possumus abīre? 15
miserae sumus quod malum est esse uxōrēs Rōmānōrum.’
Rōmānī tamen fēminās amābant; Rōmānī fēminās laudābant: ‘pulchrae estis,’

clāmābant Rōmānī, ‘et possumus vōs magnopere amāre. laetī sumus quod
nunc estis uxōrēs nostrae. nōn malum est esse uxōrēs Rōmānōrum!’ Rōmānī
fēminīs persuāsērunt; Rōmānī laetī erant quod tandem uxōrēs pulchrās et 20
bonās habēbant.
154

erimus ‘we shall be’

quī ‘who . . . ?’
erunt ‘(they) will be’
noster, nostra, nostrum our
trīstissimus, trīstissima, trīstissimum very sad
cōnsilium, cōnsiliī, n plan
rapiō, rapere, rapuī steal
Neptūnālis, Neptūnāle in honour of Neptune
nēscius, nēscia, nēscium unawares
sīgnum, sīgnī, n signal
quaedam (feminine nominative pl) ‘certain’
nōs (accusative) ‘us’
155

Present tense: ferō, volō, nōlō

Here are the present tense endings for the irregular verbs ferō, volō and nōlō.
I ferō – I carry volō – I want nōlō – I do not want
you (sg)
(sg
g) fers vīs nōn vīs
he / she / it fert vult nōn vult
we ferimus volumus nōlumus
you (pl) fertis vultis nōn vultis
they ferunt volunt nōlunt
EXERCISE 5.4
1. līberī aurum et dōna ad templum ferunt.
2. servus cibum et aquam fert.
3. agricola urbem adīre nōn vult.
4. vīsne cēnam bonam cōnsūmere?
5. nōnne ad tabernam festīnāre vultis?
6. ‘ferō hastam ingentem,’ inquit rēx, ‘et iacere volō.’
7. deōs malōs laudāre nōlumus.
8. māter crūdēlis aquam fīliīs nōn fert.
9. fessus sum quod arma ingentia ferō.
10. difficile est gladium magnum ferre.
TEST YOURSELF!
See if you can remember the Latin for the following present tense verbs:
1. they are 6. you (pl) are absent
2. he / she / it is present 7. I carry
3. you (sg) do not want 8. we want
4. we are able 9. he / she / it is
5. they go 10. they are able
156

EXERCISE 5.5: THE LUDI ROMANI CW
The Romans had many festivals, and feasts were a regular part of these. A particularly
important feast in honour of Jupiter took place on the 13th of September during the
Ludi Romani. The Ludi Romani were among Rome’s most ancient and important
festivals because they were first celebrated by Tarquinius Priscus, one of Rome’s
first kings.
Rōmānī deōs et deās laudāre volēbant: saepe lūdōs faciēbant quod volēbant
deōs esse laetōs.
Lūdī Rōmānī sacrī Iovī erant: in Lūdīs Rōmānīs Rōmānī magnās epulās faciēbant.
multī Rōmānī ad epulās veniēbant; multī agricolae ab agrīs ad urbem veniēbant
5 quod ad epulās adesse volēbant. servī et ancillae cēnam optimam ē vīllīs et
tabernīs ad epulās ferēbant: ‘fertis,’ inquiunt Rōmānī, ‘cēnam optimam!
volumus deōs et deās esse laetōs! volumus cēnam optimam cōnsūmere!’ servī
et ancillae cibum et vīnum bonum in mēnsīs ingentibus posuērunt. Rōmānī
cibum cōnsūmpsērunt et vīnum bibērunt; Rōmānī rīdēbant et laetī erant.
10 Rōmānī etiam deōs et deās ad epulās Iovis vocābant: statuās deōrum et

deārum prope mēnsās posuērunt. Rōmānī volēbant deōs et deās adesse quod
volēbant epulās esse fēlīcēs.
epulae, epulārum, f pl feast

optimus, optima, optimum excellent
mēnsa, mēnsae, f table
statua, statuae, f statue
157

Person endings
Even though sum, possum, eō, ferō, volō and nōlō are irregular, they all make
use of the same set of letters which show who the subject is. We call these letters
the person endings.
1st person (sg) I -ō / m
2nd person (sg) you (sg) -s
Remember: the 3rd person (sg) he / she / it -t

person endings are
1st person (pl) we -mus
also used at the end
of the imperfect 2nd person (pl) you (pl) -tis
tense: -bam, bās,
3rd person (pl) they -nt
bat etc.
Present tense: 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs

The person endings are used for regular present tense verbs as well as the
irregular verbs. We need, however, to learn present tense endings by conjugation,
because – as we have seen for the infinitive and imperfect forms – each conjugation
makes use of different vowels for any verb form which uses the stem from the
first principal part.
Here are the present tense endings for the 1st and 2nd conjugations.
1st conjugation 2nd conjugation
I amō – l love terreō – I frighten
you (sg) amās terrēs
he / she / it amat terret
we amāmus terrēmus
you (pl) amātis terrētis
they amant terrent
158

EXERCISE 5.6
1. cēnam bonam mātrī et patrī parāmus.
2. cūr rīdēs? nunc pater īrātus est.
3. līberī ad urbem festīnant.
4. datisne cibum et vīnum deīs?
5. equōs bonōs habēō.
6. nunc templum magnum aedificant.
7. servus et ancilla in vīllā manent.
8. rēgīna lacrimat quod rēx est crūdēlis.
9. Rōmānī fēminās ad urbem vocant.
10. cūr agricolās in montēs ascendere iubet?
GRAMMAR HUNT
Can you find in Exercise 5.6 an example of each of the following?
1. a 3rd person (pl) 1st conjugation verb
2. a 1st person (sg) 2nd conjugation verb
3. a 3rd person (pl) 2nd conjugation verb
4. a 3rd person (sg) 1st conjugation verb
5. a 2nd person (sg) 2nd conjugation verb
6. a 2nd person (pl) 1st conjugation verb
7. a 3rd person (sg) 2nd conjugation verb
8. a 1st person (pl) 1st conjugation verb
TEST YOURSELF!
Can you recite the imperfect tense for each of the following verbs?
1. sum
2. eō
3. possum
4. amō
5. terreō
159

EXERCISE 5.7: SPARTACUS
Gladiator fights became a regular part of many Roman games and festivals. The life
of a gladiator, however, was often harsh. Gladiators were slaves and many masters
were cruel. In the 70s BC the gladiator Spartacus persuaded his fellow gladiators to
break free from their training school and fight for their freedom. Many other slaves
joined their ranks, and Spartacus became the leader of 70,000 men. Even a slave
uprising of this size, however, was no match for the might of the Roman army, and
in 71 BC Crassus, a Roman general, won a decisive victory against them.
in lūdō gladiātōrum Spartacus erat gladiātor. Spartacus erat miser quod semper
fessus erat. saepe gladiō fortiter pugnābat. saepe hominēs celeriter interfēcit.
magister tamen gladiātōrum saevus et crūdēlis erat: saepe gladiātōrēs pūnīvit.
saepe gladiātōrēs cibum malum habēbant, saepe nūllum vīnum.
Spartacus īrātus erat: cēterōs gladiātōrēs vocāvit. ‘saepe pugnō,’ inquit, 5

‘saepe pugnātis: saepe lacrimāmus; semper timēmus. cibum malum
habēmus, nūllum vīnum. fessī sumus. numquam rīdēmus; numquam laetī
sumus. sed magister laetus est! magister cibum bonum cōnsūmere potest;
magister etiam vīnum bibere potest. magister non fessus est. magister non
timet. volō magistrum interficere; volō effugere!’ Spartacus gladiātoribus 10
persuāsit. ‘fessī sumus,’ inquiunt cēterī gladiātōrēs, ‘et sumus īrātī. volumus
effugere!’ Spartacus gladiātōrēs iūssit gladiōs parāre. ‘mox,’ inquit Spartacus,
‘effugiēmus.’
Spartacus et gladiātōrēs erant fortēs et audācēs: magistrum interfēcērunt et ē

lūdō effūgērunt. in multīs vīllīs servī volēbant cum Spartacō effugere: ‘fortiter 15
pugnās!’ clāmābant. ‘fortis es! magistrum nōn timuistī! magistrum interfēcistī!
volumus fortiter pugnāre! volumus effugere!’
Rōmānī timēbant quod tot servī effugiēbant. multōs mīlitēs parāvērunt. diū
Rōmānī contrā Spartacum et servōs pugnābant. tandem Spartacum et cēterōs
servōs vīcērunt. tum Spartacum interfēcērunt. 20
gladiātor, gladiātōris, m gladiator

magister, magistrī, m master
nūllus, nūlla, nūllum not any; none; no
numquam never
effugiō, effugere, effūgī escape
effugiēmus ‘we shall escape’
tot so many
mīles, mīlitis, m soldier
160

Present tense: 3rd and 4th conjugation verbs

Here are the present tense endings for verbs in the 3rd and 4th conjugations.
3rd conjugation 4th conjugation Note that the

present tense
I regō – I rule audiō – I hear
endings for mixed
you (sg) regis audīs conjugation verbs
such as capiō are
he / she / it regit audit exactly the same as
for audiō; they are
we regimus audīmus
listed in full on p221.
you (pl) regitis audītis
they regunt audiunt
EXERCISE 5.8
1. Graecī trāns flūmen hastās iaciunt.
2. cūr vīnum in terrā ponis? volō vīnum in villā esse.
3. Aenēas Graecīs nōn crēdit quod dōna ferunt.
4. servī per agrōs currunt quod agricolās timent.
5. ancilla dē perīculō audit et perterrita est.
6. nōnne dea nunc dē caelō dēscendit?
7. ubi arma ponitis?
8. nōmen rēgis audīmus et auxilium petimus.
9. corpora mortua cōnspiciō.
10. malī līberī in vīllā currunt.
DERIVATION HUNT
1. risible
2. nullify
3. militant
4. commiserate
5. imbibe
161

EXERCISE 5.9: VIOLENCE AT A GLADIATOR SHOW
The crowds at games and festivals were often rowdy. In AD 59 a major riot took place
in the town of Pompeii after a fight broke out between the citizens of Nuceria and
Pompeii who were watching the gladiator show. In anger at their behaviour, the
Romans banned the Pompeians from holding similar shows for ten years.
Pōmpēiānī amphitheātrum magnum aedificāvērunt. saepe in amphitheātrō

multī gladiātōrēs pugnābant; gladiātōrēs hominēs gladiīs interficiēbant;
animālia hastīs vincēbant. Pōmpēiānī lūdōs spectābant: ‘gladiātōrēs hastās
iaciunt!’ laetī clāmābant. ‘gladiātōrēs animālia hastīs interficiunt!’
ōlim Nūcerīnī ad amphitheātrum Pōmpēiānōrum vēnērunt. Nūcerīnī et Pōmpēiānī 5

gladiātōrēs spectābant. ‘volumus gladiātōrēs animālia interficere!’ clāmābant
Nūcerīnī. ‘volumus gladiātōrēs multōs servōs interficere!’ Pōmpēiānī īrātī erant.
‘cūr Nūcerīnī adsunt? cūr Nūcerīnī clāmant? volumus Nūcerīnōs abīre!’
Nūcerīnī īrātī erant. ‘cūr Pōmpēiānī clāmant?’ inquiunt. ‘cūr volunt nōs abīre?’
tum Pōmpēiānī īrātissimī erant: tum nōlēbant gladiātōrēs spectāre sed volēbant 10
cum Nūcerīnīs pugnāre! Pōmpēiānī gladiōs cēpērunt et subitō ad Nūcerīnōs
cucurrērunt.
‘Pōmpēiānī gladiōs capiunt!’ clāmāvērunt Nūcerīnī. ‘nunc Pōmpēiānī ad nōs

currunt! cūr Pōmpēiānī lapidēs ferunt? num Pōmpēiānī lapidēs ad nōs iaciunt?’
iterum et iterum Pōmpēiānī lapidēs magnōs iaciēbant. Nūcerīnī īrātissimī erant 15
et ad Pōmpēiānōs cucurrērunt. Pōmpēiānī clāmāvērunt: ‘nōsne Nūcerīnī
petunt? nunc etiam Nūcerīnī lapidēs ferunt! etiam Nūcerīnī lapidēs iaciunt!’
tum saevissimē Pōmpēiānī cum Nūcerīnīs pugnābant. multī Pōmpēiānōrum

erant mortuī, multī Nūcerīnōrum.
Rōmānī īrātissimī erant: ‘nunc,’ inquiunt Rōmānī, ‘Nūcerīnōs et Pōmpēiānōs 20

pūnīre volumus. diū in amphitheātrō gladiātōrēs hastās nōn iacient; diū
gladiātōrēs nōn pugnābunt. decem annōs Pōmpēiānī gladiātōrēs nōn
spectābunt.’
162

amphitheātrum, amphitheātrī, n amphitheatre

gladiātōr, gladiātōris, m gladiator
nōs (accusative pl) ‘us’
īrātissimus, īrātissima, īrātissimum very angry
lapis, lapidis, m stone
saevissimē most savagely
iacient ‘they will throw’
pugnābunt ‘they will fight’
decem annōs ‘for ten years’
spectābunt ‘they will watch
163

Present participles
A participle is a verb form which is very different from those you have met so far:
this is because it behaves like an adjective.
In English, present participles are words like loving, terrifying, ruling, listening.
See how they are used to describe nouns in the sentences below.
The terrifying king punished the children.

The slave saw the slave-girl taking the food.
In Latin, present participles are very recognisable by their endings.
● Present participles use the present stem of the verb, and this means that
the vowels used depend upon the verb’s conjugation.
● Present participles are 3rd declension adjectives, and they change their
endings just like the adjective ingēns.
● It is usual to list present participles in word lists with their nominative sg and
their genitive sg.
1st conjugation amāns, amantis – loving
2nd conjugation terrēns, terrentis – terrifying

Look it up! For a full
3rd conjugation regēns, regentis – ruling
table of the endings
for each case, gender 4th conjugation audiēns, audientis – listening
and number, see
mixed conjugation
n capiēns, capientis – taking
p223.
Translating present participles

English does not use participles as often as Latin does; this means that sometimes
it is best to move away from a literal translation into something which works better
in English.
agricola servōs currentēs spectāvit.
Literal translation The farmer watched the running slaves.
Better translation The farmer watched the slaves while they were running.
164

EXERCISE 5.10
1. servus equum currentem capere nōn poterat.
2. quandō fīlium clāmantem audīvērunt?
3. audīvistīne fīliam lacrimantem?
4. agricola servum aquam ferentem cōnspexit.
5. nōlō dōnum dare regī bellum ferentī.
6. festīnantēs ad urbem pecūniam cōnspeximus.
7. servī ad tabernam currentēs per silvam festīnant.
8. ancilla vīnum ad agricolam cibum cōnsūmentem tulit.
9. perīculum līberōs in vīllā manentēs terrēbat.
10. subitō fīlius rēgem pugnantem sagittā interfēcit.
GRAMMAR HUNT
1. a dative sg 3rd declension noun
2. a nominative pl present participle
3. an ablative sg 1st declension noun
4. an accusative pl 2nd declension noun
5. an accusative sg present participle
6. a nominative sg 2nd declension noun
7. an accusative sg 1st declension noun
8. a nominative sg 2nd declension neuter noun
9. an accusative sg 2nd declension noun
10. a dative sg present participle
165

CW EXERCISE 5.11: DEATH OF A CHARIOTEER
In the games, successful athletes could win great fame and glory. Scorpus was a
charioteer in the 1st century AD who competed for one of Rome’s leading teams.
According to the poet Martial, Scorpus won more than 2,000 victories. The crowd
loved him, cheered for him and often threw money at him in delight at his success.
Tragically he died young in a chariot crash.
Scorpus erat aurīga clārissimus. iterum et iterum in Circō Maximō vīcit. Rōmānī
et Rōmānae Scorpum magnopere laudābant quod Scorpus erat aurīga optimus.
Rōmānī et Rōmānae Scorpum magnopere amābant quod Scorpus erat aurīga
pulcher. Scorpus, ubi in Circō Maximō certābat, semper Rōmānōs clāmantēs
audīvit, semper Rōmānōs laudantēs audīvit. Scorpus laetus erat quod semper 5
vincēbat. ‘vincere,’ inquit Scorpus, ‘est facile mihī!’
ōlim Scorpus Rōmānōs pecūniam ferentēs cōnspexit; tum Rōmānōs pecūniam

in arēnam iacientēs cōnspexit! Rōmānī pecūniam Scorpō dedērunt quod saepe
vincēbat. iterum et iterum Rōmānī
spectantēs pecūniam Scorpō dedērunt. 10
Scorpus erat laetissimus.
deī tamen Scorpō invidēbant quod

Rōmānī Scorpum magnopere amābant.
deī Scorpum certantem pūnīvērunt:
Scorpum certantem interfēcērunt. 15
Rōmānī trīstēs erant. ‘Scorpus est
mortuus,’ clāmāvērunt. Rōmānae
lacrimābant. ‘Scorpus erat aurīga
clārissimus,’ inquiunt, ‘sed nunc deī
Scorpum pūnīvērunt.’ 20
Circus Maximus, Circī Maximī, m Circus Maximus, Rome’s most important

chariot racing arena
aurīga, aurīgae, m charioteer
clārissimus, clārissima, clārissimum most famous
optimus, optima, optimum excellent
ubi when
certō, certāre, certāvī compete
mihī ‘for me’
arēna, arēnae, f arena
laetissimus, laetissima, laetissimum very happy
invideō, invidēre, invīdī (+ dative) envy
166



Give the meaning of each of these words from the Chapter 5 vocabulary list, then find
English words which derive from them and explain what they mean.
e.g. mortuus dead mortuary a place where dead bodies are kept
1 agricola
2 sacer
3 servus
4 taberna
5 aqua
6 urbs
7 vīnum
8 spectō
9 rīdeō
10 clāmō

These words do not all appear as they would be listed in a dictionary. Write out the full
form of each word as it appears in the Chapter 5 vocabulary list, give its meaning and label
it as either a noun, verb, adjective or adverb.
Latin word dictionary form meaning part of speech

e.g. cēnam ce-na, ce-nae, f dinner noun
1 vīnō
2 absumus
3 sacram
4 iterum
5 fessum
6 servōs
7 clāmās
8 magnopere
9 parāre
10 ancillae
167

Exercise B5.1: Present tense irregular verbs –

Latin into English
The following words are present tense forms you have met in Chapter 5 of the irregular
verbs sum, adsum, absum, possum, ferō, eō, volō and nōlō. Translate each verb into
English. You can look up the present tense of these verbs on pp152–156.
e.g. est he / she / it is

1. possunt
2. absumus
3. it
4. volunt
5. nōn vīs
6. fers
7. eunt
8. estis
9. vult
10. fert
Exercise B5.2: Present tense irregular verbs –

English into Latin
The verbs in this exercise are present tense forms you have met in Chapter 5 of the
irregular verbs sum, adsum, absum, possum, ferō, eō, volō and nōlō.
Write the Latin translation for each of these verbs. You can look up the present tense of
these verbs on pp152–156.
e.g. they bring ferunt

1. we do not want
2. you (sg) are able
3. you (pl) are going
4. he is absent
5. they are
6. we bring
7. you (sg) want
8. we are going
9. they want
10. he is present
168

Exercise B5.3: Present tense – 1st and 2nd conjugations

The verbs in this exercise are from the vocabulary lists for Chapter 4 and Chapter 5.
Here is a reminder of the present tense endings for verbs in the 1st and 2nd
conjugations.
I amō terreō
you (sg) amās terrēs
he / she / it amat terret
we amāmus terrēmus
you (pl) amātis terrētis
they amant terrent
Give the meaning of the following verbs and identify their conjugation. Then give the 3rd
person (sg) form of the present tense for each verb.
meaning conjugation 3rd person (sg) present
e.g. parō, parāre, prepare; provide 1st parat

parāvī
1 clāmō, clāmāre,
clāmāvī
2 habeō, habēre,
habuī
3 festīnō, festīnāre,
festīnāvī
4 rīdeō, rīdēre,
rīsī
5 persuādeō, persuādēre,
persuāsī
169

Exercise B5.4: Present tense – 3rd and 4th conjugations

The verbs in this exercise are from the vocabulary lists for Chapter 4 and Chapter 5.
Here is a reminder of present tense endings for verbs in the 3rd and 4th conjugations.
3rd conjugation 4th conjugation
I regō audiō
you (sg) regis audīs
he / she / it regit audit
we regimus audīmus
you (pl) regitis audītis
they regunt audiunt
The endings for mixed conjugation verbs such as capiō are exactly the same as for audiō.
Give the meaning of the following verbs and identify their conjugation. Then give the 3rd
person (pl) form of the present tense for each verb.
meaning conjugation 3rd person (pl) present
e.g. pōnō, pōnere, put; place; set up 3rd po-nunt

posuī
1 veniō, venīre,
vēnī
2 crēdo, crēdere,
crēdidī
3 bibō, bibere,
bibī
4 cōnsūmō, cōnsūmere,
cōnsūmpsī
5 faciō, facere,
fēcī
170

Exercise B5.5: Present tense – all conjugations

The verbs in this exercise are from the vocabulary lists for Chapters 3, 4 and 5. They are all
in the present tense. Identify the conjugation and translate each verb into English. If the
conjugation is not clear from the ending, you will need to check the verb’s principal parts.
conjugation translation
e.g. clāmās 1st you (sg) shout

1 rīdet
2 dās
3 cōnsūmimus
4 audiunt
5 iubeō
6 festīnātis
7 ascendis
8 crēditis
9 cōnspicit
10 pōnis
11 habent
12 dēscendunt
13 persuādent
14 petit
15 audīmus
16 aedificat
17 facīs
18 spectātis
19 bibunt
20 venīs
171

Exercise B5.6: Present participles – identifying cases

Each of the sentences below contains a present participle for a verb from the vocabulary
lists for Chapter 4 and Chapter 5. This present participle describes the noun in purple.
Circle the present participle and identify the case, gender and number of the noun it
describes.
Remember it is important not to confuse a present participle with the words used to form
the English imperfect tense.
e.g. The father carrying the food was smiling. nominative masculine sg
1. The slave watched the hurrying farmers.
2. The smiling slave-girls prepared dinner.
3. The mother watches her daughter eating food.
4. The mother of the shouting children was tired.
5. The woman watched the slaves carrying water to the shop.
6. The women, coming to the house, shouted happily.
7. The farmer, calling the slaves, hurried to the house.
8. The father, watching his son, was smiling.
9. The laughing children were running.
10. The king gave water to the queen drinking wine.
Exercise B5.7: Present participles – recognising endings

Each of the sentences below contains present participles of verbs from the vocabulary
lists for Chapter 4 and Chapter 5.
Translate each sentence and choose the correct participle from the options in brackets to
agree with the noun in purple. Remember the participle must agree with its noun in case,
gender and number.
e.g. deus hominem vīnum ( bibentem / bibentēs) pūnīvit.
The god punished the man drinking wine.

1. fēmina (clāmāns / clāmantēs) ad vīllam festīnāvit.
2. līberī per silvam (festīnāns / festīnantēs) rīdēbant.
3. rēx deīs (rīdentī / rīdentibus) dōna dedit.
4. difficile erat servō vīnum (bibentibus / bibentī) cēnam parāre.
5. pater fīliae cibum (cōnsūmentium / cōnsūmentis) trīstis erat.
6. equus ad flūmen (veniēns / venientēs) bibere volēbat.
7. servus agricolam aquam ad agrum (ferentem / ferentēs) cōnspexit.
8. dea ē caelō (spectāns / spectantēs) hominēs terruit.
9. mātrēs et patrēs līberōrum (clāmantium / clāmantis) īrātī erant.
10. Rōmānae Rōmānōs arma fortiter (parantem / parantēs) laudāvērunt.
172

Exercise C5.1: Present tense verbs

Write the Latin for the verbs in purple in the sentences below.
e.g. We eat the food quickly. co-nsu- mimus

1. He hurries to the shop.
2. I am watching the slave girl.
3. Are you (sg) calling the slaves?
4. The happy farmers are laughing.
5. We are persuading the tired slave.
6. She puts the wine in the temple.
7. The other children shout for a long time.
8. When are you (pl) coming to the house?
9. The cruel slave makes a bad dinner for the children.
10. I am giving food and wine to the tired slave-girl.
Exercise C5.2: Present participles

Translate the present participle and the noun it agrees with into Latin.
Remember to work out the case of the noun first, and then make the participle agree with
it in case, gender and number.
e.g. The slave watched the slave girl hurrying to the house. ancilla m fest-nantem
1. The gods praised the men building temples.
2. The father, giving a gift to his daughter, was happy.
3. The king, ordering his wife to go to the city, was tired.
4. The slaves, carrying water, went to the field.
5. Eating bad food, the king drank wine.
6. The slave-girl gave food to the woman drinking the water.
7. The wives of the Romans eating the dinner were not present.
8. The gods gave gifts to the Romans seeking help.
9. The woman loved her son fighting in the war.
10. The Romans feared Greeks carrying gifts.
173


1. Now the tired slaves are away from the fields.

2. The women, eating food, are present at the dinner.
I am present at
3. The farmers go to the inn because they want to drink wine.
– adsum ad
+ accusative 4. It is easy for the children, running quickly, to come to the city.
5. The cruel goddess, laughing happily, punished the men with arrows.
6. For a long time the god had sacred temples in the Greek city.
7. The mother ordered her crying son to hurry to the house.
8. The woman orders the slave-girls to carry much water from the river.
9. The good king gives money to wretched men.
10. Why do the sad cry?
174

CHAPTER 6
PROPHECY

CW
Fate and prophecy

As discussed in Chapter 4, the Romans believed that the gods got involved in human affairs and
they were keen to make sure they understood what the gods wanted them to do. The Romans
believed that certain things were fated to happen and that the gods told people about these
things through prophecies about the future. One of the most well-known
Roman prophecies was a warning to Julius Caesar to ‘beware the Ides of
March’; the Ides (15th) of March was the date Julius Caesar was assassinated.
You will read more about this in Exercise 6.15.
The Romans had many different ways of trying to work out what their
fate was or what the gods wanted them to do. They often relied upon those
whose job it was to help people understand the gods’ wishes. For instance,
as you read in Chapter 4, there were priests who interpreted the will of
the gods. There were also oracles, those whom the Romans believed spoke
with the voice of the gods and could predict the future. The Romans
believed that anyone who was able to tell the future or determine the will
of the gods had been granted this ability by the god Apollo.
According to the Roman way of thinking, everyone had a destiny. This
destiny was determined by three goddesses known as the Fates. Their
names were Nona, Decuma and Morta. The Romans thought of Nona as a
young woman who spun the thread of life and determined what each
person’s life would be like. Decuma was believed to be a mature woman
who measured out the thread and determined how long each life would last.
Finally Morta, an old woman, was believed to cut the thread and thus cause
each person’s death. In this way the Fates determined when life began,
FIGURE 6.1 Apollo Belvedere when it ended, and what happened in between.
This famous statue is a 2nd-century-AD The ancient Greeks and Romans had many stories about people trying
Roman marble statue of Apollo based on an to fight against fate, but none of the people in these stories ever managed to
older Greek bronze statue from the 4th
change their destiny. In some ways, the Fates were thought to be more
century BC. The statue takes its name from
the part of the museums in the Vatican powerful even than the gods. Sometimes a god could be opposed to the
where it is currently held. The statue is over Fates but they were not able to override them. As you will read in Exercise
7 feet tall, and its shape suggests that Apollo 6.9, the poet Virgil made frequent mention of the prophecy that Aeneas was
has just fired an arrow. Apollo was the god fated to be the founder of the Roman people. Juno was not happy about this
of archery, but he was also important to the
and did much to make it difficult for Aeneas to fulfil his destiny, but there
Romans as the god of prophecy.
was nothing she could do to change Aeneas’ fate.
176

Omens
The most direct way in which the Romans believed the gods made their will
known was through omens. The Romans believed that these were signs
from the gods themselves. These signs had to be interpreted and sometimes
it was hard to tell what the gods wanted. In Exercise 6.13, you will read
about an omen that was given to Gaius Marius in the 2nd century BC. He
was elected consul, the highest political office in Rome, an astonishing
seven times. According to the historian Plutarch, Marius claimed that these
seven consulships had been predicted to him as a young man when he
discovered a nest of seven baby eagles. Marius believed that Jupiter had led
him to this nest as a sign, since the eagle was sacred to Jupiter.
It was not always easy to understand omens, partly because the same
omen was thought to mean different things at different times. For
example, the omen of thunder was sometimes seen as a symbol of the
gods’ approval, and sometimes as a symbol of disapproval. In Virgil’s
version of the Aeneas myth, when Aeneas finally arrived in Italy, Jupiter
FIGURE 6.2 Jupiter with a thunderbolt
showed his approval with a bout of thunder. The historian Plutarch,
Here we see a statue of Jupiter from the
however, recorded a story from 215 BC about a man named Marcus 2nd century AD . With his characteristic
Claudius Marcellus. Marcellus had won an election, but just as he was beard and powerful build, he holds a
preparing to take office, a clap of thunder resounded. The Romans thunderbolt in his right hand. The posture
interpreted this as a sign that Jupiter did not want Marcellus to accept the of the statue suggests that he may have
been hurling another thunderbolt with his
position. Marcellus was ordered to stand down before he had even started.
left hand. Thunder was often interpreted as
In the case of Aeneas, the thunder was interpreted as a positive sign; in a sign from Jupiter, but it was not always
the story of Marcellus, however, the Romans interpreted the thunder as a straightforward to work out whether it
sign of Jupiter’s displeasure. Although omens were thought to be direct represented his approval or his disapproval.
signs from the gods, they still had to be interpreted and it was hard to be
sure that an omen had been correctly understood. In Source 6.3 you can
read another story about the challenges of interpreting messages from the gods.
Auspices and augurs

In the absence of a direct sign from the gods, it was possible for the Romans to try to find
out what the gods wanted: priests called augurs would perform rituals to ask them. The
answers the priests received were called auspices. Just like omens, auspices had to be
FIGURE 6.3 Bronze liver

It is thought that this model was used as a tool to teach
how to determine the will of the gods by examining the
liver of a sacrificial victim. It dates from the 4th century BC
and was created by Etruscan craftsmen. In Source 6.2 you
can read a story which highlights the Etruscan skill in
interpreting signs from the gods.
177

Chapter 6 Prophecy
interpreted and it was difficult for the Romans to be sure that they had truly understood the
will of the gods.
As discussed in Chapter 4, the Romans made sacrifices to try to gain the gods’ favour, but
it was also possible to use the entrails of a sacrificial animal to find out whether the gods
approved of a decision or not. After a sacrificial animal was killed and cut open, a special
priest called a haruspex would inspect the entrails of the animal. If the insides of the animal
were healthy, the Romans believed that this
was a sign that the gods approved. If they
looked unhealthy, this was taken as a sign
that the gods disapproved.
The appearance and behaviour of birds
was also seen as a way in which the gods
communicated with people. Many stories
from the Classical world mention someone
seeing birds and believing that those birds
were omens from the gods. Augurs
interpreted the actions and appearance of
wild birds as messages from the gods.
Some priests bred tame birds to help them
find out what the gods wanted. For instance,
certain priests in Rome raised sacred
chickens. These chickens had a very important
job. They were offered grain before a battle,
and if the chickens ate with enthusiasm, the
Romans believed that the gods favoured the
battle. If the chickens showed no interest in
their food, the Romans thought that the gods
did not support the battle. The Roman writer
Cicero made use of the story of Publius
Claudius Pulcher who performed this ritual
before a sea battle in 249 BC . The sacred
chickens were offered grain, but refused to
eat it. This was a bad omen. Instead of
changing his plans, Claudius became angry.
He shouted, ‘Since they do not want to eat, let
FIGURE 6.4 Roman military eagle them drink!’ and threw the chickens into the
The Romans believed that many different kinds of birds were significant sea. Claudius then sent the ships into battle
in Roman religion, but the most powerful signs from the gods came and the Roman fleet was almost completely
from eagles because the eagle was the sacred bird of Jupiter, king of destroyed. Cicero told this story as an
the gods. In the 2nd century BC , Gaius Marius instituted the eagle as
example of how important it was not to ignore
the official symbol of the legions. The image of a military eagle shown
here is a modern reconstruction. the will of the gods.
178

Oracles: the Sibyl and the Sibylline Books

The Romans believed that sometimes the
gods chose individuals to speak for them
and make prophecies about the future.
These people and the messages they
passed on from the gods were known as
oracles. The most famous oracle in the
ancient world was the oracle at Delphi in
Greece, but the most famous oracle in
Rome was a woman known as the Sibyl.
The Sibyl was the name given to a special
priestess of Apollo. At different times in
history there was more than one Sibyl,
and these Sibyls were based in different
temples in various places across the
ancient world. The most famous Roman
Sibyl lived in a cave near Cumae in the
Bay of Naples. Those who wanted to
know their future could visit the Sibyl in FIGURE 6.5 The Sibyl’s cave at Cumae
the cave where she lived. In Exercise 6.12 Pictured here is the entrance: those who wished to consult the Sibyl would
you will read about an episode in the have to proceed into the dark to the cavern where the Sibyl sat. The cave
Aeneid when Aeneas received help from itself was about 2.5m wide and 4.5m high.
the Sibyl at Cumae.
The Sibyl would answer questions and she also wrote down prophecies. One of the most
famous stories about a Sibyl and her written prophecies took place in the 6th century BC . As
you will read in Exercise 6.5, the Sibyl appeared before Tarquinius Superbus, the last king
of Rome, and offered to sell him nine books of prophecy for a great deal of money. Tarquinius
laughed at her and refused to pay for them. The Sibyl burned three of the books right then
and there. She offered the remaining six books for the same price she had asked for all nine.
Tarquinius hesitated, but again he refused to pay the Sibyl what she had asked. The Sibyl
burned three more books. She offered the three books left to Tarquinius but still asked him
to pay the price she had originally asked for all nine. Tarquinius finally agreed and paid the
Sibyl what she asked.
These books were known as the Sibylline Books, and they were carefully preserved by
the government of Rome for hundreds of years. Special priests were later put in charge of
them. To keep them safe, the Sibylline Books were kept in the Temple of Jupiter. When the
Temple of Jupiter burned to the ground in 83 BC , the final three books were burnt along with
it, but the Romans ordered a special commission of priests to replace the collection by
searching out oracles from across the known world. The emperor Augustus then built a new
temple to Apollo and moved the scrolls there. This later collection was kept in Rome until
the 5th century AD .
179

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Source 6.1: Jupiter’s prophecy to Venus

At the start of Virgil’s Aeneid, Aeneas is stranded in North Africa after Juno has shipwrecked
his fleet. Venus, Aeneas’ mother, fears that Aeneas will not fulfil his promised destiny to
become the father of the Roman race. In this extract, Jupiter speaks to Venus. He reassures
her that Aeneas will reach Italy and that he will be able to build a city for his people after
winning a war against the Rutulians, an Italian tribe. There then follows a monumental
prophecy which sweeps across the full span of Roman history up until Virgil’s lifetime. The
prophecy ends with a reference to the military success and deification of Julius Caesar, and
the peace later established by Augustus, the first Roman emperor, at the end of the 1st century
BC . This peace brought an end to decades of civil war amongst the Romans.
The father of gods and men smiled at her – the same look that he uses to calm stormy skies
– and he kissed his daughter gently: ‘Don’t be afraid,’ he said. ‘The fated destiny for your
descendants has not been altered, and my mind has not been changed.
Aeneas will fight a great war in Italy and overcome a dangerous enemy. Then his young
son Ascanius, to whom now is given the name Julus, will rule for thirty full years. He will
move his kingdom from its base in Lavinium to a new stronghold at Alba Longa, and in
Alba Longa kings descended from him will rule for three hundred years until Rhea Silvia,
a priestess–queen, gives birth to twins, whose father will be Mars.
One of those twins, Romulus, will proudly wear a tawny wolf-skin in honor of the wolf
Phthia was the
who brought him up, and he will build new walls strong enough to resist any attack. Into
home of the great
their shelter he will welcome a people that he will call, after himself, the Romans. For these
mythical Greek
people there will be no limits of time or space. I have ordained for them an empire without
warrior Achilles.
end. Indeed, fierce Juno will think kindlier thoughts. She and I will love the Romans,
masters of the world and the race who wears the toga. Thus it has been decided.
Mycenae was the And then, when many generations have passed, there will come a time when these
city of Agamemnon, descendants of Troy will conquer the Greeks and be their master: they will crush in slavery
the most powerful Phthia and famous Mycenae. Then a Trojan Caesar will be born from this distinguished
Greek king at the ancestry: Julius Caesar, a name handed down to him from the great Julus. He will be the
time of the Trojan
man whose empire will stretch to the ocean, whose fame will reach to the stars. One day
war.
you will be free to receive him into heaven, where he too will be approached in prayer.
Then there will be no more fighting and the harsh years will grow gentle: white-haired
Fides was the name Fides, and Vesta, and Romulus with his brother Remus will give them their laws. The
for the deity who doors of the temple of war will be closed tight and bolted firm.
personified the
Virgil, Aeneid, Book 1.254–296 (with omissions; trans. adapted)
quality of fides, a
Latin word which
refers to a mixture
of trust, loyalty and
integrity.
180


1 What is the first thing which Jupiter says to Venus? What does this suggest
about Jupiter’s power to change what is fated?
2 Who will rule after Aeneas?
3 What is the name of the new city which Aeneas’ son, Ascanius, will create?
4 Approximately how long after that will Romulus found Rome?
5 ‘For these people there will be no limits of time or place’: what do you think
Jupiter means by this statement?
6 Why do you think the prophecy refers to Rome’s conquest of Greece?
7 Give four details from this prophecy which emphasise how important Julius
Caesar will be.
8 The prophecy reaches a climax with a description of the peace which
Augustus will establish. Jupiter mentions four deities who will give the
Romans their laws. Who are they?
9 Based on what you have read in previous chapters, what do you think about
this combination of deities as a recipe for a peaceful community?
10 From your reading in Chapter 3, can you explain the reference to the temple
of war at the end of the prophecy?
11 This prophecy was made up by Virgil and it ends with events which took
place in his own lifetime. What do you think Virgil may have been aiming to
achieve by including a prophecy like this in his epic poem?
181

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Source 6.2: A future king is given a sign

In the extract below, Livy describes an omen from the time of the kings. Tanaquil, the
daughter of a powerful family of Etruscans and her husband Lucumo were travelling from
their home town of Tarquinii in the hope of better prospects in Rome. On the way, Tanaquil
interpreted the actions of an eagle as a sign of future greatness for her husband. Lucumo –
later known by the Roman name Lucius Tarquinius Priscus – became the fifth king of Rome
and ruled from the late 7th century to the early 6th century BC .
Fortune brought them to Janiculum. There, as Lucumo was seated in his wagon next to his
wife, an eagle on motionless wings gently dropped down and seized the cap he was
wearing; with a great scream it flew over the wagon and then returned to place the cap
deftly back on Tarquin’s head, as if it had been divinely sent. Then it rose aloft and flew
away.
Tanaquil is said to have received this joyfully as an omen, for as an Etruscan she was
skilled in understanding prodigies sent from heaven. Embracing her husband, she told him
that he should look forward to something exalted and magnificent: the type of bird was
highly significant, as was the place in the sky in which it appeared, to say nothing of the
very deity whose messenger the bird was; the omen concerned the highest part of his head;
the bird had removed the adornment that had been placed there by a human hand in order
that a divine agent might replace it.
Such were the hopes and ideas they brought with them as they entered the city; they
bought a house there and told one and all that Lucumo was now Lucius Tarquinius Priscus.
Livy, The History of Rome Book 1.34 (trans. slightly adapted)

1 What did the eagle do to Lucumo?
2 How did Tanaquil react to this?
3 How did Tanaquil interpret this omen? Explain her reasoning in your own
words.
4 What did Lucumo and Tanaquil do when they reached Rome? Why do you
think they did this?
5 Signs from the gods were often hard to interpret. Can you imagine any other
ways in which the same sign could have been plausibly interpreted?
182

Source 6.3: The oracle of Delphi predicts the next ruler of Rome
This source highlights the difficulties the Romans faced in interpreting signs from the gods.
It also shows the influence of both the Greeks and the Etruscans on the early religious
culture of Rome.
In the extract below, Livy tells the story of a strange omen in the 6th century BC . Tarquinius,
the king at the time, sent two of his sons and their cousin Brutus to the oracle at Delphi to
ask her help in interpreting it. While they were there, however, the oracle gave the young
men a further prophecy of their own. Brutus and the king’s sons interpreted this second
prophecy in different ways.
About this time an alarming and ominous event occurred: a snake slid out from a crack in
a wooden pillar in the palace. Everyone ran from it in a fright; even the king was scared,
though in his case it was not fear so much as worry. The custom had always been to consult
only Etruscan prophets about public omens; this, however, was a different matter: it was in
the king’s own house that the ominous sight had been seen, and that, Tarquinius felt,
justified the unusual step of sending someone to ask the oracle at Delphi.
He sent on the mission two of his sons, Titus and Arruns, and with them went Lucius
Junius Brutus, son of the king’s sister Tarquinia. The three young men reached Delphi, and
carried out the king’s instructions. That done, Titus and Arruns found themselves unable to
resist putting a further question to the oracle. Which of them, they asked, would be the next
king of Rome? From the depths of the cavern came a voice in reply: ‘Young men, whichever
one of you will be the first to kiss his mother shall hold the greatest power in Rome.’ Titus
and Arruns were determined to keep the prophecy absolutely secret, to prevent their other
brother, Tarquin, who had been left in Rome, from knowing anything about it. Thus he, at
any rate, would be out of the running. As for themselves, they drew lots to determine which
of them, on their return, should kiss his mother first.
Brutus, however, interpreted the words of Apollo’s priestess in a different way.
Pretending to trip, he fell flat on his face, and his lips touched the earth with a kiss, no
doubt because he thought she was the mother shared by all living things.
Livy The History of Rome, 1.56–57 (with omissions; trans. adapted)

1 What strange omen took place in the palace and why did the king choose to
consult the oracle at Delphi, rather than the local Etruscan prophets?
2 Delphi was the most famous oracle in the ancient world: what can you find
out about its location?
3 What further question did the king’s sons ask the oracle?
4 Why did the king’s sons want to keep this prophecy secret from their brother?
5 What did Brutus do in response to the prophecy and why?
6 Brutus went on to lead a rebellion which ended the reign of kings in Rome.
He was elected as one of the two most senior magistrates in the newly
formed Roman Republic. These magistrates were elected on a yearly basis.
To what extent do you think the oracle’s prophecy came true?
7 Livy does not tell us what the oracle at Delphi said about the snake in the
palace. How do you think this omen may have been interpreted?
183

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Source 6.4: The goddess Fortuna

To the Romans, Fortuna was the goddess of fortune and luck. Here we see her depicted with
two common symbols often associated with her: a cornucopia, or horn of plenty, symbolising
the plentiful gifts of fortune, and the rudder of a ship which represented her role in guiding
the affairs of the world.
This image of Fortuna is from a 1st century AD fresco in Pompeii. The fresco was painted
on a wall in an alley leading to a latrine. We see Fortuna on the right, while on the left we
can see a young man about to defecate in the alley. As Fortuna looks on, snakes seem to
attack him. This painting can be understood as a visual prophecy: if anyone soiled this
alley instead of continuing on to use the latrine, Fortune would punish them. Written on the
fresco is a piece of ancient graffiti: CACATOR CAVE MALUM – ‘O defecator, beware
something bad.’
FIGURE 6.6 The goddess Fortuna

1 Do you think this warning would have been effective?
2 Why do you think a warning such as this might have been necessary?
3 What do you think the expression on Fortuna’s face is meant to convey?
4 Do you think a rudder and a cornucopia are appropriate symbols for Fortuna?
5 Some people still refer to ‘Lady Luck’. What can you find out about this figure
in modern-day society?
184

1 What do you think were the advantages and disadvantages of believing in

prophecies and omens?
● the difficulty of interpreting the omens
● the wide range of possible signs from the gods
● the impact of an omen on a person’s life
2 To what extent do you think we still believe in fate and prophecy today?
● common superstitions, such as black cats or magpies
● common phrases, such as ‘tempting fate’
● horoscopes
● the beliefs contained within different religions
3 What opinions have you formed of the Romans based on the stories about
prophecy that you have read in this chapter?
● the different dates of the stories
● the different reactions to prophecies within these stories
● the role of prophecy and omens in everyday life
● the role of prophecy in literature
185

Chapter 6 Prophecy
CW
Vocabulary List
rogō rogāre, rogāvī ask; ask for
moneō monēre, monuī warn; advise
respondeō respondēre, respondī reply
videō vidēre, vīdī see
emō emere, ēmī buy
ostendō ostendere, ostendī show
dormiō dormīre, dormīvī sleep
hōra hōrae, f hour
puella puellae, f girl
amīcus amīcī, m friend
annus annī, m year
locus locī, m place
puer puerī, m boy
verbum verbī, n word
iuvenis iuvenis, m young man
altus alta, altum high; deep
meus mea, meum my
noster nostra, nostrum our
novus nova, novum new
parvus parva, parvum small
prīmus prīma, prīmum first
suus sua, suum his / her / its / their (own)
tuus tua, tuum your (sg); yours
vester vestra, vestrum your (pl); yours
hīc here
iam now; already
ibi there
numquam never
sī c thus; in this way
itaque and so; therefore

186

People and places

The following people and places feature in the sentences and stories in this
chapter.
Tarquinius Superbus, Tarquin the Proud, the last king of Rome, bought
Tarquiniī Superbī, m the Sibylline books. These were written records of
divine prophecies. The Sibylline books were carefully
preserved by the Romans for hundreds of years.
Sibylla, Sibyllae, f The Sibyl was the name given to the most
important of Apollo’s priestesses.
Cūmae, Cūmārum, f pl Cumae was an ancient Italian settlement near

Naples. One of the most famous Sibyls lived in a
cave at Cumae.
Aenēas, Aenēae, m In Virgil’s re-telling of the story of Aeneas, he

imagined a series of inspiring and frightening
prophecies which set out the future both of Aeneas
and the Roman race.
Marius, Mariī, m Gaius Marius was a Roman noble from the 2nd
century BC who was elected to Rome’s top office an
astonishing seven times. He claimed this success
had been prophesied to him in a sign from the gods.
Caesar, Caesaris, m Julius Caesar, Rome’s best known general, was

assassinated in 44 BC . This assassination was
predicted by Spurinna, a Roman priest, and in the
dreams of Caesar’s wife, Calpurnia.
187

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, her etc

Latin often does not need a word for my, your, his and so on.
pater fīlium amāvit The father loved his son.
These possessive adjectives, however, do exist.
meus mea, meum my
noster nostra, nostrum our
tuus tua, tuum your (sg); yours
vester vestra, vestrum your (pl); yours
suus sua, suum his / her / its / their (own)
They are used for emphasis, or if the owner of an object would not otherwise be
clear. Like any other adjective, these adjectives need to agree with the noun they
describe.
equum meum laudāvistī You praised my horse.
suus is used only to describe a noun which belongs to the subject of the sentence.
pater fīliam suam vīdit. The father saw his own daughter.
Like any other adjective, these adjectives can be used on their own in the
masculine, feminine or neuter to refer to men, women or things.
rēx saevus suōs interfēcit. The savage king killed his own men.
EXERCISE 6.1
1. iuvenis meum equum ēmit.
2. tum puerī fēlīcēs ad urbem tuam currēbant.
3. cūr pecūniam vestram habeō?
4. ‘timeō,’ inquit amīcus trīstis, ‘īram tuam.’
5. agricola ad agrōs suōs abīre nōlēbat.
6. ancilla mea cibum et vīnum tulit.
7. cēterī amīcī servōs suōs vocāvērunt.
8. rēx uxōrem suam interfēcit quod saevus erat.
9. ubi arma mea posuistī?
10. multī amīcī ad tabernam nostram veniunt.
188

Imperatives and direct commands

An imperative is the part of the verb used to give a command or an order directly
to someone. Imperatives in Latin use the present stem of the verb, and this
means that the vowels used depend upon the verb’s conjugation.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th Note that in the

conjugation conjugation conjugation conjugation mixed conjugation,
the endings are the
imperative (sg) amā – love! terrē – frighten! rege – rule! audī – hear!
same as the 3rd
imperative (pl) amāte terrēte regite audīte conjugation (see
p222).
Often, when giving an order, we address someone directly by name. In Latin, if a
noun is addressed directly, it needs to be in the vocative case and the word ō is
sometimes used too. The vocative is usually the same as the nominative, with the
exception of masculine nouns in the 2nd declension. All vocatives are listed on
pp214–215.
ō pater, equum eme! O father, buy the horse!

ō serve, cēnam parā! O slave, prepare the meal!
festīnāte, līberī, in lūdum! Children, hurry to school!
To tell someone not to do something, nōlī (sg), nōlīte (pl) is used with the
infinitive.
ō rēx, nōlī rēgīnam interficere! O king, do not kill the queen!

ō līberī, nōlīte clāmāre! Children, do not shout!
The imperatives of eō and ferō are irregular.
imperative (sg)
( ī – go! fer – bring!
imperative (pl)
( īte ferte
EXERCISE 6.2
1. nōlīte lacrimāre, ō amīcī! multae tabernae in urbe adsunt!
2. ad locum celeriter festīnā!
3. nōlī, serve, ad agrōs currere sed ad templum ingēns dōna fer!
4. puellae, respondēte! cūr in montēs altōs ascendistis?
5. hīc manē! multum cibum habeō.
6. ō puerī, ad urbem īte et equum novum emite!
7. audīte, iuvenēs, verba mea!
8. pater, mātrem meam vocā quod miser sum et magnopere lacrimō!
189

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Numbers
Watch out! In Latin, ūnus, ūna, ūnum 1

ūnus, duo, trēs
duo, duae, duo 2
and mīlia change
their endings – see trēs, tria 3
pp227–228.
quattuor 4
quīnque 5
sex 6
septem 7
octō 8
novem 9
decem 10
centum 100
mīlle 1000
mīlia, mīlium 1000s
Numbers: adjectives
Latin also has adjectives for first, second, third and so forth.
Note that all of prīmus, prīma, prīmum first

these adjectives are
secundus, secunda, secundum second
2-1-2 adjectives.
tertius, tertia, tertium third
quārtus, quārta, quārtum fourth
quīntus, quīnta, quīntum fifth
sextus, sexta, sextum sixth
septimus, septima, septimum seventh
octāvus, octāva, octāvum eighth
nōnus, nōna, nōnum ninth
decimus, decima, decimum tenth
190

EXERCISE 6.3
1. octō agricolae per agrōs currēbant.
2. prīmus ad tabernam vēnī; amīcus meus vēnit secundus.
3. pecūniam agricolae dā! quīnque equōs pulchrōs habet.
4. novem ancillae in vīllā aderant, sed decem aberant.
5. iam septem puerī ā ludō absunt.
6. in bellō tertiō Rōmānī audācter pugnābant.
7. perīculum magnum est! iam trēs fēminae mortuae sunt.
8. decem līberī cēnam suam nōn cōnsūmpsērunt.
9. num ūnum deum et ūnam deam in caelō cōnspexistī?
10. ō līberī, ubi in agrīs sex equōs vīdistis?
Further uses of the accusative: time phrases

So far you have met the accusative case used as follows:
● for the object of the verb

servum interfēcit. He killed the slave.
● after a preposition
ad silvam cucurrit. He ran towards the wood.
The accusative case is also used for a time phrase which shows how long an
action lasted for.
trēs hōrās lacrimābat. He was crying for three hours.
multōs annōs Rōmānī rēgēs The Romans had kings

habēbant. for many years.
EXERCISE 6.4
1. multōs annōs Rōmānī audācter pugnābant.
2. trēs hōrās in vīllā manēbam.
3. duās hōrās līberī laetī cibum cōnsūmēbant.
4. decem annōs Graecī contrā Trōiānōs pugnābant.
5. septem hōrās puerī et puellae prope flūmen manēbant.
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Chapter 6 Prophecy
CW EXERCISE 6.5: TARQUIN AND THE SIBYLLINE BOOKS
The words of the gods were considered so important that they were often written
down. The most famous collection of Roman oracles is known as the Sibylline
Books. These books were stored in Rome in various forms for nearly 1,000 years.
Legend has it that they first came to Rome in the 6th century BC when the Sibyl
offered to sell her collection to the king, Tarquinius Superbus. In this remarkable
story, Tarquinius baulked at the high price, but the Sibyl, in order to convince
Tarquinius of their worth, burned some of the books and kept the price the same.
Tarquinius Superbus erat Rōmānōrum rēx septimus. ōlim ad Tarquinium vēnit

Sibylla. Sibylla novem librōs habēbat. Sibylla librōs Tarquiniō ostendit. ‘eme
librōs meōs,’ inquit Sibylla, ‘et dā mihī multum aurum. librī meī sānctī sunt.’
Tarquinius librōs emere nōlēbat: ‘nōlō multum aurum dare,’ respondit Tarquinius.
‘nōlō librōs tuōs emere. nōlī librōs mihī ostendere. abī!’ Sibylla īrāta erat. trēs 5
librōs incendit. iterum librōs Tarquiniō ostendit, sed sex librōs ostendit, nōn
novem. ‘nunc librōs meōs eme!’ inquit Sibylla, ‘et dā mihī multum aurum.’
Tarquinius īrātus erat: ‘audī mea verba!’ clāmāvit Tarquinius. ‘nōlō librōs tuōs
emere. nōlō multum aurum dare. cūr iterum librōs tuōs mihī ostendistī?’
tum iterum Sibylla trēs librōs incendit. ‘mihī crēde,’ inquit Sibylla. ‘librī meī 10
sānctissimī sunt. librī meī multa verba deōrum habent. itaque librī meī auxilium
Rōmānīs ferre possunt. nunc dā mihī multum aurum. nunc librōs meōs eme.’
Tarquinius obstupefactus erat. ‘magnopere vīs mē librōs tuōs emere,’ respondit

Tarquinius. ‘verba tua mihī persuāsērunt.’ Tarquinius multum aurum Sibyllae
dedit; sed Tarquinius trēs librōs ēmit, nōn novem. 15
Rōmānī tamen laetī erant. ‘librī Sibyllae sunt nostrī!’ clāmāvērunt. ‘verba
deōrum in librīs Sibyllae sunt; verbīs deōrum crēdimus.’
multōs annōs Rōmānī librōs Sibyllae habēbant et multōs annōs verbīs deōrum
crēdēbant.
192

liber, librī, m book

mihī (dative) ‘to me’
sānctus, sāncta, sānctum sacred
incendō, incendere, incendī burn
sānctissimus, sānctissima, sānctissimum very sacred
obstupefactus, obstupefacta, obstupefactum dumbfounded; astonished
mē (accusative) ‘me’
193

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Future tense: sum, possum, eō

In some of the stories in previous chapters you have met parts of sum and
possum in the future tense.
Here is the future tense for sum, possum and eō in full.
I erō – I shall be poterō – I shall be able ībō – I shall go
you (sg) eris poteris ībis
he / she / it erit poterit ībit
we erimus poterimus ībimus
you (pl) eritis poteritis ībitis
they erunt poterunt ībunt
The future of adsum is aderō (I shall be present), and the future of absum is
aberō (I shall be absent).
EXERCISE 6.6
1. mox laeta erō sed nunc lacrimō.
2. quandō servī cēnam parāre poterunt?
3. cūr numquam ad vīllam meam ībis?
4. Aenēas fessus est: nōn poterit hastam iterum iacere.
5. rēx īrātus est: rēgīna respondēre nōn poterit.
6. mox ad templum multī servī dōna ferentēs aderunt.
7. auxilium ab amīcō novō petere nōn poterimus.
8. in montēs ascendere nōn poteris sed facile est iuvenibus dē montibus

dēscendere.
9. ō amīcī crūdēlēs, aderitisne in urbe? Caesarem interficere poteritis.
10. nōn iterum in silvam adībo: perīculum adest et perterrita sum!
194

Future tense: 1st and 2nd conjugation verbs

The future tense uses the same stem as the present tense, and this means that
In the 1st and 2nd conjugations, the endings are as follows.
I amābō – I shall love terrēbō – I shall frighten
you (sg) amābis terrēbis
he / she / it amābit terrēbit
we amābimus terrēbimus
you (pl) amābitis terrēbitis
they amābunt terrēbunt
EXERCISE 6.7: FUTURE TENSE ONLY
1. numquam līberī lūdōs spectābunt: in vīllā manēbunt.
2. diū cum rēge crūdēlī pugnābō.
3. mox, ō pater, ad templum festīnābimus?
4. hīc manēbimus quod perīculum aberit.
5. cūr puerōs pugnāre iubēbis?
6. num iuvenis mātrem monēbit?
7. servī cēnam bonam parābunt.
8. aedificābitisne templum novum?
9. hīc diū rēgīna saeva hominēs terrēbit.
10. etiam multās hōrās lacrimābis?
195

Chapter 6 Prophecy
EXERCISE 6.8: PRESENT, IMPERFECT AND FUTURE TENSES
1. multās sagittās habēmus; in corpus tuum iacere possumus.
2. cūr līberōs meōs terrēbās?
3. ad urbem festīnās quod amīcum ibi vidēbis.
4. nunc Aenēas perterritus est; mox tamen nōn lacrimābit.
5. rēx in agrīs decem equōs pulchrōs habēbat.
6. fīlium vestrum monēbam quod auxilium dare volēbam.
7. nunc līberōs in agrīs currentēs spectāmus sed mox amīcōs in tabernā

bibentēs spectābimus!
8. in tabernā vīnum nōn bibēbam et nunc ad vīllam tuam festīnō.
9. cūr puerum vocābās? audīre nōn potest.
10. rēgemne in urbe vidēbō?
EXERCISE 6.9: JUPITER TELLS THE FUTURE GLORY OF THE ROMAN RACE
At the start of the Aeneid, Virgil includes a majestic prophecy which foretells Rome’s
greatness. Aeneas is suffering greatly on his way to Italy. Aeneas’ mother, the
goddess Venus, seeks reassurance from her father Jupiter. The prophecy in this
poem tells of events which, for the readers of the poem, were already in the past:
Virgil uses prophecy as a way of suggesting that Rome’s greatness was partly
because of a divine plan which had shaped history right up to his present day.
You can read an extract from Virgil’s version of this prophecy in Source 6.1.
Aenēas cum multīs Trōiānīs ad Ītaliam trāns mare ībat. difficile tamen erat
Aenēae trāns mare īre quod Iūnō īrāta erat. Iūnō erat dea saeva: īrāta erat
quod Aenēam nōn amābat. ‘cūr Aenēas ad Ītaliam festīnat?’ rogāvit Iūnō. ‘cūr
in Ītaliā erit rēx? Aenēas mē nōn laudāvit: Aenēam pūnīre volō; nōlō Aenēam
esse rēgem magnum.’ itaque Iūnō tempestātēs magnās fēcit. tempestātēs 5
multōs Trōiānōrum interfēcērunt.
Venus erat Aenēae māter. Venus trīstis erat quod fīlium amābat. Venus Iovem
adiit. ‘misera sum, ō pater. fīlius meus miser est. cūr difficile est fīliō meō ad
Ītaliam īre? esne īrātus, ō pater?’
‘nōn īrātus sum,’ respondit Iuppiter, ‘nōlī lacrimāre: Aenēas in Ītaliam ībit. 10
difficile tamen erit Aenēae in Ītaliā regere quod erit bellum magnum. Aenēas
tamen fortiter pugnābit. ibi Aenēas vincere poterit. Aeneas rēx erit et uxōrem
196

novam habēbit: Lāvīnia, fīlia rēgis Latīni, erit rēgīna. post multōs annōs
Rōmulus urbem novam et magnam aedificābit. Rōmulus erit rēx prīmus
15 Rōmānōrum. multī hominēs Rōmānōs laudābunt quod Rōmānī fortēs et audācēs
erunt. Rōmānīs dabō imperium sine fīne. tum tandem tū et līberī tuī rīdēbitis et
laetī eritis.’

tempestās, tempestātis, f storm
Venus, Veneris, f Venus
Iuppiter, Iovis, m Jupiter
Lāvīnia, Lāvīniae, f Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus
Latīnus, Latīnī, m Latinus, King of the Latins
post (+ accusative) after
imperium sine fīne ‘empire without end’
tū (nominative) ‘you’
197

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Future tense: 3rd and 4th conjugation verbs

The endings for the future tense for verbs in the 3rd and 4th conjugations are
different from those for verbs in the 1st and 2nd conjugations.
Notice that, as for all verb forms which use the same stem as the present tense,
It is very important not to confuse these endings with some of the endings for the
present tense.
Look it up! The 3rd conjugation 4th conjugation

endings for the
I regam – I shall rule audiam – I shall hear
mixed conjugation
are given on p221. you (sg) regēs audiēs
he / she / it reget audiet
we regēmus audiēmus
you (pl) regētis audiētis
they regent audient
EXERCISE 6.10: FUTURE TENSE ONLY
1. numquam in caelum ascendēmus.
2. hastās nōn iacient! Graecōs nōn interficient!
3. multōsne annōs hīc regam?
4. num māter īrāta fīliam tuam pūniet?
5. numquam Graecī ad urbem nostram venient.
6. ō servī, equumne pulchrum agricolae ostendētis?
7. aquam bibam et cibum cōnsūmam.
8. cūr, pater, līberōs trīstēs faciēs?
9. in flūmine gladiōs vestrōs nōn ponēmus.
10. celeriter ad mare dēscendam.
198

EXERCISE 6.11: PRESENT, FUTURE AND IMPERFECT TENSES
1. auxiliumne meum petis?
2. Rōmānī Graecōs capient quod Graecī perterritī sunt.
3. puerī et puellae per locum novum currēbant.
4. ō iuvenēs, ad urbem veniētis?
5. puer verba mātris audit sed audacter respondet.
6. nunc Aenēas Graecōs interficit sed mox in Ītaliam veniet.
7. cēterī in locō novō manent: mox ibi amīcos cōnspiciam!
8. ancilla aquam bibit sed servus vīnum vult.
9. agricola trīstis servōs suōs pūniēbat.
10. ā Graecīs multa arma capimus.
GRAMMAR HUNT
1. a 3rd person (pl) imperfect tense verb
2. a 1st person (pl) present tense verb
3. the 3rd person (sg) present tense form of volō
4. a 3rd person (sg) future tense verb
5. the 3rd person (pl) present tense form of sum
6. a 1st person (sg) future tense verb
7. a 2nd person (sg) present tense verb
8. a 3rd person (pl) present tense verb
9. a 3rd person (sg) imperfect tense verb
10. a 2nd person (pl) future tense verb
199

Chapter 6 Prophecy
CW EXERCISE 6.12: A FRIGHTENING PROPHECY
Halfway through the Aeneid, Virgil makes use of prophecy again. Aeneas himself
receives a chilling prophecy from the Sibyl at Cumae. Rome’s ultimate greatness is
hundreds of years into the future; Aeneas’ own immediate future is less encouraging.
The Sibyl tells Aeneas that in Italy he will face a re-run of the harrowing warfare he
suffered at Troy. Aeneas learns that he will seek help from a new ally in Italy, only to
watch him suffer as a consequence of the alliance they will have made.
Sibylla erat sacerdōs Apollinis: prope Cūmās antrum

habēbat. saepe in antrō verba deōrum cantābat.
ōlim Aenēas Sibyllam cantantem audīvit. verba tamen

deōrum Aenēam terruērunt.
‘bella,’ cantābat Sibylla, ‘horrida bella videō: iterum et 5

iterum in Ītaliā pugnābis. sanguinem in flūmine videō;
corpora mortua in flūmine videō. Trōiānī fortiter
pugnābunt; multās hastās iacient et multōs interficient.
sed saepe perterritī eritis. auxilium ab amīcō novō,
Evandrō nōmine, petētis. amīcus auxilium Trōiānīs 10
dabit sed etiam tum miserī eritis: amīcum novum
lacrimantem vidēbitis quod in bellō tuō fīlium suum
mortuum cōnspiciet. Iūnō īrāta est: Iūnō tē et tuōs
pūniet.’
Aenēas perterritus et trīstis erat quod verba deōrum 15

audīvit. nōlēbat iterum pugnāre. nōlēbat amīcum
suum lacrimantem vidēre. verba tamen deōrum certa
erant: Aenēas nōn poterat verba deōrum neglegere.
sacerdōs, sacerdōtis, f priestess

Apollō, Apollinis, m Apollo, the god of prophecy
antrum, antrī, n cave
cantō, cantāre, cantāvī sing; chant; predict
horridus, horrida, horridum horrifying
sanguis, sanguinis, m blood
Evander, Evandrī, m Evander, a nearby king and a willing ally for
Aeneas in Italy
tē (accusative) ‘you’
certus, certa, certum certain; fixed
neglegō, neglegere, neglēxi ignore; disregard
200

EXERCISE 6.13: MARIUS AND THE SLEEPING CHICKS
Gaius Marius was born in 157 BC . He was an exceptionally ambitious and successful
Roman; he was elected to Rome’s top office – the position of consul – seven times.
The Greek historian Plutarch tells us that Marius claimed his seven consulships had
been predicted to him as a young man by a sign from the gods.
ōlim iuvenis, Marius nōmine, per agrōs ībat; in silvam

vēnit et ibi nīdum aquilārum cōnspexit. in nīdō erant
pullī septem. Marius obstupefactus erat: ‘hīc sunt
septem pullī!’ inquit. ‘mīrābile est! deī septem aquilās
5 in nīdō mihī ostendērunt. sīc deī sīgnum dedērunt!’
Marius ad amīcōs festīnāvit: ‘ō amīcī!’ clāmāvit Marius,

‘deī sīgnum mihī dedērunt!’
‘quid erat sīgnum?’ rogāvērunt amīcī. ‘ubi erat sīgnum?

quandō sīgnum cōnspexistī?’
10 ‘per agrōs et in silvam īvī,’ Marius respondit, ‘et nīdum

aquilārum cōnspexī. in nīdō erant aquilae septem.
saepe ūnam aquilam parvam cōnspexistis, interdum
duo aquilās parvās cōnspexistis; semel trēs aquilās
parvās cōnspexistis; numquam septem vīdistis. aquila
15 inter avēs est prīmus; cōnsul inter hominēs est prīmus:
septem aquilās vīdī et sīc septiēns cōnsul erō!’
amīcī Mariī obstupefactī erant. sed post multōs annōs

Marius nōn semel sed septiēns cōnsul erat.
nīdus, nīdī, m nest

aquila, aquilae, f eagle
pullī, pullōrum, m baby birds
obstupefactus, obstupefacta, obstupefactum dumbfounded; astonished
mīrābilis, mīrābile miraculous; amazing
mihī ‘to me’
sīgnum, sīgnī, n sign
quid ‘what. . .?’
interdum sometimes
semel once
inter (+ accusative) among
avis, avis, f bird
cōnsul, cōnsulis, m consul
septiēns seven times
post (+ accusative) after
201

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Future tense: volō, nōlō, ferō

For their future tense, vōlō, nōlō and ferō have endings which are the same as
the 3rd conjugation endings.
I volam nōlam feram

– I shall want – I shall not want – I shall carry
you (sg) volēs nōlēs ferēs
he / she / it volet nōlet feret
we volēmus nōlēmus ferēmus
you (pl) volētis nōlētis ferētis
they volent nōlent ferent
EXERCISE 6.14
1. nōnne rēgī et rēgīnae crēdere volētis?
2. quod miserae sumus, numquam iterum rīdēre volēmus.
3. mox Aenēas arma ā Graecō mortuō feret.
4. ‘nōnne facile est in flūmen inīre et ē flūmine exīre?’ puerī mātrem

rogāvērunt. ‘cūr numquam flūmen līberīs tuīs ostendere nōlēs?’
5. semper deōs laudāre volam; itaque dōna sacra ad templum altum

feram.
6. semper iuvenēs fessī sunt; semper dormīre volent.
7. servī ad rēgem cibum bonum ferent; sīc rēx servōs pūnīre nōlet.
8. cūr ancillae et servī cēnam parāre nōlent? in vīllā iam adsum et

cibum cōnsūmere volō.
9. numquam fīlius vester uxōrem habēre volet.
10. diū dormiēbam sed etiam nunc fessus sum: urbem inīre nōlam.
202

EXERCISE 6.15: CAESAR IGNORES TWO WARNINGS FROM THE GODS
On the Ides (15th) of March 44 BC , Julius Caesar was stabbed to death by a group of
Roman nobles who believed he wanted to be king and keep more power for himself
than they thought was right. Caesar’s friend Brutus was among his many murderers.
In the stories which surround his assassination, prophecy plays a central part.
ōlim sacerdōs, Spurinna nōmine, Caesarem iūssit timēre Īdūs Martiās.

‘perīculum,’ monuit Spurinna, ‘in forō aderit! nōlī in forum inīre.’
ōlim uxor Caesaris, Calpurnia nōmine, dormiebat. subitō in somnō terribilia

vīdit: vīdit Rōmānōs per urbem currentēs; vīdit Rōmānōs in urbe clāmantēs;
5 vīdit Rōmānōs corpus mortuum Caesaris ferentēs. Calpurnia perterrita erat:
‘Rōmānī in Campum Martium gladiōs ferent! Caesarem interficere volent!’
clāmāvit. ‘Rōmānī corpus mortuum Caesaris ad mē ferent!’
sacerdōs, sacerdōtis, m priest

Spurinna, Spurinnae, m Spurinna
Īdūs Martiās (accusative plural) ‘the Ides of March’
Calpurnia, Calpurniae, f Calpurnia
somnus, somnī, m sleep
terribilis, terribile terrible
Campus Martius, Campī Martiī, m the Campus Martius, a large open area near
the centre of Rome often used for large
public meetings
203

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Calpurnia magnopere lacrimāvit: Caesarem iūssit verba deōrum timēre: ‘Īdūs

Martiās timē!’ inquit Calpurnia. ‘nōlī ad Campum Martium īre! Rōmānī gladiōs
in Campō Martiō habēbunt. perīculum in forō aderit.’ 10
verba sacerdōtis Caesarem nōn terruērunt; verba uxōris Caesarī nōn

persuāsērunt. ‘numquam Rōmānī mē interficere volent,’ uxōrī respondit,
‘Rōmānī in Campum Martium gladiōs nōn ferent. in Campum Martium īre volō.’
etiam tum Calpurnia Caesarem ad Campum Martium adīre nōlēbat. tandem
amīcus Caesaris, Brūtus nōmine, Calpurniae persuāsit: ‘necesse est Caesarī,’ 15
inquit, ‘ad Campum Martium adīre. ibi multī Rōmānī Caesarem vīdēre volent.’
verba tamen deōrum certa erant. in Campō Martiō aderant multī Rōmānī
gladiōs ferentēs. multī Rōmānī Caesarem gladiīs suīs interfēcērunt. inter
Rōmānōs erat Brūtus. Caesar Brūtum gladium habentem vīdit: ‘et tū, Brūte?’
inquit Caesar. 20
necesse ‘necessary’
certus, certa, certum fixed
inter (+ accusative) among
204



Find the Latin word from which the English words below derive, then explain the meaning
of the English word. Look up any English words you do not know in a dictionary.
English word Latin word explanation
e.g. novelty novus – new a novelty is something new

1 monitor
2 altitude
3 primary
4 annual
5 verbal
6 juvenile
7 interrogate
8 dormitory
9 ostentatious
10 amicable

Group the following words according to whether they are adjectives, nouns or adverbs.
Write the meaning next to each word.
hōra meus hīc noster
amīcus puella parvus numquam suus
locus prīmus sīc vester
adjectives nouns adverbs
ho-ra – hour
205

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Exercise A6.3: Numbers wordsearch

Here are the Roman numerals for the numbers you have met in Chapter 6. Write the Latin
word for each number next to the Roman numeral, and find the Latin words in the
wordsearch.
I u- nus V IX
II VI X
III VII C
IV VIII M
Then, find these words and translate them into English.
quārtus secundus tertius

sextus septimus nōnus
prīmus octāvus
decimus quīntus
N O V E M H T W P S C R M O T
S E X T U S U P J E E Z I X Z
O O C T O W D Y K C N V L D N
K Y E P R I M U S U T L L H O
J Z S K I D F U R N U A E S N
T O A E S Q T O B D M W U O U
Q D U U P N U D U U Z M Y F S
U E N W I T S A E S I Z S P X
I U L U T U I A R C Z C E R M
N F Q A V E E M E T E B P E K
Q Q U A F Z R D U Q U M T H I
U Q T O V I D T F S A S E U M
E C U H D U O I I F Z V M H S
O O A M V M N M F U I W S E X
V X P Y J K B I L N S T R E S
206

Exercise B6.1: Possessive adjectives

All the possessive adjectives in brackets and the nouns in purple are words you have met
in the vocabulary lists for Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.
Choose the correct form of the possessive adjective to agree with the noun in purple for
each sentence, and then translate the sentence.
e.g. amīcus ad tabernam (nostra / nostram) festīnābat.
The friend was hurrying to our shop.

1. num ancillam (mea /meam) amās?
2. iuvenis (tuus / tuum) vīnum laudāvit.
3. puellam (sua / suam) cōnspexit.
4. ad urbem (nostra / nostram) vēnērunt.
5. amīcōs (vestrōs / vestrī) spectāre volō.
6. verba (meum / mea) sunt īrāta.
7. servus (tuus / tuum) in agrō dormiēbat.
8. rēx puerōs (suīs / suōs) pugnāre iūssit.
9. uxōrēs iuvenum (nostrī / nostrorum) lacrimābant.
10. puellae (vestrae / vestrās) erant audācēs.
Exercise B6.2: Imperatives - Latin to English

The verbs in purple in the sentences below are either the irregular imperatives you met in
Chapter 6 or the imperatives of verbs from the vocabulary list for Chapter 6.
Translate each sentence into English and circle the English imperative in your answer.
e.g. nōlī rēgem monēre! Don’t advise the king!

1. servum dē perīculō monē!
2. ancillās rogāte!
3. nōlite respondere, servī!
4. Graecōs vidēte, ō Rōmānī!
5. nōlī cibum emere, ō ancilla!
6. locum amīcīs ostende!
7. fer cēnam iuvenibus!
8. ō filiī, nōlite dormīre!
9. abī, ō puer!
10. nōlī puellam fessam rogāre!
207

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Exercise B6.3: Imperatives - English to Latin

The verbs in purple are from the vocabulary lists for Chapters 5 and 6. Translate them from
English to Latin.
e.g. Ask your mother, boys! roga-te!

1. Don’t shout, daughters! 6. Don’t laugh, girls!
2. O sons, show the temples to the 7. Father, reply to the young men!
fathers! 8. Farmers, don’t warn the good
3. See (sg) the fortunate girls! slaves!
4. O slave, bring food! 9. Father, don’t sleep in the inn!
5. Slave-girls, buy the wine! 10. Boys, carry the weapons!
Exercise B6.4: Future tense endings in the 1st and 2nd

conjugations
This exercise practises verbs from the vocabulary lists for Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.
Here is a reminder of the future tense endings in the 1st and 2nd conjugations.
I amābō terrēbō
you (sg) amābis terrēbis
he / she / it amābit terrēbit
we amābimus terrēbimus
you (pl) amābitis terrēbitis
they amābunt terrēbunt
Translate each verb, then change it from singular to plural and translate the new form.
singular translation plural translation
e.g. rogābō I shall ask roga-bimus we shall ask

1 monēbit
2 respondēbis
3 clāmābō
4 rīdēbit
5 vocābis
6 spectābō
208

Exercise B6.5: Future tense endings in the 3rd and 4th

conjugations
This exercise practises verbs from the vocabulary lists for Chapters 4–6.
Here is a reminder of the future tense endings in the 3rd and 4th conjugations.
3rd conjugation 4th conjugation
I regam audiam
you (sg) regēs audiēs
he / she / it reget audiet
we regēmus audiēmus
you (pl) regētis audiētis
they regent audient
Translate each verb, then change it from the present tense to the future tense, keeping
the person the same. Translate the new form.
present translation future translation
e.g. emimus we buy eme-mus we shall buy

1 crēdō
2 ostendunt
3 dormītis
4 veniō
5 pōnimus
6 cōnsūmis
7 bibimus
8 emit
9 faciunt
10 ferimus
209

Chapter 6 Prophecy
Exercise B6.6: Future tenses of irregular verbs

This exercise focuses on the irregular verbs’ future tense forms which you have met in
Chapter 6.
Choose the correct form of the future tense for each irregular verb.
e.g. The cruel girls will be absent. (aberit / aberunt)
1. Your daughter will be beautiful. (erit / erunt)

2. You (pl) will not be able to fight. (poteris / poteritis)
3. I shall go to the war. (ībō / ībimus)
4. The brave men will carry large weapons. (ferent / ferēmus)
5. The boys and girls will be present at the house. (aderit / aderunt)
6. Will you (pl) go to my shop? (ībis / ībitis)
7. I shall be able to capture the savage slave. (poterō / poterimus)
8. The god will not want to make weapons for the Romans. (nōlet / nōlent)
9. Will you (sg) be able to respond to my words? (poteris /poteritis)
10. Will he want to call the slaves to the fields? (volet / volent)
Exercise B6.7: Future and present tenses (irregular verbs

and all conjugations)
This exercise focuses on irregular verbs and the other verbs you have met in the vocabulary
lists for Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.
Each sentence contains verbs in the future or present tense. Circle the future or present
tense verb in each sentence and translate the whole sentence.
e.g. hīc non dormient . They will not sleep here.

1. ancilla cibum in tabernā emit.
2. ancillae cibum fēminīs ostendent.
3. in vīllā nostrā dormīmus.
4. nōnne ad templum īs?
5. iuvenis fessus currere nōn potest.
6. in bellō, ō iuvenēs, perterritī eritis.
7. ancilla cēnam iuvenibus parābit.
8. puerī et puellae magnopere rīdēbunt.
9. servōs ex agrīs vocās?
10. fēmina līberōs dē hominibus malīs monet.
210

Exercise B6.8: Future, present and imperfect tenses

The verbs below are all from the vocabulary list for Chapter 6.
Within each pair the verb forms look similar but are different tenses. Sort the verbs into
the correct columns in the table below and translate each verb.
rogābās / rogābis respondēbant / respondēbunt dormīs / dormiēs

emunt / ement vidēbat / vidēbit
ostendit / ostendet monēbāmus / monēbimus
present tense future tense imperfect tense
rog a- bis – you (sg) will ask
Exercise B6.9: Future, present and imperfect tenses

The following verbs are from the vocabulary lists for Chapter 5 and Chapter 6. They are all
in the imperfect tense. Find out the conjugation, translate the verb and then change each
verb into the present and future tense. You should keep the person of each verb the same.
imperfect conjugation translation present future
e.g. dormiēbāmus 4th we were sleeping dorm-mus dormie-mus

1 monēbat
2 vidēbam
3 rogābat
4 emēbās
5 respondēbant
6 clāmābās
7 festīnābāmus
8 ostendēbat
9 rīdēbātis
10 veniēbam
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Chapter 6 Prophecy
Exercise C6.1: Verb tenses

Choose the verb in the correct tense for the sentence.
e.g. The young man will soon eat dinner.

(cōnsūmit / cōnsūmet / cōnsūmpsit)
1. The cruel queen will rule many lands.

(regit / reget / rēxit)
2. Once there was a savage king in the city.
(est / erit / erat)
3. Now a slave is fighting with a huge sword.
(pugnat / pugnābit / pugnābat)
4. The Greeks used to build sacred temples for the gods.
(aedificant / aedificābunt / aedificābant)
5. Will you (sg) go to the city with the young men?
(īs / īistī / ībis)
6. They saw boys and girls eating in the fields.
(vident / vidēbunt / vīdērunt)
7. Slave, do you hear the farmer?
(audīs / audīvistī / audiēs)
8. We slave-girls always carry water from the river.
(ferimus / ferēmus / ferēbāmus)
9. I shall be able to run with the children again.
(possum / poteram / poterō)
10. When will the men seek help from the gods?
(petunt / petent / petēbant)

1. The sad slave-girl, crying, will not be able to go to the city.

The vocative sg of 2. Son, carry my wine to the inn!
fı̄lıius is fı̄lı̄. For the 3. Terrified, we ran for three hours from the city.
vocative case 4. The king orders his brave men to fight.
endings for other 5. For ten years the mother wanted a new house.
nouns, see the
6. O gods, you will have temples in the high mountains.
Book 1 Grammar
7. Father, praise your brave sons.
reference section
8. We could see your friend carrying much gold.
on pp214–215.
9. Surely he won’t buy the small slave for the king?
10. Romans, carrying weapons, will you fight against our men?
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REFERENCE GRAMMAR
NOUNS
Cases
Latin uses different case endings to show the role of a noun in a sentence. The main roles are as follows:
nominative the subject of the sentence, e.g. The father loves his daughter.
vocative a noun which is directly addressed, e.g. O king, do not punish us!
accusative ● the object of the verb, e.g. The father loves his daughter.
● after certain prepositions
● to show time how long, e.g. for three hours
genitive ● used to show that one noun is connected to another: most typically it shows possession,
e.g. the father’s daughter
● often best translated as of
dative ● the indirect object / used to mean to or for

● after certain verbs such as persuādeō
ablative ● used without a preposition to mean by, with or from

● after certain prepositions
Declensions
There are three main groups of Latin nouns; nouns in each group (declension) share the same endings.
You can identify the declension of a noun by looking at how it is listed in a dictionary or word list. The nominative and
genitive singular forms are given, together with the gender.
The genitive singular allows us to work out the declension of the noun and its stem.
fēmina, fēminae, f 1st declension feminine stem = fēmin-

deus, deī, m 2nd declension masculine stem = de-
bellum, bellī, n 2nd declension neuter stem = bell-
rēx, rēgis, m 3rd declension masculine stem = rēg-
flūmen, flūminis, n 3rd declension neuter stem = flūmin-
N.B. Neuter nouns have slightly different endings from masculine / feminine nouns in the same declension.
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1st declension
nominative sg fēmin-a
accusative sg fēmin-am
genitive sg fēmin-ae
dative sg fēmin-ae
ablative sg fēmin-ā
nominative pl fēmin-ae
accusative pl fēmin-ās
genitive pl fēmin-ārum
dative pl fēmin-īs
ablative pl fēmin-īs
● fēmina is a feminine noun; masculine first declension nouns (e.g. agricola) have exactly the same endings. There
are no neuter nouns in the 1st declension.
● in the 1st declension, vocative endings are the same as the nominative.
2nd declension neuter nouns
nominative sg de-us bell-um
accusative sg de-um bell-um
genitive sg de-ī bell-ī
dative sg de-ō bell-ō
ablative sg de-ō bell-ō
nominative pl de-ī bell-a
accusative pl de-ōs bell-a
genitive pl de-ōrum bell-ōrum
dative pl de-īs bell-īs
ablative pl de-īs bell-īs
● deus is a masculine noun; feminine second declension nouns are extremely rare; they have the same endings as
deus.
● some second declension nouns have a nominative ending in -er e.g. puer and ager.
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● second declension nouns have a separate vocative singular ending as follows:

for nouns such as servus, servī, m the vocative is serve
for nouns such as f īlius, f īliī, m the vocative is f īlī
deus has an irregular vocative form deus
● for the vocative plural, the ending is the same as the nominative plural.
3rd declension neuter nouns
nominative sg (rēx) (flūmen)
accusative sg rēg-em (flūmen)
genitive sg rēg-is flūmin-is
dative sg rēg-ī flūmin-ī
ablative sg rēg-e flūmin-e
nominative pl rēg-ēs flūmin-a
accusative pl rēg-ēs flūmin-a
genitive pl rēg-um flūmin-um
dative pl rēg-ibus flūmin-ibus
ablative pl rēg-ibus flūmin-ibus
● rēx is a masculine noun; there are lots of feminine 3rd declension nouns. Feminine and masculine 3rd declension
nouns have the same endings.
● there is no uniform ending for the nominative singular (or, for neuter nouns, the nominative and accusative
singular). This is why rēx and flūmen are written in brackets; they cannot serve as a template for another 3rd
declension nominative singular.
● vocative endings in the 3rd declension are the same as the nominative.
● some nouns in the 3rd declension have -ium as their genitive plural ending. In this book you will meet two of
these: mōns and urbs. mare has rather exceptional endings; these are listed in full in Appendix 1 in the Book 2
Reference Grammar.
ADJECTIVES
There are two main types of adjectives: those with a mixture of 2nd and 1st declension endings, and those with 3rd
declension endings.
Adjectives must agree with the noun they describe in case, gender and number.
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2-1-2 adjectives
nominative sg īrāt-us īrāt-a īrāt-um
accusative sg īrāt-um īrāt-am īrāt-um
genitive sg īrāt-ī īrāt-ae īrāt-ī
dative sg īrāt-ō īrāt-ae īrāt-ō
ablative sg īrāt-ō īrāt-ā īrāt-ō
nominative pl īrāt-ī īrāt-ae īrāt-a
accusative pl īrāt-ōs īrāt-ās īrāt-a
genitive pl īrāt-ōrum īrāt-ārum īrāt-ōrum
dative pl īrāt-īs īrāt-īs īrāt-īs
ablative pl īrāt-īs īrāt-īs īrāt-īs
N.B. As with some 2nd declension nouns, some 2-1-2 adjectives have a nominative masculine sg form ending in -er, for
example pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum and miser, misera, miserum.
3rd declension adjectives

There are two main types of 3rd declension adjectives: those with a separate neuter nominative singular ending, and those
without. Each type is listed slightly differently in a word list, and the stem can be found as follows:
fortis, forte – brave; strong (nominative forms only given)

ingens, ingentis – huge (nominative and genitive given)
masculine / feminine neuter masculine / feminine neuter

nominative sg fort-is fort-e (ingēns) (ingēns)
accusative sg fort-em fort-e ingent-em (ingēns)
genitive sg fort-is fort-is ingent-is ingent-is
dative sg fort-ī fort-ī ingent-ī ingent-ī
ablative sg fort-ī fort-ī ingent-ī ingent-ī
nominative pl fort-ēs fort-ia ingent-ēs ingent-ia
accusative pl fort-ēs fort-ia ingent-ēs ingent-ia
genitive pl fort-ium fort-ium ingent-ium ingent-ium
dative pl fort-ibus fort-ibus ingent-ibus ingent-ibus
ablative pl fort-ibus fort-ibus ingent-ibus ingent-ibus
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ADVERBS
Like English, Latin can turn adjectives into adverbs by changing their endings.
The two main adverb endings are -ē and -ter
e.g. laetus, laeta, laetum – happy → laetē – happily

fortis, forte – brave; strong → fortiter – bravely; strongly
Latin also has lots of adverbs which do not use these endings; examples of these are:
etiam also; even semper always

saepe often iterum again
tum then magnopere greatly; very much
fortiter bravely; strongly mox soon
nōn not nunc now
celeriter quickly hīc here
diū for a long time iam now; already
ōlim once; some time ago ibi there
subitō suddenly numquam never
tandem at last; finally sīc thus; in this way
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word which is positioned before a noun and shows its relationship to something else in the sentence.
In Latin, each preposition has to be followed by a particular case: this is usually the accusative or the ablative. The case required
by a preposition is listed in a dictionary or word list as follows.

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cum + ablative with
ab is used instead of ā if the next word starts with a vowel or the letter h. The same rule applies to ex and ē.
QUESTION WORDS
Like English, Latin has several words which are used to ask a question. It is usual for the question word to be the first word
in the sentence.
There are three different words used to introduce questions which have yes or no as their answer.
-ne invites the answer yes or no
nōnne . . .? invites the answer yes
num . . . ? invites the answer no
-ne is used at the end of the first word in the question, which typically will be a verb.
e.g. tulistīne ad templum dōna? – Did you bring gifts to the temple?
There are different question words for questions which do not have yes or no as their answers. These include:
cūr? why?
quandō? when?
ubi? where?
VERBS
Principal parts
The principal parts of a verb show the verb’s conjugation and stems.
amō amāre amāvī

I love to love I loved
present tense infinitive perfect tense
present stem perfect stem
The present stem is used for the present, imperfect and future tenses; the perfect stem is used for the perfect tense.
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Reference Grammar
Conjugations
There are four main groups of Latin verbs. Verbs in each group (conjugation) share the same endings.
The first two principal parts show which conjugation a verb is in:
amō amāre amāvī 1st conjugation

terreō terrēre terruī 2nd conjugation
regō regere rēxī 3rd conjugation
audiō audīre audīvī 4th conjugation
Some verbs are a mixture of the 3rd and 4th conjugations.
capiō capere cēpī mixed conjugation
Infinitives
An infinitive is listed as the second principal part of a Latin verb. It can be translated as follows: amāre – to love.
The vowel used for the infinitive ending depends on the verb’s conjugation.
infinitive meaning
1st conjugation amāre to love
2nd conjugation terrēre to frighten
3rd conjugation regere to rule
4th conjugation audīre to hear
mixed conjugation capere to capture
Infinitives are often used in Latin just like in English, e.g. Romulus Romānōs pugnāre iussit. – Romulus ordered the
Romans to fight.
If an adjective is used with an infinitive it will be neuter in gender, e.g. difficile erat pugnāre. – It was difficult to fight.
If the infinitive has a subject, it will usually be in the accusative case, e.g. volō puellās audīre. – I want the girls to listen.
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Perfect tense
All verbs in Latin use the same set of endings for the perfect tense; these endings are added to the perfect stem.
The perfect tense can be translated as follows: amāvī – I loved or I have loved.
perfect tense 1st conjugation 2nd conjugation 3rd conjugation 4th conjugation mixed conjugation
I amāvī terruī rēxī audīvī cēpī
you (sg) amāvistī terruistī rēxistī audīvistī cēpistī
he / she / it amāvit terruit rēxit audīvit cēpit
we amāvimus terruimus rēximus audīvimus cēpimus
you (pl) amāvistis terruistis rēxistis audīvistis cēpistis
they amāvērunt terruērunt rēxērunt audīvērunt cēpērunt
Imperfect tense
Verbs in the imperfect tense use the present stem; the vowel which comes before these endings depends on the verb’s
conjugation.
The imperfect tense is used in Latin for past actions that are viewed as ongoing, or lasting quite a long time.
It can be translated in three main ways:
regēbam – I was ruling / I used to rule / I began to rule
N.B. Although in Latin the imperfect is used for actions which typically last for some time, in English we are often more
likely to use the perfect tense. This means that sometimes the best translation for a Latin imperfect tense is an English
perfect tense.
e.g. diū rēx regēbat. – The king ruled for a long time.
imperfect tense 1st conjugation 2nd conjugation 3rd conjugation 4th conjugation mixed conjugation
I amābam terrēbam regēbam audiēbam capiēbam
you (sg) amābās terrēbās regēbās audiēbās capiēbās
he / she / it amābat terrēbat regēbat audiēbat capiēbat
we amābāmus terrēbāmus regēbāmus audiēbāmus capiēbāmus
you (pl) amābātis terrēbātis regēbātis audiēbātis capiēbātis
they amābant terrēbant regēbant audiēbant capiēbant
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Reference Grammar
Present tense
Verbs in the present tense use the present stem and the following endings. Note that the vowel used with them depends on
a verb’s conjugation.
The present tense can be translated as follows: amō – I love or I am loving.
present tense 1st conjugation 2nd conjugation 3rd conjugation 4th conjugation mixed conjugation
I amō terreō regō audiō capiō
you (sg) amās terrēs regis audīs capis
he / she / it amat terret regit audit capit
we amāmus terrēmus regimus audīmus capimus
you (pl) amātis terrētis regitis audītis capitis
they amant terrent regunt audiunt capiunt
Future tense
Verbs in the future tense use the present stem and the following endings.
There are two sets of endings depending on the verb’s conjugation. The 1st and 2nd conjugations share the same endings,
and the 3rd and 4th conjugations share a different set of endings. The vowel used before these endings depends on the verb’s
conjugation.
The future tense can be translated as follows: amābō – I shall love.
future tense 1st conjugation 2nd conjugation 3rd conjugation 4th conjugation mixed conjugation
I amābō terrēbō regam audiam capiam
you (sg) amābis terrēbis regēs audiēs capiēs
he / she / it amābit terrēbit reget audiet capiet
we amābimus terrēbimus regēmus audiēmus capiēmus
you (pl) amābitis terrēbitis regētis audiētis capiētis
they amābunt terrēbunt regent audient capient
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Imperatives
An imperative is the part of the verb used to give a command or an order directly to someone.
The imperative can be translated as follows: amā – love!
Imperatives use the present stem of the verb, and so the endings are slightly different in each of the different conjugations.
1st conjugation 2nd conjugation 3rd conjugation 4th conjugation mixed conjugation
imperative (sg) amā terrē rege audī cape
imperative (pl) amāte terrēte regite audīte capite
To tell someone not to do something, nōlī (sg), or nōlīte (pl) is used with the infinitive:
e.g. ō rēx, nōlī rēgīnam interficere! – O king, do not kill the queen!
ō līberī, nōlīte clāmāre! – Children, do not shout!
Present participles
A participle behaves like an adjective: the present participle describes a noun as doing an action. Like any adjective, the
present participle must agree with the noun it describes.
e.g. puerōs rīdēntēs videō. – I see the laughing boys.
Present participles use the present stem and so the vowels used vary across the different conjugations.
1st conjugation amāns, amantis – loving
2nd conjugation terrēns, terrentis – terrifying
3rd conjugation regēns, regentis – ruling
4th conjugation audiēns, audientis – listening
mixed conjugation capiēns, capientis – taking
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All present participles use 3rd declension adjective endings and decline like ingēns, ingentis.
masculine / feminine neuter
nominative sg regēns regēns
accusative sg regent-em regēns
genitive sg regent-is regent-is
dative sg regent-ī regent-ī
ablative sg regent-ī regent-ī
nominative pl regent-ēs regent-ia
accusative pl regent-ēs regent-ia
genitive pl regent-ium regent-ium
dative pl regent-ibus regent-ibus
ablative pl regent-ibus regent-ibus
In some circumstances, present participles use -e for their ablative singular ending, e.g. regēnte.
IRREGULAR VERBS
sum, esse, fuī – be
present imperfect future
I sum – I am eram – I was erō – I shall be
you (sg) es erās eris
he / she / it est erat erit
we sumus erāmus erimus
you (pl) estis erātis eritis
they sunt erant erunt
As with all Latin verbs, the perfect tense is formed from the perfect stem with the usual perfect endings: fuī (I have been)
etc.
It is unusual, however, to meet the perfect tense of sum. This is because Latin typically uses the imperfect tense for the past
tense of verbs referring to actions which naturally last for some time.
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possum, posse, potuī – can; be able
I possum – I am able poteram – I was able poterō – I shall be able
you (sg) potes poterās poteris
he / she / it potest poterat poterit
we possumus poterāmus poterimus
you (pl) potestis poterātis poteritis
they possunt poterant poterunt
As with all Latin verbs, the perfect tense is formed from the perfect stem with the usual perfect endings: potuī (I have been
able) etc.
It is unusual, however, to meet the perfect tense of possum. This is because Latin typically uses the imperfect tense for the
past tense of verbs referring to actions which naturally last for some time.
eō, eō, eō (or iī) – go
I eō – I go ībam – I was going ībō – I shall go
you (sg) īs ībās ībis
he / she / it it ībat ībit
we īmus ībāmus ībimus
you (pl) ītis ībātis ībitis
they eunt ībant ībunt
As with all Latin verbs, the perfect tense is formed from the perfect stem with the usual perfect endings: īvī (I have gone)
etc.
In compound verbs (e.g. abeō) it is more usual for the alternative perfect stem to be used: abiī (I have gone away) etc.
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present participle iēns, euntis – going
imperative sg ī – go!
imperative pl īte
volō, velle, voluī – want
I volō – I want volēbam – I wanted volam – I shall want
you (sg) vīs volēbās volēs
he / she / it vult volēbat volet
we volumus volēbāmus volēmus
you (pl) vultis volēbātis volētis
they volunt volēbant volent
As with all Latin verbs, the perfect tense is formed from the perfect stem with the usual perfect endings: voluī (I wanted)
etc.
It is unusual, however, to meet the perfect tense of volō. This is because Latin typically uses the imperfect tense for the past
present participle volēns, volentis – wanting
225

Reference Grammar
nōlō, nolle, nōluī – not want; refuse

I nōlō – I do not want nōlebam – I did not want nōlam – I shall not want
you (sg) nōn vīs nōlebās nōlēs
he / she / it nōn vult nōlebat nōlet
we nōlumus nōlebāmus nōlēmus
you (pl) nōn vultis nōlebātis nōlētis
they nōlunt nōlebant nōlent
As with all Latin verbs, the perfect tense is formed from the perfect stem with the usual perfect endings: nōluī (I did not
want) etc.
It is unusual, however, to meet the perfect tense of nōlō. This is because Latin typically uses the imperfect tense for the past
present participle nōlēns, nōlentis – not wanting
imperative sg nōli – don’t want!
imperative pl nōlite
ferō, ferre, tulī – carry; bear

present imperfect future perfect
I ferō – I carry ferēbam – I was carrying feram – I shall carry tulī – I carried
you (sg) fers ferēbas ferēs tulistī
he / she / it fert ferēbat feret tulit
we ferimus ferēbamus ferēmus tulimus
you (pl) fertis ferēbatis ferētis tulistis
they ferunt ferēbant ferent tulērunt
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present participle ferēns, ferentis – carrying
imperative sg fer – bring!
imperative pl ferte
NUMBERS
ūnus, ūna, ūnum 1
duo, duae, duo 2
trēs, tria 3
quattuor 4
quīnque 5
sex 6
septem 7
octō 8
novem 9
decem 10
centum 100
mīlle 1000
mīlia, mīlium 1000s
In Latin, ūnus, duo and trēs change their endings, but the Latin words for 4–100 do not change.
mīlle is an exception: it does not change in the singular (1000), but its plural form (mīlia – 1000s) does change its endings
and behaves like a 3rd declension neuter noun.
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one masculine feminine neuter
nominative ūnus ūna ūnum
accusative ūnum ūnam ūnum
genitive ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus
dative ūnī ūnī ūnī
ablative ūnō ūnā ūnō
two masculine feminine neuter
nominative duo duae duo
accusative duōs duās duo
genitive duōrum duārum duōrum
dative duōbus duābus duōbus
ablative duōbus duābus duōbus
three masculine feminine neuter
nominative trēs trēs tria
accusative trēs trēs tria
genitive trium trium trium
dative tribus tribus tribus
ablative tribus tribus tribus
Latin also has adjectives for first, second, third etc.
prīmus, prīma, prīmum first

secundus, secunda, secundum second
tertius, tertia, tertium third
quārtus, quārta, quārtum fourth
quīntus, quīnta, quīntum fifth
sextus, sexta, sextum sixth
septimus, septima, septimum seventh
octāvus, octāva, octāvum eighth
nōnus, nōna, nōnum ninth
decimus, decima, decimum tenth
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REFERENCE GRAMMAR APPENDIX 1:

LATIN WORD ORDER
Latin word order is more flexible than English word order, but the following key principles apply:
● the subject is often the first word in the sentence and the verb is often the last word. This means that it is very
common for the object to be written before the verb.
● adjectives are typically next to their nouns: it is common for adjectives of size / quantity to be written before their
nouns, and for other adjectives to be after their nouns.
● adverbs are typically before the word they describe, which is often the verb. If the adverb applies to the whole
sentence then it is usual for it to be at the very start of the sentence.
● prepositions are positioned before their nouns.
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GLOSSARY OF NAMES
This glossary contains the names which are introduced at the start of each chapter and therefore not glossed elsewhere
in the relevant chapter. All other names are glossed separately at the end of each Latin story.
Romans typically had three names, but they are usually referred to by only one or two of these names.
Name Chapter
Aenēas, Aenēae, m 2,3,4,6 Aeneas, the mythical father of the Roman race, and the
hero of Virgil’s epic poem the Aeneid
Augustus, Augustī, m 4 Augustus, the first Roman emperor (1st century BC )
Cācus, Cācī, m 4 Cacus, a mythical monster who terrified the early

inhabitants of Italy
Caesar, Caesaris, m 6 Julius Caesar, possibly Rome’s most famous general; he

was appointed Dictator at Rome but murdered because
some thought he wanted to be king (1st century BC )
Cerberus, Cerberī, m 4 Cerberus, the mythical guard dog of the Underworld
Cloelia, Cloeliae, f 2 Cloelia, the daring young woman who was held as a
hostage by the Etruscan king, Porsena, but managed to
escape (6th century BC )
Cūmae, Cūmārum, f pl 6 Cumae, an ancient settlement near Naples and home to

the Sibyl’s cave
Evander, Evandrī, m 4 Evander, a mythical Greek exile and ruler of the territory
which would one day become the city of Rome
Fabius, Fabiī, m 4 Quintus Fabius Maximus, one of the most distinguished

members of the noble Fabian family, famous for his role
as Dictator in the wars against Hannibal (3rd century BC )
Hannibal, Hannibalis, m 4 Hannibal, a Carthaginian noble and Rome’s greatest

enemy (3rd century BC )
Herculēs, Herculis, m 4 Hercules, a Greek mythical hero who travelled to the site
which would one day be Rome
Horātius, Horātiī, m 2 Horatius Cocles, the Roman hero who defended the
bridge over the river Tiber against Porsena’s army (6th
century BC )
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Glossary of Names
Name Chapter
Iānus, Iānī, m 3 Janus, the Roman god of beginnings and endings,

entrances and exits
Iūnō, Iūnōnis, f 1 Juno, queen of the gods
Iuppiter, Iovis, m 1 Jupiter, king of the gods
Marius, Mariī, m 6 Marius, a famous Roman noble who became consul 7

times (2nd century BC )
Mars, Martis, m 1 Mars, god of war
Minerva, Minervae, f 1 Minerva, goddess of wisdom
Nūcerīnī, Nūcerīnōrum, m pl 5 Nucerini, the citizens of Nuceria, who became embroiled

in a major riot during gladiator games at Pompeii (1st
century AD )
Penātēs, Penātum, m 3 Penates, the gods of the household and the household
food
Pōmpēiānī, Pōmpēiānōrum, m pl 5 Pompeians, the citizens of Pompeii (a town in the Bay of

Naples)
Remus, Remī, m 2 Remus, Romulus’ twin brother (8th century BC )
Rōmulus, Rōmulī, m 2,3 Romulus, the founder and first king of Rome (8th century
BC )
Sabīnae, Sabīnārum, f pl 5 The Sabine Women, women from a neighbouring Italian

tribe who became the first Roman wives (8th century BC )
Scorpus, Scorpī, m 5 Scorpus, a phenomenally successful charioteer (1st

century AD )
Sibylla, Sibyllae, f 6 The Sibyl, a prophetess of Apollo
Spartacus, Spartacī, m 5 Spartacus, the Thracian gladiator and leader of a major

slave revolt (1st century BC )
Tarquinius Superbus, 6 Tarquin the Proud, the seventh and final king of Rome
Tarquiniī Superbī, m (6th century BC )
Venus, Veneris, f 1 Venus, goddess of love
Vesta, Vestae, f 3 Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and home
Vulcānus, Vulcānī, m 1 Vulcan, the blacksmith god
231

LATIN- TO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY LIST
Chapter
ā, ab + ablative 3 from; away from; by
absum abesse, āfuī 5 be absent; be away; be distant from
ad + accusative 2 to; towards; at
adsum adesse, adfuī 5 be here; be present
aedificō aedificāre, aedificāvī 4 build
ager agrī, m 4 field
agricola agricolae, m 5 farmer
altus alta, altum 6 high; deep
amīcus amīcī, m 6 friend
amō amāre, amāvī 1 love; like
ancilla ancillae, f 5 slave-girl; slave-woman
annus annī, m 6 year
aqua aquae, f 5 water
arma armōrum, n pl 2 arms; weapons
ascendō ascendere, ascendī 3 climb
audāx audācis 2 bold; daring
audiō audīre, audīvī 3 hear; listen to
aurum aurī, n 4 gold
auxilium auxiliī, n 3 help
bellum bellī, n 2 war
bibō bibere, bibī 5 drink
bonus bona, bonum 3 good
caelum caelī, n 3 sky; heaven
capiō capere, cēpī 2 take; catch; capture; make (a plan)
celeriter 3 quickly
cēna cēnae, f 5 dinner; meal
centum 6 100
cēterī cēterae, cētera 5 the rest; the others
cibus cibī, m 5 food
clāmō clāmāre, clāmāvī 5 shout
cōnspiciō cōnspicere, cōnspexī 3 catch sight of; notice
cōnsūmō cōnsūmere, cōnsūmpsī 5 eat
contrā + accusative 2 against
corpus corporis, n 2 body
crēdō crēdere, crēdidī + dative 4 believe; trust
crūdēlis crūdēle 4 cruel
cum + ablative 3 with
cūr? 4 why?
currō currere, cucurrī 2 run
232

Latin-to-English Vocabulary List
Chapter
dē + ablative 3 from; down from; about
dea deae, f 1 goddess
decem 6 10
decimus decima, decimum 6 tenth
dēscendō dēscendere, dēscendī 3 go down; come down
deus deī, m 1 god
difficilis difficile 3 difficult
diū 3 for a long time
dō dare, dedī 4 give
dōnum dōnī, n 4 gift; present
dormiō dormīre, dormīvī 6 sleep
duo duae, duo 6 2
ē, ex + ablative 3 from; out of; out from
emō emere, ēmī 6 buy
eō īre, iī / īvī 2 go
equus equī, m 3 horse
et 1 and; even
etiam 1 also; even
facilis facile 3 easy
faciō facere, fēcī 4 make; do
fēlīx fēlīcis 3 fortunate; happy; lucky
fēmina fēminae, f 1 woman
ferō ferre, tulī 4 bring; carry; bear
fessus fessa, fessum 5 tired
festīnō festīnāre, festīnāvī 5 hurry
fīlia fīliae, f 1 daughter
fīlius fīliī, m 1 son
flūmen flūminis, n 2 river
fortis forte 2 brave; strong
fortiter 2 bravely; strongly
gladius gladiī, m 2 sword
Graecus Graeca, Graecum 2 Greek
habeō habēre, habuī 4 have; hold
hasta hastae, f 2 spear
hīc 6 here
homō hominis, m 1 man; human being
hōra hōrae, f 6 hour
iaciō iacere, iēcī 2 throw
iam 6 now; already
ibi 6 there
in + accusative 2 into; onto
in + ablative 3 in; on
ingēns ingentis 2 huge
inquit inquiunt 2 he / she said, they said
interficiō interficere, interfēcī 2 kill
īra īrae, f 4 anger
īrātus īrāta, īrātum 1 angry
233

Chapter
itaque 6 and so; therefore
iterum 5 again
iubeō iubēre, iūssī 3 order
iuvenis iuvenis, m 6 young man
lacrimō lacrimāre, lacrimāvī 1 weep; cry
laetus laeta, laetum 1 happy
laudō laudāre, laudāvī 1 praise
līberī līberōrum, m pl 1 children
locus locī, m 6 place
lūdus lūdī, m 5 school; game; public games / festival (pl)
magnopere 5 greatly; very much
magnus magna, magnum 3 big; large; great
malus mala, malum 3 evil; bad
maneō manēre, mānsī 2 remain; stay
mare maris, n 3 sea
māter mātris, f 1 mother
meus mea, meum 6 my
mīlia mīlium 6 1000s
mīlle 6 1000
miser misera, miserum 4 miserable; wretched; sad
moneō monēre, monuī 6 warn; advise
mōns montis, m 3 mountain
mortuus mortua, mortuum 5 dead
mox 5 soon
multus multa, multum 1 much; many
-ne 4 (introduces question)
nōlī / nōlīte + infinitive 6 don’t . . .
nōlō nōlle, nōluī 4 not want; refuse
nōmen nōminis, n 4 name
nōn 2 not
nōnne . . .? 4 surely . . . ?
nōnus nōna, nōnum 6 ninth
noster nostra, nostrum 6 our
novem 6 9
novus nova, novum 6 new
num . . . ? 4 surely . . . not?
numquam 6 never
nunc 5 now
ō + vocative 6 O
octāvus octāva, octāvum 6 eighth
octō 6 8
ōlim 3 once; some time ago
ostendō ostendere, ostendī 6 show
parō parāre, parāvī 5 prepare; provide
parvus parva, parvum 6 small
pater patris, m 1 father
pecūnia pecūniae, f 4 money
234

Chapter
per + accusative 2 through; along
perīculum perīculī, n 2 danger
persuādeō persuādēre, persuāsī + dative 4 persuade
perterritus perterrita, perterritum 4 terrified
petō petere, petīvī 3 make for; seek; beg / ask for
pōnō pōnere, posuī 4 put; place; set up
possum posse, potuī 3 can; be able
prīmus prīma, prīmum 6 first
prope + accusative 2 near
puella puellae, f 6 girl
puer puerī, m 6 boy
pugnō pugnāre, pugnāvī, 3 fight
pulcher pulchra, pulchrum 1 beautiful; handsome
pūniō pūnīre, pūnīvī 1 punish
quandō? 4 when?
quārtus quārta, quārtum 6 fourth
quattuor 6 4
quīnque 6 5
quīntus quīnta, quīntum 6 fifth
quod 4 because
rēgīna rēgīnae, f 1 queen
regō regere, rēxī 1 rule
respondeō respondēre, respondī 6 reply
rēx rēgis, m 1 king
rīdeō rīdēre, rīsī 5 laugh; smile
rogō rogāre, rogāvī 6 ask; ask for
Rōmānus Rōmāna, Rōmānum 1 Roman
sacer sacra, sacrum 5 sacred
saepe 1 often
saevus saeva, saevum 1 savage; cruel
sagitta sagittae, f 2 arrow
secundus secunda, secundum 6 second
sed 1 but
semper 4 always
septem 6 7
septimus septima, septimum 6 seventh
servus servī, m 5 slave
sex 6 6
sextus sexta, sextum 6 sixth
sī c 6 thus; in this way
silva silvae, f 2 wood
spectō spectāre, spectāvī 5 look at; watch
subitō 3 suddenly
sum esse, fuī 1 be
suus sua, suum 6 his / her / its / their (own)
taberna tabernae, f 5 shop; inn
tamen 4 however
235

Chapter
tandem 3 at last; finally
templum templī, n 4 temple
terra terrae, f 3 ground; land; country
terreō terrēre, terruī 1 frighten; terrify
tertius tertia, tertium 6 third
timeō timēre, timuī 2 fear; be afraid
trāns + accusative 2 across
trēs tria 6 3
trīstis trīste 4 sad
tum 1 then
tuus tua, tuum 6 your (sg); yours
ubi? 4 where?
ūnus ūna, ūnum 6 1
urbs urbis, f 5 city
uxor uxōris, f 1 wife
veniō venīre, vēnī 5 come
verbum verbī, n 6 word
vester vestra, vestrum 6 your (pl); yours
videō vidēre, vīdī 6 see
vīlla vīllae, f 5 house; country villa
vincō vincere, vīcī 2 conquer; win; be victorious; defeat
vīnum vīnī, n 5 wine
vocō vocāre, vocāvī 5 call
volō velle, voluī 4 want
236

English-to-Latin Vocabulary List
ENGLISH- TO-LATIN VOCABULARY LIST
Chapter
about 3 dē + ablative
across 2 trāns + accusative
advise 6 moneō monēre, monuī
afraid 2 timeō timēre, timuī
again 5 iterum
against 2 contrā + accusative
already 6 iam
also 1 etiam
always 4 semper
and 1 et
and so 6 itaque
anger 4 īra īrae, f
angry 1 īrātus īrāta, īrātum
arms; armour 2 arma armōrum, n pl
arrow 2 sagitta sagittae, f
ask; ask for 6 rogō rogāre, rogāvī
at 2 ad + accusative
at last 3 tandem
away from 3 ā, ab + ablative
bad 3 malus mala, malum
be 1 sum esse, fuī
be absent 5 absum abesse, āfuī
be present 5 adsum adesse, adfuī
beautiful 1 pulcher pulchra, pulchrum
because 4 quod
beg; ask for 3 petō petere, petīvī
believe 4 crēdō crēdere, crēdidī + dative
big 3 magnus magna, magnum
body 2 corpus corporis, n
bold 2 audāx audācis
boy 6 puer puerī, m
brave 2 fortis forte
bravely 2 fortiter
bring 4 ferō ferre, tulī
build 4 aedificō aedificāre, aedificāvī
but 1 sed
buy 6 emō emere, ēmī
237

Chapter
by 3 ā, ab + ablative
call 5 vocō vocāre, vocāvī
can; be able 3 possum posse, potuī
capture 2 capiō capere, cēpī
carry 4 ferō ferre, tulī
catch 2 capiō capere, cēpī
catch sight of 3 cōnspiciō cōnspicere, cōnspexī
children 1 līberī līberōrum, m pl
city 5 urbs urbis, f
climb 3 ascendō ascendere, ascendī
come 5 veniō venīre, vēnī
conquer 2 vincō vincere, vīcī
country 3 terra terrae, f
country villa 5 vīlla vīllae, f
cruel 4 crūdēlis crūdēle
cruel 1 saevus saeva, saevum
cry 1 lacrimō lacrimāre, lacrimāvī
danger 2 perīculum perīculī, n
daring 2 audāx audācis
daughter 1 fīlia fīliae, f
dead 5 mortuus mortua, mortuum
deep 6 altus alta, altum
defeat 2 vincō vincere, vīcī
difficult 3 difficilis difficile
dinner 5 cēna cēnae, f
do not . . . 6 nōlī / nōlīte + infinitive
down from 3 dē + ablative
drink 5 bibō bibere, bibī
easy 3 facilis facile
eat 5 cōnsūmō cōnsūmere, cōnsūmpsī
eighth 6 octāvus octāva, octāvum
even 1 et
even 1 etiam
evil 3 malus mala, malum
farmer 5 agricola agricolae, m
father 1 pater patris, m
fear 2 timeō timēre, timuī
festival; public games 5 lūdī lūdōrum, m
field 4 ager agrī, m
fifth 6 quīntus quīnta, quīntum
fight 3 pugnō pugnāre, pugnāvī,
finally 3 tandem
first 6 prīmus prīma, prīmum
food 5 cibus cibī, m
for a long time 3 diū
238

Chapter
fortunate 3 fēlīx fēlīcis
fourth 6 quārtus quārta, quārtum
friend 6 amīcus amīcī, m
frighten 1 terreō terrēre, terruī
from 3 ā, ab + ablative
from; out of 3 ē, ex + ablative
gift 4 dōnum dōnī, n
girl 6 puella puellae, f
give 4 dō dare, dedī
go 2 eō īre, iī / īvī
go down 3 dēscendō dēscendere, dēscendī
god 1 deus deī, m
goddess 1 dea deae, f
gold 4 aurum aurī, n
good 3 bonus bona, bonum
great 3 magnus magna, magnum
greatly 5 magnopere
Greek 2 Graecus Graeca, Graecum
ground 3 terra terrae, f
handsome 1 pulcher pulchra, pulchrum
happy 1 laetus laeta, laetum
have 4 habeō habēre, habuī
hear 3 audiō audīre, audīvī
heaven 3 caelum caelī, n
help 3 auxilium auxiliī, n
here; in this place 6 hīc
high 6 altus alta, altum
his / her / its / their (own) 6 suus sua, suum
horse 3 equus equī, m
hour 6 hōra hōrae, f
house 5 vīlla vīllae, f
however 4 tamen
huge 2 ingēns ingentis
human being 1 homō hominis, m
hurry 5 festīnō festīnāre, festīnāvī
in 3 in + ablative
inn 5 taberna tabernae, f
in this way 6 sī c
into 2 in + accusative
kill 2 interficiō interficere, interfēcī
king 1 rēx rēgis, m
land 3 terra terrae, f
large 3 magnus magna, magnum
laugh 5 rīdeō rīdēre, rīsī
listen to 3 audiō audīre, audīvī
239

Chapter
look at 5 spectō spectāre, spectāvī
love 1 amō amāre, amāvī
lucky 3 fēlīx fēlīcis
make; do 4 faciō facere, fēcī
make for 3 petō petere, petīvī
man 1 homō hominis, m
many 1 multī multae, multa
meal 5 cēna cēnae, f
miserable 4 miser misera, miserum
money 4 pecūnia pecūniae, f
mother 1 māter mātris, f
mountain 3 mōns montis, m
much 1 multus multa, multum
my 6 meus mea, meum
name 4 nōmen nōminis, n
near 2 prope + accusative
never 6 numquam
new 6 novus nova, novum
ninth 6 nōnus nōna, nōnum
not 2 nōn
not want 4 nōlō nōlle, nōluī
notice 3 cōnspiciō cōnspicere, cōnspexī
now 6 iam
now 5 nunc
o 6 ō + vocative
often 1 saepe
on 3 in + ablative
once; some time ago 3 ōlim
order 3 iubeō iubēre, iūssī
others; the rest 5 cēterī cēterae, cētera
our 6 noster nostra, nostrum
out of; from 3 ē, ex + ablative
persuade 4 persuādeō persuādēre, persuāsī + dative
place 6 locus locī, m
place 4 pōnō pōnere, posuī
praise 1 laudō laudāre, laudāvī
prepare 5 parō parāre, parāvī
present 4 dōnum dōnī, n
punish 1 pūniō pūnīre, pūnīvī
put 4 pōnō pōnere, posuī
queen 1 rēgīna rēgīnae, f
quickly 3 celeriter
remain 2 maneō manēre, mānsī
reply 6 respondeō respondēre, respondī
river 2 flūmen flūminis, n
240

Chapter
Roman 1 Rōmānus Rōmāna, Rōmānum
rule 1 regō regere, rēxī
run 2 currō currere, cucurrī
sacred 5 sacer sacra, sacrum
sad 4 miser misera, miserum
sad 4 trīstis trīste
said 2 inquit inquiunt
savage 1 saevus saeva, saevum
school 5 lūdus lūdī, m
sea 3 mare maris, n
second 6 secundus secunda, secundum
see 6 videō vidēre, vīdī
seek 3 petō petere, petīvī
seventh 6 septimus septima, septimum
shop 5 taberna tabernae, f
shout 5 clāmō clāmāre, clāmāvī
show 6 ostendō ostendere, ostendī
sixth 6 sextus sexta, sextum
sky 3 caelum caelī, n
slave 5 servus servī, m
slave-girl; slave-woman 5 ancilla ancillae, f
sleep 6 dormiō dormīre, dormīvī
small 6 parvus parva, parvum
smile 5 rīdeō rīdēre, rīsī
some time ago 3 ōlim
son 1 fīlius fīliī, m
soon 5 mox
spear 2 hasta hastae, f
stay 2 maneō manēre, mānsī
strong 2 fortis forte
strongly 2 fortiter
suddenly 3 subitō
surely . . . ? 4 nōnne . . .?
surely . . . not? 4 num . . . ?
sword 2 gladius gladiī, m
take 2 capiō capere, cēpī
temple 4 templum templī, n
tenth 6 decimus decima, decimum
terrified 4 perterritus perterrita, perterritum
terrify 1 terreō terrēre, terruī
then 1 tum
there; in that place 6 ibi
therefore 6 itaque
third 6 tertius tertia, tertium
through 2 per + accusative
241

Chapter
throw 2 iaciō iacere, iēcī
thus 6 sī c
tired 5 fessus fessa, fessum
to; towards 2 ad + accusative
trust 4 crēdō crēdere, crēdidī + dative
very much 5 magnopere
want 4 volō velle, voluī
war 2 bellum bellī, n
warn 6 moneō monēre, monuī
watch 5 spectō spectāre, spectāvī
water 5 aqua aquae, f
weapons 2 arma armōrum, n pl
weep 1 lacrimō lacrimāre, lacrimāvī
when? 4 quandō?
where? 4 ubi?
why? 4 cūr?
wife 1 uxor uxōris, f
win 2 vincō vincere, vīcī
wine 5 vīnum vīnī, n
with 3 cum + ablative
woman 1 fēmina fēminae, f
wood 2 silva silvae, f
word 6 verbum verbī, n
wretched 4 miser misera, miserum
year 6 annus annī, m
young man 6 iuvenis iuvenis, m
your (pl); yours 6 vester vestra, vestrum
your (sg); yours 6 tuus tua, tuum
? (introduces question) 4 -ne
1 6 ūnus ūna, ūnum
2 6 duo duae, duo
3 6 trēs tria
4 6 quattuor
5 6 quīnque
6 6 sex
7 6 septem
8 6 octō
9 6 novem
10 6 decem
100 6 centum
1000 6 mīlle
1000s 6 mīlia mīlium
242

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244

SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS
The hand-drawn illustrations on pp. 17, 20, 23, 30, 32, 56, 59, 60, 87, 91, 93, 95, 121, 126, 128, 129, 155, 157, 160, 163,
166, 193, 197, 200, 201, 203 are © Beatriz Lostalé.
1.1 Arthur Greenberg/Alamy Stock Photo; 1.2 © The Trustees of the British Museum.; 1.3 Art Media/Print Collector/Getty
Images; 1.4 DeAgostini/Getty Images; 1.5 Ancient Art and Architecture / Alamy Stock Photo; 1.6 Getty Images DEA / G.
NIMATALLAH; 1.7 DEA / A. VERGANI; 2.1 The Art Collector/Print Collector/Getty Images; 2.2 Luigi Spina/Electa/
Mondadori Portfolio/Getty Images; 2.3 DEA / G. DAGLI ORTI/De Agostini/Getty Images; 2.4 Marie-Lan Nguyen /
Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain; 2.5 Fine Art Images/Heritage Images/Getty Images; 2.6 De Agostini Picture Library/
De Agostini/Getty Images; 2.7 De Agostini Picture Library/Getty Images; 3.1 © The Trustees of the British Museum.; 3.2
Floriano Rescigno / Alamy Stock Photo; 3.3 M.J. Daviduik / Alamy Stock Photo; 3.4 wildwinds.com; 3.5 Alamy Franz
Walter; 3.6 wildwinds.com; 4.1 S. Greg Panosian; 4.2 DEA / G. DAGLI ORTI/ Contributor; 4.3 Wikimedia Commons/
Jastrow; 4.4 © The Trustees of the British Museum.; 4.5 © The Trustees of the British Museum.; 4.6 Philadelphia Museum
of Art, Purchased with the W. P. Wilstach Fund, W1950-3-1; 4.7 MOLA/Getty Images; 5.1 De Agostini/Getty Images; 5.2
Alamy Stock Photo; 5.3 Sergio Anelli/Electa/Mondadori Portfolio via Getty Images; 5.4 Metropolitan Museum of Art; 5.5
Wikimedia Commons/Jastrow; 5.6 Harald Nachtmann; 5.7 Alamy Stock Photo; 6.1 Getty Images; 6.2 CM Dixon/Heritage
Images/Getty Images; 6.3 Getty Images; 6.4 Scott Carruthers/Alamy Stock Photos; 6.5 Marco Cantile/LightRocket via
Getty Images; 6.6 Azoor Photo / Alamy Stock Photo.
245

SOURCES OF QUOTATIONS
12 ‘The Cyclopes Brontes were . . .’ Virgil, The Aeneid 8.424–438, trans: David West, Virgil: The Aeneid (London: Penguin
Classics, 2003) p. 403; 14 ‘The sun, people . . .’ Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.170–189, trans. Michael Simpson, The
Metamorphoses of Ovid (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001) p. 64; 15 ‘Indeed, when we . . .’ Cicero, De
Natura Deorum 1.46–47, trans: Katharine Radice (2019); 45 ‘Above the ridge . . .’ Virgil, The Aeneid 8.233–267, trans:
David West, Virgil: The Aeneid (London: Penguin Classics, 2003) p. 196–197; 47 ‘Horatius advised . . .’ Livy, The History
of Rome 2.10, trans: Valerie M. Warrior, Livy: The History of Rome (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2006)
p.96; 48 ‘Cloelia, an unmarried . . .’ Livy, The History of Rome 2.13.6–11, trans: Aubrey de Selincourt, Livy, The Early
History of Rome (London: Penguin Classics, 2002); 75 ‘In my dreams . . .’ Virgil, The Aeneid 2.270–297, trans: Katharine
Radice (2019); 76 ‘Romulus was one day . . .’ Livy, The History of Rome 1.16, trans: T.J. Luce, Livy, The Rise of Rome
Books One to Five (Oxford: OUP, 1998) p. 21; 77 ‘Rome had originally . . .’ Livy, The History of Rome 1.19, trans: Aubrey
de Selincourt, Livy, The Early History of Rome (London: Penguin Classics, 2002); 112 ‘There was a sign . . .’ Livy, The
History of Rome 1.39, trans: Valerie M. Warrior, Livy: The History of Rome (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company,
2006) p.57; 113 ‘Jupiter, Greatest and Best . . .’ Vows for Tiberius and Julia Augusta/Livia A27a: 1–32, ed: M.G.L. Cooley,
LACTOR 19: Tiberius to Nero (London: LACTOR, 2003) p. 2–23; 114 ‘This sheet of lead . . .’ Hassall, M.W.C. and Tomlin,
R.S.O. ‘Roman Britain in 1995’ in Britannia 27, pp. 439–441, no. 1 (1996); 114 ‘I curse Tretia Maria . . .’ Collingwood
R.G. and R.P. Wright, The Roman Inscriptions of Britain (London: Clarendon Press, 1994); 114 ‘Cicero: Tell me . . .’
Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 1.5.10, trans: Valerie Hope, Death in Ancient Rome 6.28 (London: Routledge Sourcebooks
in Classical Studies, 2007) p.227; 145 ‘Tarquinius Priscus waged . . .’ Livy, The History of Rome 1.35, trans: T.J. Luce, Livy,
The Rise of Rome Books One to Five (Oxford: OUP, 1998) p. 44; 142 ‘I have been spending . . .’ Pliny, Letters 9.6, trans:
Betty Radice, Pliny, Letters of Pliny the Younger (London: Penguin Classics, 1969); 147 ‘20 pairs of . . .’ CIL IV 7995,
trans: Alison E. Cooley and M.G.L. Cooley, Pompeii & Herculaneum: A Sourcebook, Second Edition (Routledge: London,
2004); 148 ‘There remain the . . .’ Cicero, Letter to M. Marius 7.71, trans: E.S. Shuckburgh, Letters of Marcus Tullius
Cicero (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2009) p. 112; 180 ‘The father of . . .’ Virgil, The Aeneid Book 1, trans: G.B. Cobbold,
Vergil’s Aeneid: Hero, War, Humanity (Mundelein, Ill.: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 2008) p. 12–13; 182 ‘Fortune
brought them . . .’ Livy, The History of Rome 1.34, trans: T.J. Luce, Livy, The Rise of Rome Books One to Five (Oxford:
OUP, 1998) p. 43; 183 ‘About this time . . .’ Livy, The History of Rome 1.56–57, trans: Aubrey de Selincourt, Livy, The
Early History of Rome (London: Penguin Classics, 2002).
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de Romanis

This ebook belongs to Andrew Foinette (aef@forest.org.uk), purchased on 23/01/2020

de Romanis Book 2: homines, Katharine Radice, Angela Cheetham,

Latin to GCSE Part 1, Henry Cullen and John Taylor

Latin to GCSE Part 2, Henry Cullen and John Taylor

Latin Stories, Henry Cullen, Michael Dormandy and John Taylor

Aeneas: Virgil’s Epic Retold for Younger Readers, Emily Frenkel

Essential GCSE Latin, John Taylor

Supplementary resources for de Romanis Books 1 and 2 can be found at

This ebook belongs to Andrew Foinette (aef@forest.org.uk), purchased on 23/01/2020

This ebook belongs to Andrew Foinette (aef@forest.org.uk), purchased on 23/01/2020

BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC and the Diana logo

First published in Great Britain 2020

Cover design: Terry Woodley

ISBN: PB: 978-1-3501-0003-9

Typeset by ReﬁneCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk

This ebook belongs to Andrew Foinette (aef@forest.org.uk), purchased on 23/01/2020

Latin stories are printed in blue in the chapter lists below

Acknowledgements vii Exercise 1.17: Mars terrifies the humans 32

Why Study Latin? ix

Reference Material x Introduction 40

Noun cases: nominative and accusative 24 Introduction 70

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Additional Language 96 Introduction 176

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Katharine Radice, Angela Cheetham, Dr Sonya Kirk and George Lord

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WHY STUDY THE ROMANS?

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WHY STUDY LATIN?

THE STRUCTURE OF DE ROMANIS

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At the back of the book are three reference sections:

HOW TO PRONOUNCE LATIN

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SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS ONLINE

de Romanis is supplemented by a range of materials available online via the Bloomsbury

Among these are the following.

Teacher’s Guide containing:

● a detailed explanation of the course’s structure and design

Culture and context materials:

● malleable copies of the Latin text for each Latin story

Some materials will only be accessible to teachers. These are:

● end of chapter tests for all 12 chapters

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ROME AND THE ROMANS

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This ebook belongs to Andrew Foinette (aef@forest.org.uk), purchased on 23/01/2020

This ebook belongs to Andrew Foinette (aef@forest.org.uk), purchased on 23/01/2020

This ebook belongs to Andrew Foinette (aef@forest.org.uk), purchased on 23/01/2020

This ebook belongs to Andrew Foinette (aef@forest.org.uk), purchased on 23/01/2020

The Olympian gods

FIGURE 1.1 The summit of Mount Olympus

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Roman name Greek name

Jupiter Zeus king of the gods

Neptune Poseidon god of the sea

Pluto Hades god of the underworld, the region

Juno Hera queen of the gods, goddess of

Venus Aphrodite goddess of love

Apollo Apollo god of music, prophecy, music,

Mars Ares god of war