Chapter-I

INTRODUCTION

Physical Education, including games and sports, plays a

tremendous role in the development of our youth. It enables an

individual to live a healthy life in an ever-changing world. Physical

Education makes the children psychologically, physically and

physiologically active. It helps in the development of character building,

reduction of rowdiness, and serves on the basis of group unity and

solidarity. It introduces team work, self-discipline, sportsmanship,

leadership and socialization among the youth.

Human growth is a dynamic process and is being influenced by

hereditary factors and environment factors. Genetic component and

environment both contribute to attain final body structure. Certain

factors like disease, proper diet, time, cultural pursuits, geographical

conditions etc. have tremendous influence in the growth of child.

Today’s citizens are less physically fit than their ancestors who

lived over a hundred years ago. “Fit” in this context means having good

health and an adequate degree of physical activity and their means to

total fitness. The concept of total fitness encompasses the whole

philosophy of health, the social, emotional and physical condition of the

individual. A totally fit individual has the strength, speed, agility,

endurance and social and emotional adjustments appropriate to his

age.
 2

Sports in the present day have become extremely competitive.

Previous records are being broken whenever there is a competition. It is

not the mere participation or few days’ practice that brings an

individuals victory, but the continuous hard work, training right from

childhood, a strong self determination and certain psychological factors

helps a player to achieve success. Individual and team sports have a

valuable contribution to make to all who discover the fun, challenge

and adventure in playing them. Such riches are equally available to

both the sex.

According to Tranced and Trancred, “the last decade has seen a

growing interest in physical fitness and its relationship to good health.

Recent significant developments seem to indicate that a new era may be

drawing for physical education as the public slowly becomes aware of

the damages of physical deterioration.”1

Human growth is a dynamic changing process and is being

influenced by hereditary factors and environment. Genetic component

and environment both contribute to attain final body structure. Certain

factors like disease, proper diet, time, cultural pursuits, geographical

conditions etc. have tremendous influence in the growth of a child.

Concern for the welfare of the school children is the next impetus

to the study of growth. It has been realized that only mental or

academic activity can adversely effect the growth and development of a

child as most of the blood circulation is towards brain depriving other

organs from it. Health and physical education programmes aid

students in achieving their fullest potential through the acquisition of

1 Bill Trancred and Geoff Trancred, “Weight Training for Sport”, (London,
2000), P.43.
 3

knowledge and skill necessary to attain healthy levels of well being and

to maintain active life styles through out life span. Healthy and

physically active life style of a person helps to increase capacity for

effective work, positive behavioural choices and increased academic

pursuits.

The general pattern of healthy growth is quite similar from one

individual to another, but there is considerable individual variability in

size attained and rate of growth at different ages, with respect to both

the body as a whole and to its specific parts. Both the whole body and

its parts, therefore, must be measured, and the study of growth is

synonymous to a large extent with measurements.

To evaluate the role of regular physical activity in growth and

maturation, it is important to note age and sex associated trends in

physical activity during childhood and adolescence. Results of activity

monitoring of young children and surveys of older children provide

some indications of the time spent in physical activities, but they do

not ordinarily indicate the vigour of the activity, the energy expenditure,

or the nature of activities. Data of activity levels of children and

adolescents are based primarily on diaries, interviews, and

standardized questionnaires. Methods vary among studies, so that

specific comparisons are often difficult.

Beyond that the physical anthropological investigations are

generally missing in the countries under study. Data from almost all

the countries of the industrialised world, and even those from the third

world, reveal that a growing proportion of children and adults is over

weight or frankly obese. The prevalence of over-weight and obesity

 4

varies according to age, gender, race and socio-economic classes across

the developing world.

Excess body fat or obesity, inactive life styles are the major risk

factors for cardiovascular diseases in general and also for diabetes.

Relationships among obesity, abdominal fat and mortality are complex,

and disease-related symptoms are not manifested until the obese state

or the excess accumulation of fat in the abdominal area has been

present for several years. The present information suggests that an

incubation period of 10 to 15 years is probably required for the

metabolic disturbances of obesity or abdominal fat to be established to

exert detrimental effects. The dramatic end points are seldom

encountered in childhood and adolescence, but risk factors associated

with the development of undesirable outcomes are frequently observed

before maturity is reached.

A more physically active lifestyle is likely to be the cornerstone of

a prevention strategy centred on the concept of the promotion of a

healthy weight. However, it is equally important to recognise that

energy balance will be easier to achieve in the long term if the

physically active lifestyle is associated with a low-fat diet (about 30% of

calories). Energy balance, and particularly balance between lipid intake

and lipid oxidation, is quite difficult and perhaps impossible to sustain

when dietary fat intake is high.

It is becoming increasingly clear that the promotion of a healthy

lifestyle and the reduction of risk profile in contemporary adults would

be more successful if the process were started during childhood. That

is, the initiation of preventive health measures should begin during the
 5

growing years. The special role of regular exercise or habitual physical

activity is highlighted among the factors that are generally identified as

risk factors in adults.

Anthropometric Measurement

‘Anthropometry’ means the measurement of men whether living

or dead, and consists primarily in the measurement of dimensions of

the body. Anthropometry provides the measurement of man using

scientific methods and observations on the living man and the skeleton.

Anthropometry represents the typical and traditional tool of human

biology, physical anthropology and auxology. Recently it has taken a

strong bonded relationship with physical education and sports

sciences.

The modern world is the outcome of many scientific inventions

through centuries. Scientific instruments and machinery big and small

have helped to make our daily life easy and comfortable.

Since the modern man depends mostly upon the modern outfits

for his daily routine involving metal powers to live an easygoing life,

there has been a fall and deterioration in his physical health capacities.

Over dependence on machines has made him become less vigorous and

lethargic.

The term anthropometry is synonymous with physical

anthropology and is an integral part of biometrics, since its data, in

large measure, are to be understood only through the use of statistics.

The two types of anthropometric measurements gathered are those,

which are taken on the living and those taken on the skeleton.
 6

The purpose of an anthropometric study will determine what

measurements are required beyond height and weight - body lengths

and diatl1eters for studies of race, growth, and skin folds for nutrition

and body composition. It generally co-relates with body and limb

lengths, and weight with body breadths, depths, girths, and skin folds.

The science of anthropomentry has its development in the play

fields of physical Arithropogists. Anthropology has been the study of

man’s biological structure and defined behaviour in the space. Physical

anthropologist has been mainly concerned with the study of human

origins and human evolution as well as the varieties of mankind in

different parts of the world. Lately new dimensions have been added:

namely the study of human growth and development in various human

populations. The effect of environment and nutrition on the growth and

development of human being is also sought to be assessed.

The origin of anthropometry is very ancient. It dates back to

ancient Egypt and Greece. The artists formulated various standard

canons for the human body. The scientific anthropometry however

began with Johann Friedrich Blumenbach who laid the foundation of

craniology i.e. study of human skull. He classified mankind into

different races on the basis of skull- form.

Anthropometry constitutes the systematized techniques for

taking measurements of man, living or dead, in order to express in a

qualitative manner the dimension of the body. Anthropometry is

frequently viewed as the traditional and perhaps the basic tool in

physical anthropology, but it has a long tradition of use in physical

education.
 7

Anthropometry involves the use of carefully defined body land

marks for measurements, specific subject positioning and rigidly

standardized techniques of measurement. They are generally divided

into those of weight; length; and height; breadth; widths or depths

circumferences on girths curvatures on areas and soft tissue (skin

folds).

Anthropometric factors influencing strength and motor

performance are viewed in terms of overall body size, body proportions,

and physique and body composition recognizing the important role of

motivation, peer status and other non-physical variables. It should be

noted that strength and performance are related and that

anthropometric factors influencing strength and performance during

development are themselves interrelated. For example, the early

maturing adolescent male is usually taller, heavier, and more

mesomorphic than his late maturing age peers.

Motor Performance

Today, physical education, sports and games in their diversified

forms have become a part of the curriculum in schools, colleges and

universities. Professionalism has entered sports and games demanding

the sportsmen and sportswomen of a very high level of performance.

Performance, physical skill, sports and games require a high level of

physical or physiological fitness, psychological- mental and emotional

fitness. Different activities require different levels of fitness, that is

different activities demand different elements or components of fitness

in varied proportions.
 8

The improvement and performance of physical skills in the field

of physical education, sports and games depend upon the various

aspects of the individual, such as the physical characteristics, mental

characteristics, the emotional set-up etc. The performance also

depends upon the personality traits, body build, age, mental age,

training age, and so on.

Physical conditioning and training are as important as technical

and tactical training for the improvements of skills in general and

superior performance, in particular. One of the main objectives of

physical education is the training for improved physical fitness or

athletic efficiency, which is the capacity for physical activity and is

referred to as the organic vigor or vitality.

This vigor or vitality is demonstrated through physical

performance. Therefore, in performance of physical education activities,

skills in sports and games, the development of the various components

of physical fitness, athletic efficiency or fitness is necessary. In other

words, the performance in physical skills depends upon, how the

various components of physical fitness or athletic fitness is developed.

The different components of various forms of fitness are strength,

power, speed, endurance, co-ordination, flexibility, agility, and so on.

According to Morehouse and Miller, “The term fitness implies a

relation between the performed and the individual capabilities to

perform it.”2

“Fitness is that state which characterizes the degree to which a

person is able to function. Fitness is an individual matter. It implies the

2 Lawrence E. Morehouse and Augustus T. Miller, “Physiology of Exercise”
(Saint Louis: The C.V. Mosby Co., 1926), P.224.
 9

ability of each person to live most effectively with his potential. Ability

to function depends upon the physical, mental, emotional, social,

spiritual and cultural components of fitness, all of which are related to

each other and the mutually inter dependent” stated by Barrow and

McGee3

In the above statement, the reference is to a total fitness, which

refers to the individual’s capacity to survive and live effectively in his

environment. When viewed in the light of this statement, physical

fitness is a limited phase of total fitness. However, it is one that is basic

to other forms of fitness. Physical fitness would include adequate

degree of health, posture, physique, proper functioning of vital organs,

nutrition and good health habits along with and adequate amount of

endurance, strength, flexibility, etc.

It is defined as the work capacity- the total functional capacity to

perform and some specified task requiring muscular efforts. It

conditions the individual involved, task to be performed, quality and

intensity of effort. One aspect of total fitness; involves sound organic

development, motor skill and the capacity to perform physical work

with biological efficiency.

A totally fit individual must have motor ability also. Motor ability

is also one of the important aspects for physical education activity. The

components at motor ability are speed, explosive power, agility,

coordination, strength, endurance etcetera.

3 Harold M. Barrow and Rosemary McGee, “A Practical Approach to

Measurements to Physical Education.” Second Edition (Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger,
1973), P.131.
 10

Motor ability has been defined by Borrow, as “the present

acquired and innate ability to perform motor skill of a general or

fundamental nature, execution at highly specialized sports or

gymnastic techniques.”4

Motor ability is the third classification of motor behaviour.

Sometimes, it is referred to as general athletic ability. Motor ability is a

combination of the innate acquired ability. Motor ability is general in

nature and is made up of general abilities. It does not involve highly

specialized skills instead it is made up of factors which may be more

dynamic and changeable. This seems to imply that motor ability status

would come about relatively slowly and over a period of time.

Improvement would come about and be in proportion not only to one’s

potential but also in the amount of time and practice devoted to

activities also, as one approaches his potential, change would come

about more slowly.

Once a player has these abilities practiced, these dominant

abilities would be enduring and persist over a long period of time, since

they become a part of muscle memory. Lastly, there has been no

common agreement on the factors that constitute motor ability.

According to Dencker and Anderson, “Physical growth in children

is measured by changes in body size and/or composition as well as

physical profile. Physical activity is considered as a key factor for a

healthy physical and mental development of children. Currently, the

increasing prevalence of overweight/obesity in children is putting

children at risk of developing several chronic diseases later in life, also

4 Harold M. Barrow, “Man and Movement: Principles of Physical Education”

(Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1977), P.224.
 11

because children who are not physically active are unlikely to become

so in adulthood.”5

“The capacity of performing physical activity is named physical

fitness or motor fitness, albeit these terms are difficult to define” stated

by Gallahue.6 Physical fitness may be conceived as the capacity to

perform one’s daily tasks without fatigue. Motor fitness, also termed

motor ability, refers to a person’s performance abilities as affected by

the factors of speed, agility, balance, coordination, and power. Motor

abilities represent an integrated outcome of most bodily functions

involved in physical activity and can be used to assess the effectiveness

of physical education as well as measure the health-related fitness of

schoolchildren, provided they are reliably measured by standardized

tests such as the EUROFIT test battery, which has been widely used

with children and adolescent; On the other hand, measurement of

anthropometric parameters allows monitoring of children’s growth in

terms of physical dimensions, body composition.” by Krebs et al.7

Motor coordination is affected by age so being aware of age

related differences is very important in identifying pathological changes.

The development of normative data can improve the objectives

associated with common measures of motor performance which assess

co-ordination and balance. Age related differences may differentially

affect specific stages of the peoples’ performance process and it is not

5 M Dencker and Andersen L.B. “Health-Related Aspects of Objectively

Measured Daily Physical Activity in Children.” Journal of Sports Medicine. (2008),

Vol.28: 133-144.
6D.L. Gallahue. “Developmental Movement Experiences for Children.” (New
York: Collier Macmillan, 1982), P.24.
7N.F. Krebs; J.H. Himes; D. Jacobson; T.A. Nicklas; P. Guilday and D. Styne.
“Assessment of Child and Adolescent Overweight and Obesity”, Pediatrics (2007),
Vol.120(4): 193-228.
 12

clear what mechanisms affect the observed differences associated with

age in the performance of skills. Nowadays, the existing evidence is

used to examine the relationship between age related differences and

sensimotor system. The importance of age related differences is only

identified when somatosensory information is compromised and it is

suggested that somatosensory process in the maintenance of body

posture is sensitive to age differences.

In many researches that have been done on clinical measures of

motor performance, the effect of age related differences on these tests

has been taken into account and the results have shown a linear

decline in the subjects’ performance as their age increases.

Furthermore, in some of these researches, the correlation of age to

anthropometric indices such as body mass index (BMI), weight and

height changes and also the relation of these factors to the emergence

of disability in the performance of person have been considered. Since

many factors such as the dominate leg, age, gender, height, weight and

the length of hands and feet may affect the control of the body posture

and the maintenance of balance, they are considered as the factors

affecting sport concussion and the performance of person.

Simultaneous assessment of anthropometric parameters and

motor abilities will provide more accurate information on the

developmental process of children; however, it is not well known

whether a relationship actually exists between motor abilities and

anthropometric parameters in children or between different motor

ability evaluation tests.

 13

Numerous evidences have shown body size and strength

contributing to motor performance. The increase in strength is related

to increase in total muscle mass.8 Significant positive correlation

between strength and performance indicate that stronger individuals

were the individuals who performed better.9 However, the pattern of

improvement of strength and physical performance is not uniform in all

tasks. Strength may be important to the successful performance of

some motor performances but not as important to others. It is likely

that performance related to power events would show a similar trend to

that of strength. Physique and body structure has generally been found

to have a significant relation to physical performance.10 High degree of

endomorph definitely limit physical performance capacity, while a high

degree of mesomorphy are more adapted to motor performance.

Nevertheless, correlations between physique, strength and performance

are at best moderate and not sufficiently high for predictive purposes.11

Correlations between skinfold thicknesses and performance are

consistently negative suggesting the negative effect of fatness on motor

performance.12 Body fatness influence physical performance both

8 S.M. Ostojic, S. Mazic, and N. Dikic. “Profiling in Basketball: Physical and

Physiological Characteristics of Elite Players.” Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research, (2006) Vol.20(4): 740-754.
9 T.E. Ball, B.H. Massey, J.E. Misner, B.C. Mckeown, and T.G. Lohman, “The

Relative Contribution of Strength to Running and Jumping Performance of Boys 7-

11.” Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, (1992), Vol.32: 364-371.
10 T. Gabbett, and B. Georgieff, “Physiological and Anthropometric
Characteristic of Australian Junior National, State and Novice Volleyball Players.”
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, (2007), Vol.21(3): 902-908.
11 R.M. Malina, “Anthropometric Correlates of Strength and Motor
Performance.” Exercise and Sports Science Review, (1975) Vol.3: 249-274.
12 V. Vucetic, B.R. Matkovic, and D. Sentija (2008). “Morphological Differences
of Elite Croatian Track-and-Field Athletes.” Collegium Antropologicum, Vol.32(3): 863-
868.
 14

mechanically and metabolically.13 Mechanically, excess fatness is

detrimental to performance involving acceleration of body weight

because it adds non-force producing mass to the body. Metabolically,

excess fatness increases the metabolic cost of performing work in

activities requiring movement of the total body mass. Thus, one would

expect that in most type of performance involving translocation of the

body mass a low relative fatness to be advantageous in both

mechanical and metabolic sense. It should be noted that correlation

type analyses relating a specific body dimension to and motor

performance may has its limitation.

Anthropometric factors influencing strength and performance are

themselves related, thus, a set of selected anthropometric dimensions

would account for a significant variation in physical performance.14

Using the step-down regression procedure, height, upper arm

circumference, abdominal and calf skinfolds were identified as

significant predictors of physical performance. Analysis of canonical

correlation on two sets of variables, anthropometric and physical

performance also indicated that children with greater weight, thigh

volume, and height will perform well on performance measures

requiring high intensity work production.15

13 R.A. Boileau, and T.G. Lohman. “The Measurement of Human Physical and

Its Effect on Physical Performance”, The Orthopedic Clinic of North America, (1977)
Vol.8(3) : 563-581.
14 M.H. Slaughter, T.G. Lohman and R.A. Boileau. “Relationship of
Anthropometric Dimensions to Physical Performance in Children”, Journal of Sport
Medicine, (1982), Vol.22: 377-385.
15D. Docherty, and C.A. Gaul, “Relationship of Body Size, Physique and
Composition to Physical Performance in Young Boys and Girls”, International Journal
of Sport Medicine, (1991), Vol.12: 525-532.
 15

Student athletes are different from their peers as, they are

provided with regular physical training and more actively involved in

sports activities than their peers. Regular physical training is known to

speed up the rate of development of physical performance.16 Increased

in physical performance, in turn, can be consistent with success in

many sport activities, for example, competitive-level performance may

require that high forces be generated rapidly in order to achieve

sufficiently high velocity in movements such as throwing, jumping,

kicking, or sprinting.17 Evidently, high performance athletes require

specific biological profiles with outstanding biomotor ability and strong

psychological traits. Biometric quality or anthropometric measurements

of an individual are important asset for several sports, and therefore,

considered among the main criteria for success in many sports.18

Theoretically, it would be expected that those who are successful

to have the appropriate structures commensurate with their physical

performance task. Research showed overwhelming evidence showing

differences in body size between athletes in different sports, whether

measured by weight, height, lengths, breadths, girths, or skinfolds;

between sports or within sports.19 Therefore, a study of the difference

16 T.J. Gabbett, J. Johns, and M. Riemann. “Performance Changes Following

Training in Junior Rugby League Players”, Journal of Strength and Conditioning

Research, (2008), Vol.22(3): 910-917.
17 W.G. Thorland, G.O. Johnson, G.D. Tharp and T.J. Housh “Comparative

Characteristics of Elite Junior and Senior Athletes.” In E.W. Brown and C.F. Branta
(Eds.), “Competitive Youth Sports for Children and Youth” (129-142). (Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 1988), P.35.
18
T.O. Bompa. “Periodization: Theory and Methodology of Training” (4th ed.).
(Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1999), P.75.
19 I.A. Bayios, N.K. Bergeles, N.G. Apostolidis, K.S. Noutsos, and M.D.
Koskolou, “Anthropometric, Body Composition and Somatotype Differences of Greece
Elite Female Basketball, Volleyball and Handball Players”, Journal of Sports Medicine
and Physical Fitness, (2006), Vol.46(2): 271-280.
 16

between body structure and motor task are important for better

understanding of the important aspects of physique.

The purpose of this study was to determine the anthropometric

measurements and motor performance of school boys based on their

age, locality and type of management. Besides that, this research also

determined the anthropometric characteristics that are the significant

contributing factors to motor performance.

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The statement of the problem selected for the present study is as

follows:

“COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF ANTHROPOMETRIC

MEASUREMENT AND MOTOR PERFORMANCE OF SCHOOL BOYS OF

DIFFERENT AGE GROUP”

1.2 DELIMITATIONS

1. The study was delimited to the high school boys of Bangalore

Rural and Urban district, Karnataka State.

2. The study was delimited to the 13 to 15 years age group.

3. The study was delimited to 500 boys as subjects from each age

group, totaling to the 1500 subjects.

4. The study was further delimited to the following parameters :

Anthropometric Measurements

1. Body Weight

2. Stature

3. Iliospinale Height

4. Upper Limb Height

 17

Breadths

5. Biacromial

6. Chest

7. Biiliac

8. Elbow

9. Ankle

10. Ankle

Circumferences

11. Chest

12. Upper arm

13. Calf

Skinfolds Measurements (Body Fat Percentage)

14. Biceps

15. Triceps

16. Supscapular

17. Suprailiac

Motor Performance Variables

18. Speed

19. Explosive Strength

20. Agility

21. Balance
 18

1.3 LIMITATIONS

1. Certain factors like diet, daily routine, ways of living, socio-

economic status, etcetera which might affect the selected
variables are considered as major limitations of this study.

2. No special motivational techniques are used while administration

of test period. Therefore the differences that might occur in the
performances due to lack of motivation is considered as another
limitation.

3. The chronological age of the subjects is taken from the

educational institutions record the maturity status of the
subjects and this could be considered to ascertain their biological
age.

1.4 HYPOTHESES

On the basis of the available literature and discussion with

different experts and on the personal understanding of the research

scholar it was hypothesized that

1. There may not be a significant relationship of anthropometric

measurements and motor performance of school boys and their
age.

2. There may not be significant differences in the anthropometric

measurements and motor performance of school boys of different
age group.

3. There may not be significant differences in the anthropometric

measurements and motor fitness of school boys of different type
of management schools.

4. There may not be significant differences in the anthropometric

measurements and motor fitness of school boys with different
locality.
 19

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Scientists, teachers or coaches use different means to achieve

certain goals. Before adopting a method to achieve a goal, one should

assess thoroughly the merits and demerits of the existing methods to

achieve the goal. The results of the study would help the high school

boys in the development of motor fitness performance.

1. This study will help to compare the anthropometric

measurements, motor performance variables among school boys.

2. This study will help to compare the anthropometric

measurements, motor performance variables among rural and

urban high school boys.

3. This study will help the physical education teachers, coaches to

develop the motor performance for different age group students.

4. This study may help the physical education teachers and coaches

to know the new trends and importance of anthropometric

measurements and motor performance.

5. The findings of this study might act as guidance to the coaches

and experts to select the school boys who will be more suited or

competent towards competition.

6. This study may help to implementing programs designed to effect

lifestyle changes to activate physical fitness and healthy nutrition

in these schools would meet the objectives of promoting healthy

body weight and increased physical fitness among school

children.
 20

1.6 DEFINITION OF THE TERMS

Comparison

Comparison is the process of comparing two or more people or

things. A consideration or estimate of the similarities or dissimilarities

between two things or people.20

Anthropometric Measurement

According to Philips and Hornok, “the measurement of the

structure and proportion of the body is called anthropometry.”21

Anthropometric is the science of measuring the human body and

its parts. It is used as an aid to the study of human evaluation and
variations.

Motor Performance

Motor Performance refers to the ability of an athlete to perform

successfully at their sport.22

Motor performance has been defined as the readyness or

preparedness for performance with special regular for big muscle

activity without undue fatigue.23

Speed: Speed is the ability to execute motor actions, under given

conditions, in minimum possible time.24

20 Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Oxford University Press, 8th edition,

Oxford, 2010.
21 Allen D. Philips and James E. Hornok “Measurement and Evaluation in

Physical Education.” (John Willey and Sons, 1979) P.11.

22 B. Davis “Physical Education and the Study of Sport.” (UK: Harcourt
Publishers Ltd., 2000).
23 Hardayal Singh, “Sports Training General Theory and Methods,” 1s Ed.,
(Patiala: Netaji Subhas National Institute of Sports, 1984), P.148.
24 Robert Hockey. “Physical Fitness: The Pathway to Healthful Living.” (St.
Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company, 1973), P.93.
 21

Explosive Strength:

It is the capacity of the individual to bring into play maximum

muscle contraction at the fastest rate of speed.25

Agility :

Agility is the capacity to change the directions quickly and

control body movements.26

Balance :

Balance is the ability to maintain body equilibrium while

stationary and while moving in various ways at various speeds.27

25 Donald K. Mathews and Ed. Ward L. Fox. “The Physiological Basis of

Physical Education and Athletes.” (Philadelphia: W.B. Sounders Company, 1976),
P.545.
26Horold M. Barrow and Rosemary McGee. “Practical Approach to
Measurement in Physical Education” (Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1979), P.574.
27Thomas K Cureton, “Physical Fitness Appraisal and Guidance”, (St. Louis:
The C.V. Mosby Company, 1997), P.22.