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6.1.3 Pneumatic Working Elements

Pneumatic energy can be converted into mechanical energy (motion) in

■ straight-line (reciprocating) pneumatic cylinders

■ rotary pneumatic motors.

6.1.3.1 Pneumatic Cylinders

Straight-line reciprocating pneumatic cylinders can be divided into

■ single-acting cylinders without return spring

■ single-acting cylinders with return spring

■ double-acting cylinders

■ cylinders with end position cushioning.

Single-Acting Cylinder

Figure 1 Single-Acting Cylinder

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In single-acting cylinders, compressed air is applied to only one side. These

cylinders can produce mechanical work in only one direction. Therefore, air is
required for only one direction of movement. Either a built-in spring or an
external force moves the piston in the opposite direction.

The built-in spring is designed such that its force is enough to return the
piston to its starting position at a sufficiently high speed.

In single-acting cylinders with built-in spring, the stroke is limited by the

natural length of the spring. Single-acting cylinders are therefore built with
stroke lengths of up to approximately 100 mm.

These working elements are used mainly for clamping, ejecting, pressing in,
lifting, feeding etc.

The complete unit consists of a cylinder housing, base and bearing cap,
piston with seal (cup packing), piston rod and scraper ring. In addition, there
are connecting parts and seals.

The cylinder housing is usually made of a seamless drawn steel tube. To

increase the life of the sealing components, the internal surfaces of the
cylinder barrel are manufactured with high precision (honed).

The base cap and the bearing cap are mostly made of cast material
(aluminium or malleable cast iron). Both caps are fastened to the cylinder
barrel by tie rods, threads, or flanges.

The piston rod is made of heat-treatable steel. The piston rod can be
hardened if desired. The threads are generally rolled to reduce the danger of
fracture.

Round-cord rings (or: O-rings) are used for static sealing only, because they
would lead to high frictional losses in dynamic use.

The stroke lengths of pneumatic cylinders should not be greater than

2,000 mm. With large cylinder diameters and a long stroke, the high air
consumption makes pneumatics uneconomical.

With a longer stroke, the mechanical stress on the piston rod and on the pilot
bearing is too great. To avoid the danger of buckling, a larger piston rod
diameter should be selected for longer stroke lengths. Further, if the stroke is
lengthened, the distance between bearings increases and the piston rod
guidance is improved.

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The piston speed in pneumatic cylinders depends on the counter force, the
prevailing air pressure, the length of pipe, the cross-sectional area between
the final control element and the working element and also the flow rate
through the final control element.

Double-Acting Cylinder

Figure 2 Double-Acting Cylinder

The force exerted by the compressed air moves the piston in a double-acting
cylinder in two directions. A definite force is applied to both, advance and
return strokes.

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Double-acting cylinders are used particularly when the piston is required to

perform a work function not only during the advance strokes but also during
the return strokes.

Because pressure is applied to either side of the piston the sealing between
piston and cylinder is designed as double-cup packing. An internal sealing
ring is necessary at the bearing bush to preclude air escaping through it.

In a double-acting cylinder the compressed air flows through port 1 into the
cylinder. The piston and piston rod are moved due to the pressure on the
piston area. The air displaced by the piston escapes through port 2.

During the return stroke, the air enters through port 2 and acts on the piston
ring area. The piston with piston rod is pushed back into the initial position.
The exhaust air is forced out through port 1 by the piston.

The force produced by the piston during the advance motion is larger than
during the return stroke. This is because the effective areas at the piston are
not equal. If pressure is applied for the advance stroke it acts on the
complete piston area. The pressure for the return motion acts on a smaller
area, because the area occupied by the piston rod is ineffective.

Cylinder with End Position Cushioning

Figure 3 Double-Acting Cylinder with End Position Cushioning

If large masses are to be moved by a cylinder, a cushioning is used in the

end position to prevent hard impact and damage. Before reaching the end
position, a cushioning piston interrupts the direct flow path of the air to the

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outside. Instead, a very small, and often adjustable, escape aperture is open.

The air is compressed in the final portion of the cylinder. The resultant
excess pressure is relieved through the built-in throttle return valve (small
escape aperture), and the piston moves slowly into its end position. When
the piston reverses, air flows without resistance through the return valve into
the cylinder space.

6.1.3.2 Rotary Pneumatic Motors

Straight-line reciprocating pneumatic cylinders can be divided into Pneumatic

motors are devices which change pneumatic energy into a mechanical rotary
movement. Today the pneumatic motors with almost unlimited rotational
speeds belong to the most widely used working elements operating on
compressed air.

Characteristics of pneumatic motors are:

■ variable speed and torque regulation

■ wide range of speeds

■ good power-to-weight ratio

■ overload safety

■ insensitive to dust, water, heat, cold

■ explosion proof

■ large speed selection

■ minor maintenance

■ direction of rotation easily reversible.

Pneumatic motors are classified according to their design as follows:

■ piston motors

■ vane motors

■ gear motors

■ turbines.

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Piston Motor

Figure 4 Pneumatic Piston Motor

This type of construction is further subdivided into radial and axial piston
motors.

The crankshaft of a radial piston motor is driven by the compressed air via
reciprocating pistons and connecting rods. To ensure smooth running,
several cylinders are required. The power of the motor depends on input
pressure, number of pistons, piston area, stroke and piston speed.

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The working principle of the axial piston motor is similar to that of the radial
piston motor. The force from five axially arranged cylinders is converted into
a rotary motion via a swash plate. Compressed air is applied to two pistons at
once, the balanced torque providing smooth running of the motor.

These pneumatic motors are available for clockwise or anti-clockwise

rotation. They are also built reversible and even speed-adjustable. The
maximum speed is approximately 5,000 rpm, the power range at normal
pressure is between approximately 1.5 and approximately 19 kW.

Vane Motor

Figure 5 Vane Motor

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Because of their simple construction and low weight, pneumatic motors are
often built as rotary machines with vanes.

An eccentric rotor is contained in bearings in a cylindrical chamber. Slots are

arranged in the rotor. The vanes are guided in the slots of the rotor and
forced outwards against the inner wall of the cylinder by centrifugal force.
This ensures that the individual chambers are sealed. Small amounts of air
cause the vanes to partially press against the inner wall of the cylinder even
before the motor starts to move. In other designs, the vanes can be made to
bear against the inner wall by the use of springs.

In general, motors of this type contain between three and ten vanes. The
vanes form working chambers in the motor. The effect of the air in these
working chambers depends on the effective areas of the vanes. The air
enters the smallest chamber and expands as the chamber enlarges, then
compresses as the chamber reduces again.

The rotor speed is between 3,000 and 8,500 rpm. Clockwise or anti-
clockwise units are available, as well as reversible units. The power range is
between approximately 0.1 and approximately 17 kW.

Gear Motor
In this design, torque is generated by the pressure of the air on the tooth
profiles of two meshed gear wheels. One of the gear wheels is mounted to
the motor shaft.

Gear motors are used as driving machines with a high power rating of up to
approximately 44 kW. The direction of rotation is also reversible with these
motors. Spur or helical gearing is used.

Turbine Motor
A turbine motor can be used only where a low torque is required. The speed
range is, however, very high (e.g. dentists’ air drills, 500,000 rpm). The
working principle is the reverse of an axial compressor.

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