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6.1.5 Technical Representation of Control Systems

For simplified and clear display of controls schematics are produced, which
consist of symbols of the components (valves, cylinders etc.). Plants with the
respective device technology (pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.) are designed and
documented using such schematics. Application software packages support
the developer during the project, in which the control system can be
simulated on the computer. Therefore, planning errors can be eliminated
even before the construction of the plant.

6.1.5.1 Grafcet

Grafcet means the representation of the control function with steps and
transition conditions (DIN EN 60848).

Grafcet is a graphical design language for sequential controls. Grafcets

represent a separate planning type and are independent of the technical
equipment design of the plant.

Unlike an SPS programming language, Grafcet is a graphic description

language that describes the logical behaviour and operation of a control
system or a process - regardless of the technical software and hardware
implementation.

A Grafcet essentially describes two aspects of a control system, according to

specified rules: the actions (commands) to be carried out and the sequence
of execution.

The elementary components of a Grafcet are steps, actions and transitions

and can be used in the same way as pneumatic or electrical components. To
achieve a uniform operating concept, the Grafcet elements feature
connections that can be used to link them to each other.

Grafcet is composed with standardized symbols.

The essential ones are:

■ Steps:

Each step is represented by a consecutively numbered square and is

assigned to one or more actions. The initial step is represented by a
double border and marks the starting position of a controller. It is the
first active step after starting the program. A step variable is
composed of the Boolean variable X and the step name (e.g. 2). The

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step variable can have either the value 0 = FALSE = step is NOT
ACTIVE or the value 1 = TRUE = step is ACTIVE.

■ Transitions

Transitions designate the conditions for the next step. Here, symbols
for logic operations are used (AND = ∧ = •¸OR = ∨ = +).

■ Interactive Connections

Interactive Connections link the steps and transitions.

The following rules apply to ensure the step sequence:

1. The initial step identifies the condition of the controller immediately

after power on.

2. Steps and transitions always alternate.

3. Only one step is active.

4. One step can trigger any number of actions.

5. Sequence structures can be branched and merged again.

As long as the step is active, the value 1 (TRUE) is assigned to the variable.
If it is no longer active, the value 0 (FALSE) is assigned.

There are several possible variants for the representation of actions:

Cylinder 1A1 extends  instruction

2A1  designation of a drive

2V1-14  designation of a valve connection

2M1  solenoid in an electro-pneumatic control

system

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E7266
Figure 1 Symbols in Grafcet

Transition Limited in Time

Switch-on delay relating to a step (see figure): When step 8 is active, the
instruction ‘3A1 extends’ is executed throughout 4 seconds. If step 8 is less
active than 4 seconds, the instruction is executed only for this period.
E7267

Figure 2 Symbols in Grafcet: Time Limits

Action with a Storing Effect

The value ‘1’ remains assigned to this variable beyond the currently active
step until it is overwritten by another value, here ‘0’.
E7268

Figure 3 Symbols in Grafcet: Storing Effect

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Example Lift Station

Workpieces are lifted by the lifting cylinder 1A1. In the upper end position, the
workpieces are moved by the transfer cylinder 2A1. Then the cylinder 1A1
and the cylinder 2A1 retracts. Limit switches detect the end positions of the
two cylinders.

E7269

Figure 4 Grafcet – Example: Lift Station

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6.1.5.2 Displacement-Time Diagrams

State (timing) diagrams show the relationships of function and time of a

control system. The time (or the steps) is represented on the abscissa (x-
axis); the state or the switching position is shown on the ordinate (y-axis). For
example, cylinders are shown ‘extended’ or ‘retracted’, valves are shown
‘actuated’ or ‘not actuated’. A function graph indicates the switching status
during the various steps. In deviation from the neutral position it is drawn as a
thick solid line.

E7270

Figure 5 Displacement-Step/Time Diagram of a Cylinder

For valves, switching from one switching position to the other, it is not a
control step. Therefore, the time is usually neglected for the switching of
valves. In contrast, the activating of an actuator (e.g. the extension and
retraction of a cylinder) is a controlling step.

In addition to the function graphs of the individual components of the control

system, there are signal lines. These lines illustrate how the individual signals
depend on each other (e.g. with logical links). For a better recognition, signal
lines start and end with a bevel of 45°. In addition, the arrow on the signal
line indicates the action direction. This means that the signal line begins at
the component that emits a signal and ends at the component, at which a

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further step is triggered. Several signal lines can be linked logically: a dash
means an AND operation; a dot represents an OR operation.

Control signal elements are represented by symbols – independent of their

implementation.

E7271
Figure 6 Signal Elements

E7272

Figure 7 Signal Lines and Signal Connections

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Example Lift Station

E7273
Figure 8 Displacement-Step Diagram With Signal-lines of Lift Station

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