ELS4202: Industrial Process Control [Credits - 4]

Controller Principles
Process characteristics
The selection of what process control mode to use in a process is the function of the characteristics
of the process.
1. Process equation:
A process control loop regulates some dynamic variable in a process. This controlled variable a
process parameter may depend on many other parameters and thus suffer changes from many
different sources. Select that parameter as the process parameter. If the measurement of the
controlled variable shows a deviation from the set point, then the controlling parameter is changed,
which in turn changes the controlled variable.
The entire process should be described by the process equation, for each process the equation
changes considering the control parameters. For example, a temperature system and its process
equation is shown below:

Here the liquid temperature TL is the functions that are listed below the equation. To bring the
parameter back to the setpoint, we change the steam flow rate, but it is important to include all the
parameters that effect the liquid temperature
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2. Process load:
In a process, it is possible to identify a set value for the process parameter that results in a controlled
variable having the setpoint value. This set of parameters is called nominal set. The required
controlling variable value under this condition is the nominal value of the parameter.
If the setpoint is changed, the control parameter is altered to cause the variable to adopt this new
operating point. The load is still nominal, however, because the other parameters are to assumed
unchanged.
Suppose one of the parameters change from nominal, causing a corresponding shift in the controlled
variable. Then there is process load change is occurred. The controlling variable is adjusted to
compensate for this load change and its effect on the dynamic variable to bring it back to the set
point.
Another type of change involves a temporary variation of one of the load parameters. After this
excursion, the parameter returns to the nominal value. This variable is called transient. A transient is
not a load change because it is not permanent.
3. Process lag:
Process control operation is essentially a time-variation problem. At some point in time, a process
load change or transient causes a change in the controlled variable. The process-control loop
responds to ensure that, some finite time later, the variable return to the set point value. Part of this
time is consumed by the process itself and is called the process lag.
4. Self-regulation:
A significant characteristic of some processes is the tendency to adopt a specific value of the
controlled variable for a nominal load for no controlled operations. The controlled operation may be
significantly affected by such self-regulation.

CONTROL SYSTEM PARAMETERS

Let us now examine the general properties of the controller shown in Figure 2. To review: (1) Inputs
to the controller are a measured indication of both the controlled variable and a setpoint
representing the desired value of the variable, expressed in the same fashion as the measurement;
(2) the controller output is a signal representing action to be taken when the measured value of the
controlled variable deviates from the setpoint.
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The measured indication of a variable is denoted by b, and the actual variable is denoted by c. Thus,
if a sensor measures temperature by conversion to resistance, the actual variable is temperature in
degrees Celsius, but the measured indication is resistance in ohms.

Error
The deviation or error of the controlled variable from the setpoint is given by

Equation (2) expresses error in an absolute sense, or in units of the measured analog of the control
signal. Thus, if the setpoint in a 4- to 20-mA range corresponds to 9.9 mA and the measured value is
10.7 mA, we have an error of -0.8 mA. Obviously, this current error has little direct meaning unless
related to the controlled variable. We could work back through the loop and prove that it
corresponds to a flow rate of 1.1 m3/h , for example. This would show the significance of the error
relative to the actual process-control loop.To describe controller operation in a general way, it is
better to express the error as percent of the measured variable range (i.e., the span). The measured
value of a variable can be expressed as percent of span over a range of measurement by the
equation

The previous equation is in terms of the actual measured variable, c, but the same equation can be
expressed in terms of the measured indication, b. It is necessary only to translate the measured
minimum and maximum to bmin and bmax .
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To express error as percent of span, it is necessary only to write both the setpoint and
measurement in terms of percent of span and take the difference according to Equation (2). The
result is

Variable range
The dynamic variable under control or controlled variable has a range of values within which control
is required to be maintained at set point. This range can be expressed as the minimum and
maximum values of the dynamic variable or the nominal value plus and minus the spread about this
nominal value e.g. if a standard signal 4-20 mA transmission is employed, then 4 mA represents the
minimum value of the variable and 20 mA the maximum value.

Control parameter (output) range

It is the possible range of values of final control element. The controller output is expressed as a
percentage where minimum controller output is 0% and maximum controller is 100%. But 0%
controller output does not mean zero output. For example, it is necessary requirement of the system
that a steam flow corresponds to 1/4th opening of valve. The controller parameter output has a
percentage of full scale when the output changes within the specified limits in expressed as:

Control lag
Processes have the characteristic of delaying and retarding changes in the values of the process
variables. This characteristic greatly increases the difficulty of control. The control system can have
a lag associated with it. The control lag is the time required by the process and controller loop to
make the necessary changes to obtain the output at its set point. The control lag must be compared
with process lag while designing the controllers. A process time lag is the general term that describes
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the process delays and retardations. It refers to the time for the process control loop to make
necessary adjustments to the final control element e.g. if a sudden change in liquid temperature
occurs, it requires some finite time for the control system to physically actuate the steam control
valve.
Dead time
Sometimes a dead zone is associated with the process control loop. The time corresponding to dead
zone is called dead time. This is the elapsed time between the instant a deviation (error) occurs and
when the corrective action first occurs.

Discontinuous controller mode

In this mode controller command initiates a discontinuous change in control parameter. The
manipulated variable of a discontinuous controller mode can only be changed in set steps. The best-
known discontinuous-action controller is the two-step control that can only assume the conditions
on or off. An example is the thermostat of a hot air oven. It switches the electric current for the
heating element on or off depending on the set temperature.

Two-Position Mode
The most elementary controller mode is the ON/OFF, or two-position, mode. This is an example of a
discontinuous mode. It is the simplest and the cheapest, and often suffices when its disadvantages
are tolerable. Although an analytic equation cannot be written, we can, in general, write

This relation shows that when the measured value is less than the setpoint, full controller output
results. When it is more than the setpoint, the controller output is zero. A space heater is a common
example. If the temperature drops below a setpoint, the heater is turned ON. If the temperature
rises above the setpoint, it turns OFF.
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Multiposition Mode
A logical extension of the previous two-position control mode is to provide several intermediate,
rather than only two, settings of the controller output. This discontinuous control mode is used in an
attempt to reduce the cycling behaviour and overshoot and undershoot inherent in the two-position
mode. In fact, however, it is usually more expedient to use some other mode when the two-position
is not satisfactory. This mode is represented by

As long as the error is between e2 and e1 of the setpoint, the controller stays at some nominal
setting indicated by a controller output of 50%. If the error exceeds the setpoint by e1 or more, then
the output is increased by 100%. If it is less than the setpoint by -e1 or more, the controller output is
reduced to zero.
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Floating-Control Mode
In the two previous modes of controller action, the output was uniquely determined by the
magnitude of the error input. If the error exceeded some preset limit, the output was changed to a
new setting as quickly as possible. In floating control, the specific output of the controller is not
uniquely determined by the error. If the error is zero, the output does not change but remains
(floats) at whatever setting it was when the error went to zero. When the error moves off zero, the
controller output again begins to change. Actually, as with the two-position mode, there is typically a
neutral zone around zero error where no change in controller position occurs.

Continuous controller mode

In this mode there is a possibility of smooth variation in control parameter and the controllers
automatically compare the value of the process variable to the set-point to determine if an error
exists. If there is an error, the controller adjusts its output according to the parameters that have
been set in the controller. When there is an error, the controller makes a change in its output. It
determines:
How much? Proportional Mode
How long? Integral Mode
How fast? Derivative Mode

Proportional Control Mode

The two-position mode had the controller output of either 100% or 0%, depending on the error
being greater or less than the neutral zone. In multiple-step modes, more divisions of controller
outputs versus error are developed. The natural extension of this concept is the proportional mode,
where a smooth, linear relationship exists between the controller output and the error. Thus, over
some range of errors about the setpoint, each value of error has a unique value of controller output
in one-to-one correspondence. The range of error to cover the 0% to 100% controller output is
called the proportional band, because the one-to-one correspondence exists only for errors in this
range. This mode can be expressed by

In general, the proportional band is defined by the equation

ELS4202: Industrial Process Control [Credits - 4]

Let us summarize the characteristics of the proportional mode and Equation (14).
1. If the error is zero, the output is a constant equal to p0 .
2. If there is error, for every 1% of error, a correction of KP percent is added to or subtracted from
p0, depending on the sign of the error.3. There is a band of error about zero of magnitude PB within
which the output is not saturated at 0% or 100%.

Offset An important characteristic of the proportional control mode is that it produces a permanent
residual error in the operating point of the controlled variable when a change in load occurs. This
error is referred to as offset. It can be minimized by a larger constant, KP , which also reduces the
proportional band. To see how offset occurs, consider a system under nominal load with the
controller at 50% and the error zero, as shown in above Figure 12.
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Integral-Control Mode
The offset error of the proportional mode occurs because the controller cannot adapt to changing
external conditions—that is, changing loads. In other words, the zero-error output is a fixed value.
The integral mode eliminates this problem by allowing the controller to adapt to changing external
conditions by changing the zero-error output. The need for integral action shows up when it is noted
that even with proportional action correction, the error does not go to zero in time. Suppose a
system has some error, ep,and the proportional mode provides a change in controller output, KPep .
As we watch the error in time, we note that the error may reduce, but it does not go to zero; in fact,
it may become constant. Integral action is needed. Integral action is provided by summing the error
over time, multiplying that sum by a gain, and adding the result to the present controller output. You
can see that if the error makes random excursions above and below zero, the net sum will be zero,
so the integral action will not contribute. But if the error becomes positive or negative for an
extended period of time, the integral action will begin to accumulate and make changes to the
controller output. In the mathematics of continuous functions, such as error, summation is
represented by integration. Therefore, this mode is represented by an integral equation

where p(0) is the controller output when the integral action starts. The gain KI expresses how much
controller output in percent is needed for every percent-time accumulation of error. Another way of
thinking of integral action is found by taking the derivative of Equation (16). In that case, we find a
relation for the rate at which the controller output changes,

This equation shows that when an error occurs, the controller begins to increase (or decrease) its
output at a rate that depends upon the size of the error and the gain. If the error is zero, the
controller output is not changed. If there is positive error, the controller output begins to ramp up at
a rate determined by Equation (17). Figure 14 illustrates this for two different values of gain.
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Let us summarize the characteristics of the integral mode and Equation (16).
1. If the error is zero, the output stays fixed at a value equal to what it was when the error went to
zero.
2. If the error is not zero, the output will begin to increase or decrease at a rate of KI percent/second
for every 1% of error.

Derivative-Control Mode
Derivation controller action responds to the rate at which the error is changing— that is, the
derivative of the error. Appropriately, the equation for this mode is given by the expression

where the gain, KD , tells us by how much percent to change the controller output for every percent-
per-second rate of change of error. Derivative action is not used alone because it provides no output
when the error is constant. Derivative controller action is also called rate action and anticipatory
control.
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Figure 17 illustrates how derivative action changes the controller output for various rates of change
of error. For this example, it is assumed that the controller output with no error or rate of change of
error is 50%. When the error changes very rapidly with a positive slope, the output jumps to a large
value, and when the error is not changing, the output returns to 50%. Finally, when the error is
decreasing—that is, has a negative slope—the output discontinuously changes to a lower value.
The derivative mode must be used with great care and usually with a small gain, because a rapid rate
of change of error can cause very large, sudden changes of controller output. Such an event can lead
to instability.
Let us summarize the characteristics of the derivative mode and Equation (18).
1. If the error is zero, the mode provides no output.
2. If the error is constant in time, the mode provides no output.
3. If the error is changing in time, the mode contributes an output of percent for every 1%-
per-second rate of change of error.
4. For direct action, a positive rate of change of error produces a positive derivative mode
output.
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COMPOSITE CONTROL MODES

It is common in the complex of industrial processes to find control requirements that do not fit the
application norms of any of the previously considered controller modes. It is both possible and
expedient to combine several basic modes, thereby gaining the advantages of each mode. In some
cases, an added advantage is that the modes tend to eliminate some limitations they individually
possess.

Proportional-Integral Control (PI)

This is a control mode that results from a combination of the proportional mode and the integral
mode.

The main advantage of this composite control mode is that the one-to-one correspondence
of the proportional mode is available and the integral mode eliminates the inherent offset. Notice
that the proportional gain, by design, also changes the net integration mode gain, but that the
integration gain, through KI, can be independently adjusted. Recall that the proportional mode
offset occurred when a load change required a new nominal controller output that could not be
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provided except by a fixed error from the setpoint. In the present mode, the integral function
provides the required new controller output, thereby allowing the error to be zero after a load
change. The integral feature effectively provides a reset of the zero error output after a load change
occurs. This can be seen by the graphs of Figure 18. At time , a load change occurs that produces the
error shown. Accommodation of the new load condition requires a new controller
output. We see that the controller output is provided through a sum of proportional plus integral
action that finally leaves the error at zero. The proportional part is obviously just an image of the
error. Let us summarize the characteristics of the PI mode and Equation (19).
1. When the error is zero, the controller output is fixed at the value that the integral term had when
the error went to zero. This output is given by pI(0) in Equation (19) simply because we chose to
define the time at which observation starts as .
2. If the error is not zero, the proportional term contributes a correction, and the integral term
begins to increase or decrease the accumulated value [initially, pI(0) ], depending on the sign of the
error and the direct or reverse action. The integral term cannot become negative. Thus, it will
saturate at zero if the error and action try to drive the area to a net negative value.
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Proportional-Derivative Control Mode (PD)

A second combination of control modes has many industrial applications. It involves the serial
(cascaded) use of the proportional and derivative modes. The analytic expression for this mode is
found from a combination of Equations

where the terms are all defined in terms given by previous equations. It is clear that this system
cannot eliminate the offset of proportional controllers. It can, however, handle fast process load
changes as long as the load change offset error is acceptable. Note the effect of derivative action in
moving the controller output in relation to the error rate change.
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Three-Mode Controller (PID)

One of the most powerful but complex controller mode operations combines the proportional,
integral, and derivative modes. This system can be used for virtually any process condition. The
analytic expression is
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References:
1. Process Control Instrumentation Technology, Eighth Edition ,Curtis D. Johnson

Please Note: While referring figures and diagram kindly do confirm appropriate fig / Dia no.
mentioned in the corresponding paragraph.