Chapter 1

Introduction to Direct Digital Control Systems

Purpose of this Guide:

The purpose of this guide is to describe, in generic terms, the various architectures,
hardware components and software associated with Direct Digital Control (DDC)
systems. To accomplish this goal, a generic framework of the various components and
configurations used in current DDC systems has been defined. This framework is used as
a yardstick for several DDC manufacturers so readers may compare the relative features
and benefits.

Intended Audience

Due to the complexity and proprietary nature of DDC systems, it has become difficult to
stay current with the designs, installations, operation and maintenance of DDC systems.
This guide was developed specifically to help building owners and consulting/specifying
engineers with these issues.

What is an Energy Management System?

For the purposes of this guide, an energy management system (EMS) is defined as a fully
functional control system. This includes controllers, various communications devices and
the full complement of operational software necessary to have a fully functioning control
system. This guide addresses approximately twenty of the DDC vendors who serve the
institutional and commercial marketplace in the United States. Vendors who supply a
complete line of all the necessary hardware and software are included. This guide does
not cover specialty markets (retail grocery, hotels ), nor does it cover industrial or
process controls.

What is Control?

The process of controlling an HVAC system involves three steps. These steps include
first measuring data, then processing the data with other information and finally causing a
control action. These three functions make up what is known as a control loop. An
example of this process is depicted in Figure 1.
Basic Control Loop

The control loop shown in Figure 1 consists of three main components: a sensor, a
controller and a controlled device. These three components or functions interact to
control a medium. In the example shown in Figure 1, air temperature is the controlled
medium. The sensor measures the data, the controller processes the data and the
controlled device causes an action.

The Figure 1 could be an example of a pneumatic or electronic control system, where the
controller is a separate and distinct piece of hardware. In a DDC system, the controller
function takes place in software as shown in Figure 2.

Sensor
The sensor measures the controlled medium or other control input in an accurate and
repeatable manner. Common HVAC sensors are used to measure temperature, pressure,
relative humidity, airflow stateand carbon dioxide. Other variables may also be measured
that impact the controller logic. Examples include other temperatures, time-of-day or the
current demand condition. Additional input information (sensed data) that influences the
control logic may include the status of other parameters (airflow, water flow, current) or
safety (fire, smoke, high/low temperature limit or any number of other physical
parameters). Sensors are an extremely important part of the control system and can be the
first, as well as a major, weak link in the chain of control.

Controller

The controller processes data that is input from the sensor, applies the logic of control
and causes an output action to be generated. This signal may be sent directly to the
controlled device or to other logical control functions and ultimately to the controlled
device. The controllers function is to compare its input (from the sensor) with a set of
instructions such as setpoint, throttling range and action, then produce an appropriate
output signal. This is the logic of control. It usually consists of a control response along
with other logical decisions that are unique to the specific control application. How the
controller functions is referred to as the control response. Control responses are typically
one the following:

 Two-Position
 Floating
 Proportional (P only)
 Proportional plus Integral (PI)
 Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID)

Controlled Device or Output

A controlled device is a device that responds to the signal from the controller, or the
control logic, and changes the condition of the controlled medium or the state of the end
device. These devices include valve operators, damper operators, electric relays, fans,
pumps, compressors and variable speed drives for fan and pump applications.
Chapter 2
Control Responses
Two-Position Control

Two-position control compares the value of an analog or variable input with instructions
and generates a digital (two-position) output. The instructions involve the definition of an
upper and lower limit. The output changes its value as the input crosses these limit
values. There are no standards for defining these limits. The most common terminology
used is setpoint and differential. The setpoint indicates the point where the output pulls-
in, energizes or is true. The output changes back or drops-out after the input value crosses
through the value equal to the difference between the setpoint and the differential.

Two-position control can be used for simple control loops (temperature control) or limit
control (freezestats, outside air temperature limits). The analog value can be any
measured variable including temperature, relative humidity, pressure, current and liquid
levels.

Time can also be the input to a two-position control response. This control response
functions like a time clock with pins. The output pulls-in when the time is in the defined
on time and drops out during the defined off time.

Figure 3, shows an example of two-position control in a home heating system, where the
thermostat is set to energize the heating system when the space temperature falls below
70 F and turn off when the temperature rises to 72 F in the space. This is an example of a
setpoint of 70 F with a two-degree differential.
Floating Control

Floating control is a control response that produces two possible digital outputs based on
a change in a variable input. One output increases the signal to the controlled device,
while the other output decreases the signal to the controlled device. This control response
also involves an upper and lower limit with the output changing as the variable input
crosses these limits. Again, there are no standards for defining these limits, but the terms
setpoint and deadband are common. The setpoint sets a midpoint and the deadband sets
the difference between the upper and lower limits.

When the measured variable is within the deadband or neutral zone, neither output is
energized and the controlled device does not change - it stays in its last position. For this
control response to be stable, the sensor must sense the effect of the controlled device
movement very rapidly. Floating control does not function well where there is significant
thermodynamic lag in the control loop. Fast airside control loops respond well to floating
control. An example of floating controls is shown in Figure 4.

Proportional Control

A proportional control response produces an analog or variable output change in

proportion to a varying input. In this control response, there is a linear relationship
between the input and the output. A setpoint, throttling range and action typically define
this relationship. In a proportional control response, there is a unique value of the
measured variable that corresponds to full travel of the controlled device and a unique
value that corresponds to zero travel on the controlled device. The change in the
measured variable that causes the controlled device to move from fully closed to fully
open is called the throttling range. It is within this range that the control loop will control,
assuming that the system has the capacity to meet the requirements.
The action dictates the slope of the control response. In a direct acting proportional
control response, the output will rise with an increase in the measured variable. In a
reverse acting response, the output will decrease as the measured variable increases. The
setpoint is an instruction to the control loop and corresponds to a specified value of the
controlled device, usually half-travel. An example is shown in Figure 5.

In a proportional control system, the value of the measured variable at any given moment
is called the control point. Offset is defined as the difference between the control point
and the desired condition. One way to reduce offset is to reduce throttling range.
Reducing the throttling range too far will lead to instability. The more quickly the sensor
feels the effect of the control response, the larger the throttling range has to be to produce
stable control.

Proportional plus Integral (PI) Control

PI control involves the measurement of the offset or error over time. This error is
integrated and a final adjustment is made to the output signal from the proportional part
of this model. This type of control response will use the control loop to reduce the offset
to zero. A well set-up PI control loop will operate in a narrow band close to the setpoint.
It will not operate over the entire throttling range (Figure 6).
PI control loops do not perform well when setpoints are dynamic, where sudden load
changes occur or if the throttling range is small.

Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative (PID) Control

PID control adds a predictive element to the control response. In addition to the
proportional and integral calculation, the derivative or slope of the control response will
be computed. This calculation will have the effect of dampening a control response that is
returning to setpoint so quickly that it will overshoot the setpoint.

PID is a precision process control response and is not always required for HVAC
applications. The routine application of PID control to every control loop is labor
intensive and its application should be selective.

Definition of Direct Digital Control (DDC)

DDC control consists of microprocessor-based controllers with the control logic

performed by software. Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converters transform analog values into
digital signals that a microprocessor can use. Analog sensors can be resistance, voltage or
current generators. Most systems distribute the software to remote controllers to eliminate
the need for continuous communication capability (stand-alone). The computer is
primarily used to monitor the status of the energy management system, store back-up
copies of the programs and record alarming and trending functions. Complex strategies
and energy management functions are readily available at the lowest level in the system
architecture. If pneumatic actuation is required, it is accomplished with electronic to
pneumatic transducers. Calibration of sensors is mathematical; consequently the total
man-hours for calibration are greatly reduced. The central diagnostic capabilities are a
significant asset. Software and programming are constantly improving, becoming
increasingly user-friendly with each update.
Benefits of DDC

The benefits of direct digital control over past control technologies (pneumatic or
distributed electronic) is that it improves the control effectiveness and increases the
control efficiency. The three main direct benefits of DDC are improved effectiveness,
improved operation efficiency and increased energy efficiency.

Improved Effectiveness

DDC provides more effective control of HVAC systems by providing the potential for
more accurately sensed data. Electronic sensors for measuring the common HVAC
parameters of temperature, humidity and pressure are inherently more accurate than their
pneumatic predecessors. Since the logic of a control loop is now included in the software,
this logic can be readily changed. In this sense, DDC is far more flexible in changing
reset schedules, setpoints and the overall control logic. Users are apt to apply more
complex strategies, implement energy saving features and optimize their system
performance since there is less cost associated with these changes than there would be
when the logic is distributed to individual components. This of course assumes the user
possesses the knowledge to make the changes.

DDC systems, by their very nature can integrate more easily into other computer-based
systems. DDC systems can integrate into fire control systems, access/security control
systems, lighting control systems and maintenance management systems.

Improved Operational Efficiency

Operational improvements show the greatest opportunity for efficiency improvements in

direct digital controls. The alarming capabilities are strong and most systems have the
ability to route alarms to various locations on a given network. The trending capabilities
allow a diagnostic technician or engineer to troubleshoot system and control problems.
They also allow the data to be visualized in various formats. These data can also be
stored and analyzed for trends in equipments performance over time.

Run-times of various equipment can be monitored and alarms/messages can be generated

when a lead/lag changeover occurs or if it is time to conduct routine maintenance.

The off-site access/communication capability allows an owner/operator to access their

system remotely. Multiple parties can also be involved in troubleshooting a problem. The
control vendor, design engineer and commissioning authority can use these features to
more efficiently diagnose and visualize problems.

Increased Energy Efficiency

There are many energy-efficient control strategies employed in pneumatic logic that can
be easily duplicated in DDC logic. Due to the addition of more complex mathematical
functions (easily obtained in software), there are many additional energy-efficient
routines that can be used with DDC.

Strategies such as demand monitoring and limiting can be more easily implemented with
DDC systems. The overall demand to a facility can be monitored and controlled by
resetting various system setpoints based on different demand levels. If a DDC system is
installed at the zone level, this could be accomplished by decreasing the requirement for
cooling on a zone-by-zone basis.

By storing trends, energy consumption patterns can be monitored. Equipment can also be
centrally scheduled on or off in applications where schedules frequently change.
Chapter 3
Elements of a Direct Digital Control System
Points

The word points is used to describe data storage locations within a DDC system. Data can
come from sensors or from software calculations and logic. Data can also be sent to
controlled devices or software calculations and logic. Each data storage location has a
unique means of identification or addressing.

Direct digital controls (DDC) data can be classified three different ways - by data type,
data flow and data source.

Data Type

Data type is classified as digital, analog or accumulating. Digital data may also be called
discrete data or binary data. The value of the data is either 0 or 1 and usually represents
the state or status of a set of contacts. Analog data are numeric, decimal numbers and
typically have varying electrical inputs that are a function of temperature, relative
humidity, pressure or some other common HVAC sensed variable. Accumulating data are
also numeric, decimal numbers, where the resulting sum is stored. This type of data is
sometimes called pulse input.

Data Flow

Data flow refers to whether the data are going into or out of the DDC component/logic.
Input points describe data used as input information and output points describe data that
are output information.

Data Source

Points can be classified as external points if the data are received from an external device
or sent to an external device. External points are sometimes referred to as hardware
points. External points may be digital, analog or accumulating and they may be input or
output points. Internal points represent data that are created by the logic of the control
software. These points may be digital, analog or accumulating. Other terms used to
describe these points are virtual points, numeric points, data points and software points.

Global or in-direct points are terms used to describe data that are transmitted on the
network for use by other controllers. These points may also be digital, analog or
accumulating.
Analog input points typically imply an external point and represent a value that varies
over time. Typical analog inputs for HVAC applications are temperature, pressure,
relative humidity, carbon dioxide and airflow measurements. Typical analog outputs
include control signals for modulating valve positions, damper positions and variable
frequency drive speed.

Typical digital inputs for HVAC applications represent the status (example: whether or
not the motor is running) of fans, pumps, motors, lighting contactors, etc. A temperature
high limit is considered a digital input because, although it is monitoring an analog value
(temperature), the information that is transmitted to the controller is a digital condition
(whether or not the temperature has exceeded a defined value). Digital outputs are
typically motors or other devices that are commanded on or off. Digital outputs include
fans, pumps, two-position (solenoid) valves, lighting contactors, etc.

A true analog output (voltage or current) is a varying DC voltage or milliamp signal that
is used to drive a transducer or controlled device. Another type of analog output is pulse
width modulation (PWM). PWM is accomplished by monitoring a timed closure of a set
of contacts. The amount of time the contacts are closed is proportional to a level of
performance for the controlled device.

Software Characteristics

There are basically three common approaches used to program the logic of DDC systems.
They are line programming, template or menu-based programming and graphical or block
programming.

Line programming-based systems use Basic or FORTRAN-like languages with HVAC

subroutines. A familiarity with computer programming is helpful in understanding and
writing logic for HVAC applications.

Menu-driven, database or template/tabular programming involves the use of templates for

common HVAC logical functions. These templates contain the detailed parameters
necessary for the functioning of each logical program block. Data flow (how one block is
connected to another or where its data comes from) is programmed in each template.

Graphical or block programming is an extension of tabular programming in that graphical

representations of the individual function blocks are depicted using graphical symbols
connected by data flow lines. The process is depicted with symbols as on electrical
schematics and pneumatic control diagrams. Graphical diagrams are created and the
detailed data are entered in background menus or screens.

Architecture

System architecture is the term used to describe the overall local area network or LAN
structure, where the operator interfaces connect to the system and how one may remotely
communicate to the system. It is the map or layout of the system.
The network or LAN is the medium that connects multiple intelligent devices. It allows
these devices to communicate, share information, display and print information, as well
as store data. The most basic task of the system architecture is to connect the DDC
controllers so that information can be shared between them.

Controller

A control loop requires a sensor to measure the process variable, control logic to process
data, as well as calculate an instruction, and a controlled device to execute the instruction.
A controller is defined as a device that has inputs (sensors), outputs (controllable devices)
and the ability to execute control logic (software) (Figure 7).

LAN Communication

Communications between devices on a network can be characterized as peer-to-peer or

polling. On a peer-to-peer LAN, each device can share information with any other device
on the LAN without going through a communications manager (Figure 8).

The controllers on the peer-to-peer LAN may be primary controllers, secondary

controllers or they may be a mix of both types of controllers. The type of controllers that
use the peer-to-peer LAN vary between manufacturers. These controller types are defined
later in this section.

In a polling controller LAN, the individual controllers can not pass information directly
to each other. Instead, data flows from one controller to the interface and then from the
interface to the other controller (Figure 9).
The interface device manages communication between the polling LAN controllers and
the higher levels in the system architecture. It may also supplement the capability of
polling LAN controllers by providing the following functions: clock functions; buffer for
trend data, alarms, messages; and higher order software support.

Many systems combine the communications of a peer-to-peer network with a polling

network. In Figure 10, the interface communicates in a peer-to-peer fashion with the
devices on the peer-to-peer LAN. The polling LAN-based devices can receive data from
the peer-to-peer devices, but the data must flow through the interface.

Controller Classification

Controllers can be categorized by their capabilities and their methods of communicating

(controller-to-controller). In general, there are two classifications of controller - primary
control units and secondary control units

Primary controllers typically have the following features:

  Real-time accurate clock function
 Full software compliment
 Larger total point capacity
 Support for global strategies
 Buffer for alarms/messages/trend & runtime data
 Freeform programming
 Downloadable database
 Higher analog/digital converter resolution
 Built-in communication interface for PC connection.

Secondary controllers typically have the following features:

 Not necessarily 100% standalone

 Limited software compliment
 Smaller total point count
 Freeform or application specific software
 Typically lower analog-to-digital converter resolution
 Trend data not typically stored at this level
 Typical application is terminal equipment or small central station equipment.

Operator Interfaces

The next critical element in the system architecture is an operator interface. Operator
interfaces are required to:

 See data
 Program the system
 Exercise manual control
 Store long term data
 Provide a dynamic graphical interface.

There are five basic types of operator interfaces. They include:

 Desktop computers which act as operator workstations

 Notebook computers which act as portable operator workstations
 Keypad type liquid crystal displays
 Handheld consoles/ palmtops/ service tools
 Smart thermostats

Desktop computers are centralized operator workstations where the main function is
programming, building and visualizing system graphics; long term data collection; and
alarm and message filtering.

Notebook computers may connect to the LAN through a communication interface that
stands alone or is built into another device. The notebook computer connected to the
LAN at a particular level may not have the same capability as a computer connected to
the LAN at a higher level.

Keypad liquid crystal displays typically are limited to point monitoring and control. They
may have some limited programming capability, such as changing a set point or time
schedule.

Handheld consoles, palmtops and service tools are proprietary devices that connect to
primary controllers or secondary controllers. Typically they allow point monitoring and
control, controller configurations (addressing and communication set-up), and calibration
of inputs and outputs.

Smart thermostats are sensors with additional capabilities. They connect to secondary
controllers and have a service mode to allow for point monitoring, control and
calibration. They also have a user mode that allows point information to be displayed,
setpoint adjustment and an override mode.

PC/Network Interface

The communications interface shown in the Figure 11 is a communication interface

device. It provides the path between devices that do not use the same communications
protocol. This includes computers, modems and printers.

It may be a stand-alone component or it may be built into another device as shown in

Figure 12.
Each communications interface on Figure 12 may:

 Translate protocol
 Provide a communication buffer
 Provide temporary memory storage for information being passed between the
network and the external PC, modem or printer (mailbox function)

Larger System Architectures

When systems become larger than the capacity of a single sub-network, a higher level of
architecture is added to allow the use of multiple sub-networks.
The site LAN wide area network or WAN is used to connect multiple sub-networks and
site computers. Multiple sub-networks can be connected to a single site LAN/WAN that
allows information sharing between devices on different sub-networks (Figure 13). There
may be a limitation on the number of site computers. The site LAN/WAN may include
routers if TCP/IP is used. If no routers are used, the protocol can be totally proprietary. If
TCP/IP is used, the EMS site LAN/WAN can be the information system backbone within
the facility or between facilities.

Multiple site computers can be added to the site LAN/WAN. They can connect the site
LAN/WAN via a communications interface, which may be a router. Site LAN/WAN
computers can send and receive information from the entire system. Information can be
received by each of the site computers, but can not be subsequently shared from one
computer to another. Sub-network computers may only be able to see their own sub-
network.

Site LANs allow multiple computers to communicate with each other. They may use
commercially available computer network software and hardware. Messages, alarms and
other data can be re-routed to other computers on the primary site LAN. Information
stored in other computers can be remotely accessed. This includes graphics,
programming and stored trend and operational data.

Combined Components

Some vendors combine multiple functions into a single device. In the following system
architecture, Figure 14, the communication interface is built into the primary controller.
A peer-to-peer LAN or sub-network is connected directly to the device.

In Figure 15, the key component in the system consists of a communication interface, a
primary controller and an interface to the secondary polling network.
The addition of a site LAN allows a system to gain size in terms of the number of devices
that are served, but in some applications, the location of the devices, rather than the
number of devices, is the bigger challenge. In this situation, modem-based
communication is used to expand the geography of the system.

Auto-Answer/Auto-Dial System Architecture

In auto-answer/auto dial systems, a specialized communication interface is substituted

which introduces a modem and phone lines into the standard architecture. These
communication interfaces are made with built-in modems or use external commercial
modems. Auto-answer/auto-dial configurations are used to provide monitoring and access
to remote buildings. They are used where traditional direct-wiring methods are
impractical; and where central site monitoring is desired; or where remote access to
controllers is desired.

In an auto-answer/auto-dial system, the central communications interface may call the

individual sites or vice versa. Information and data can be passed to and from the layer
above the central communications interface (Figure 16).
The auto-answer/auto-dial LAN architecture is typically used by installations with
multiple facilities where control and monitoring needs to be centralized. Multiple LANs
are used to maintain the groupings of devices, or to separate controllers into defined
groups.

Multiple Dial LAN Support

In a systems architecture, the local sites have the ability to call an alternate
communication interface, if the primary is not available (Figure 17).
One-Way Dial System Architecture

One-way dial systems, Figure 18, are typically used to enable system owners to access
their systems from a remote location, such as their home. It is used where auto-dial
monitoring is not required. It can also be used by the installation and service company or
by the commissioning authority to troubleshoot and program from remote locations. One-
way dial can also be used to dial into remote site LANs or sub-networks.

Two modems are required, one located at the remote computer and one at the system site.
Typically, the DDC operating software must be installed on the remote computer.

Communication
Communication between two different devices controlling equipment, requires a common
protocol, a common communication speed and known data formatting. Vendors build
their devices around these criteria, so communication between devices by the same
manufacturer is routine.

Third Party Interfaces

In many installations, it is desirable for a proprietary building DDC system to

communicate with other proprietary DDC systems controlling pieces of equipment.
Examples would include a building DDC system and a chiller DDC system (Figure 19) or
a fume hood DDC system. Communication between the two systems will require an
interface or gateway, due to different proprietary protocols, communication speeds and
data formatting.

The gateway or interface translates protocol between the two proprietary systems. The
proper operation of the gateway is dependent on the continued use of the specific revised
levels of software on both systems. It typically requires the support of the manufacturer at
the corporate level to implement and cooperation between the manufacturers. In addition,
the costs can vary widely.

Protocols

In the DDC world, there are the three classifications of protocols: closed protocol, open
protocol and standard protocol.

A closed protocol is a proprietary protocol used by a specific equipment manufacturer.

An open protocol system uses a protocol available to anyone, but not published by a
standards organization. A standard protocol system uses a protocol available to anyone. It
is created by a standards organization.

Open Systems

An open system is defined as a system that allows components from different

manufacturers to co-exist on the same network. These components would not need a
gateway to communicate with one another and would not require a manufacturer specific
workstation to visualize data. This would allow more than one vendors product to meet a
specific application requirement.

The sole use of an open or standard protocol does not guarantee that a DDC system will
be an open system. A manufacturer has the ability to use open or standard protocols, yet
create a closed system, thus continuing a building owners dependence on a single
manufacturer. This can be accomplished by using unique communication speeds, unique
data formatting and by not adopting the full range of an open protocol.

Note: A building owner/engineer should thoroughly research a manufacturers claim of an

open system.

BACNET

BACNET is a standard protocol published by a standards organization (American Society

of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers or ASHRAE). It is a
specification for a protocol. DDC vendors create a communication protocol that complies
with this specification.

BACNET is a relatively complex standard. The standard defines protocol implementation

conformance statements (PICS) that define different levels of compliance. A given
vendor may or may not support the level required for a given application. In other words,
a vendor could meet a very low level of compliance and be BACNET-compatible. The
key question is, At what level?

In Figure 20 the chiller control units DDC will communicate with the building DDC
system if each has a BACNET gateway and their PICS match.

Native BACNET

If a vendor states their product is native BACNET, they are using the BACNET protocol
in lieu of a proprietary protocol on their LAN. In Figure 20, a native BACNET building
system would be able to communicate to the chiller control DDC with one less gateway.

Overlay Systems
An overlay system is a high-end workstation that communicates with multiple
manufacturers proprietary EMS systems. An overlay system supplier creates drivers to
talk to the different systems. The vendors must have a cooperative relationship and
revision control is important for continued successful use. The workstation typically
displays data, allows manual control and setpoint changes, and handles alarms and
messaging. Any detailed editing of the control sequence will still require knowledge of
the underlying proprietary software.

LON

The Echelon Corporation has created an open protocol that uses a standard processor and
a set of standard transceivers, which allows components from different manufacturers to
co-exist on the same LAN. The protocol is available to anyone and is called LONTALK.
A unique chip is required for any device that uses LON. Standard network variable
formats have been established to allow the transfer of data from one device to another
regardless of origin.

Presently, various vendors are competing to become the defacto standard for the network
database structure. The network database is a map of the components and the relationship
of the data moving between them. The operator workstation needs this structure to
visualize the data.

Software suppliers providing the software for the operator workstation may be
independent of those providing the software for the database structure and the EMS
vendors.
Chapter 1:Input Output (IO) Basics
Terminology
The following terms have been defined to help readers better understand the material
covered in the Input/Output document.

Accuracy

The term accuracy describes the total of all deviations between a measured value and the
actual value. Accuracy is usually expressed as the sum of non-linearity, repeatability and
hysteresis. Accuracy may be expressed as the percent of a full-scale range or output, or in
engineering units.

Address

An address is a unique numeric or alphanumeric data (point) identifier.

Analog/Modulating/Continuous

These synonymous terms are used to describe data that has a value that is continuous
between set limits represented by a range or span of voltage, current or resistance. The
value is non-integer (real) with a resolution (number of significant digits) limited only by
the measurement and analog-to-digital signal conversion technology. In typical DDC
systems, analog data from an input device is converted into a value for processing within
the controller. Likewise, values are converted into analog output signals for use by a
controlled device, such as an actuator.

Controlled Medium

A controlled medium is a process medium of which one or more properties are made to
conform to desired conditions by means of a control loop (see EMS Systems Overview
Basic Control loop).

Digital/Binary/Discrete

These synonymous terms are used to describe data that has a value representing one state
or another. Typical values are "on/off", alarm or normal, 0 or 1, high or low, etc. In the
hardware side of the DDC world, these values most commonly relate to the state of a set
of switch or relay contacts (open or closed).

External Point
Data that is received by a controller from an external source, or sent by a controller to an
external source, is an external point. The terms hardware, input or output may be used to
describe an external point.

Global Point

Global points originate from a controller within a network that is broadcast via the
network to other controllers.

Hysteresis

Hysteresis is the maximum difference in measured value or output when a set value is
approached from above, and then below the value.

Input

The term input is used to define data flow into a controller or control function.

Internal Point

An internal point is one that resides within a digital controller that does not directly
originate from input or output points. Internal points can be constants such as fixed set
points created by a programmers or operators assignment. Internal points may also be
created as defined by the programmer/ operator by applying logic and mathematics to
other virtual, input or output points or combinations of points. The terms virtual, numeric
or data may be used to describe an internal point.

Non-linearity

Non-linearity is the maximum difference in measured value or output from a specified

straight line between calibration points.

Output

Output defines the data flow out of a controller or control function.

Point

Point is a generic term used to describe a single item of information in a control system.
Points may be further described as input, output, digital, binary , discrete, analog,
modulating, internal, external, virtual or [Global]. Each unique point used by digital
controllers, or in digital control systems, is typically identified by an address.

Process Medium
A process medium is a material in any phase (solid, liquid or gas) that is being used in a
process. The most common types of process mediums used in commercial and industrial
heating ventilating and air conditioning systems are liquid mediums (i.e., chilled water
for cooling) or gaseous mediums (i.e., airflow in a duct).

Repeatability

Repeatability is the maximum difference in a measured value or output when a set value
is approached multiple times from either above or below the value.

Sensor

A sensor is a device in primary contact with a process medium. It measures particular

properties of the process medium (i.e., temperature, pressure, etc.) and relates those
properties to electrical signals such as voltage, current, resistance or capacitance.

Transducer

Transducers accept an input of one character and produce an output of a different

character. (Examples: voltage to current, voltage to pneumatic (pressure) and resistance
to current.)

Transmitter

A transmitter is a transducer that is paired with a sensor to produce a higher-level signal

(typically) than is available directly from the sensor. These sensors may be integral or
remote and may include digital or analog signal processing. (Examples: temperature
transmitter employing a temperature sensor. The temperature sensor varies the resistance
with temperature change and the transmitter outputs a related 4-20 mA current output for
use by a controller.)
Digital Inputs
A digital input typically consists of a power supply (voltage source), a switch and a
voltage-sensing device (analog-to-digital converter). Depending on the switchs
open/closed status, the sensing device detects a voltage or no voltage condition, which in
turn generates a logical 0 or 1, on or off, alarm or normal or similarly defined state.

Circuit Diagrams

The following circuit diagrams are examples of commonly used digital input
configurations.
Digital Outputs
A digital output typically consists of a switch (either mechanical as in a relay, or
electronic as in a transistor or triac) that either opens or closes the circuit between two
terminals depending on the binary state of the output.

Circuit Diagrams

The following circuit diagrams are examples of commonly used digital output
configurations.

Figure 2 shows an open collector transistor-type digital output operating a pilot relay,
which in turn energizes the motor starter coil for a fan. Figure 3 shows a triac-type digital
output operating a pilot relay that is used to energize a fan motor starter coil.
Analog Inputs
An analog input is a measurable electrical signal with a defined range that is generated by
a sensor and received by a controller. The analog input changes continuously in a
definable manner in relation to the measured property.

The analog signals generated by some types of sensors must be conditioned by

converting to a higher-level standard signal that can be transmitted over wires to the
receiving controller. Analog inputs are converted to digital signals by the analog-to-
digital (A/D) converter typically located at the controller. Analog-to-digital conversion is
limited to a small range of DC voltage, so that internal or external input circuitry must
change the character of non-compatible signal types to a DC voltage range within the
limits of the A/D converter.

Common Types

There are basically three types of analog input signals; voltage, current and resistance.

Voltage
Common voltage signals used in the controls industry are 1-5 Volts Direct Current
(VDC), 2-10 VDC, 3-15 VDC, 0-5 VDC, 0-10 VDC and 0-15 VDC.

Current

The 4-20 mA signal has become the industrys standard current signal for use with analog
and digital controllers. A variation of the 4-20 mA signal is 0-20 mA.

Resistance

Resistance measurement is most commonly associated with direct inputs from

temperature sensing devices, such as thermistors and RTD's. RTD nominal resistances
are typically 100 , 500, 1000  or 2000. Common thermistor nominal resistances
are 2252 , 3k , 10k, 20 kor 100 k.

Circuit Diagrams

The following circuit diagrams are examples of commonly used analog input
configurations.

Figure 4 shows a voltage input circuit where the sensor output voltage does not match the
controller.
Figure 5 shows the wiring schematic associated with a typical externally powered 4-20
mA analog input using a loop power 4-20 mA temperature transmitter. For this circuit
type, typical power supply voltage is nominally 24 VDC. The circuitry in the transmitter
regulates current flow in the loop between 4 and 20 mA in proportion to the temperature
sensed by the sensor. A parallel fixed resistor is used at the controller terminals to
complete the circuit. The resistance of the A/D converter in the circuit is very high in
comparison to R, essentially all of the current flows through the resistor. The value of the
resistor is chosen to match the input voltage range of the controller.

Figure 6 depicts the circuit for converting a resistance to voltage, in this case, a 10 k
Thermistor-type sensor.
Analog Outputs
An analog output is a measurable electrical signal with a defined range that is generated
by a controller and sent to a controlled device, such as a variable speed drive or actuator.
Changes in the analog output cause changes in the controlled device that result in changes
in the controlled process.

Controller output digital to analog circuitry is typically limited to a single range of

voltage or current, such that output transducers are required to provide an output signal
that is compatible with controlled devices using something other than the controller's
standard signal.

Common Types

There are four common types of analog outputs; voltage, current, resistance and
pneumatic.

Voltage

Common output voltage ranges are 0-5 VDC, 0-10 VDC, 0-15 VDC, 1-5 VDC, 2-10
VDC and 3-15 VDC.

Current

Common output current ranges are 4-20 mA, 0-20 mA.

Resistance

Common output resistance ranges are 0-135  , 0-270  , 0-500  ,0-1000  , 0-1500 
, 0-2 k , 0-3 k, 0-4 k, 0-5 k , 0-10 k ,0-20 k , 0-30 k , 0-40 k .

Pneumatic

Common output pneumatic ranges are 0-20 psi and 0-15 psi.

Special IOs
Inputs and outputs can also be used in special configurations. Common special
applications are accumulating points, pulse width modulated (PWM) signals, multiplexed
PWM signals and tri-state or floating points.

Accumulating Points
Accumulating points are typically associated with inputs and are special in that during
each scan the controller adds the input point value to the accumulated value.
Accumulating points may have either analog or digital input.

One of the most common applications of accumulating points is with turbine-type flow
meters, which generate a pulse or change of input state with each rotation of the turbine
rotor. The total number of pulses is proportional to the volume of fluid passing through
the meter. The number of pulses per unit of time is proportional to the flow rate during
that time interval. Accumulating points are also used to determine energy quantities, such
as kilowatt-hours from a power sensor and MBtu from flow and temperature sensors.

Pulse Width Modulated (PWM)

Pulse width modulated signals are based on the amount of time a digital output circuit is
closed over a fixed time base. This amount of time can range from 0 to 100 percent of the
time base, providing an analog value for each time period that represents the time base of
the signal. Common time bases are 2.85 seconds, 5.2 seconds, 12.85 seconds and 25.6
seconds.

Multiplexed PWM

A single pulse width modulated digital output is sometimes used to transmit analog
values to multiple analog output devices. Many processes are possible. One scheme is to
send an "attention" pulse, which is a pulse of longer duration than the time base. This
pulse causes all of the analog devices to look for a selection signal to follow. A "select"
pulse is then transmitted with duration less than the time base. Each analog device that is
multiplexed looks for a fixed unique range of "select" pulse width. The device that
receives the select pulse then looks for another pulse whose width corresponds to its
updated analog value. When the pulse is received, the selected analog device updates its
output to the new value and the process is repeated.

The time base of the PWM signal and the number of devices multiplexed on one signal
limit the updating of multiplexed output values. Multiplexed outputs may not be suitable
for control applications requiring rapid responses to system changes.

Tri-State or Floating Point

A Tri-State signal consists of two digital signals used together to provide three
commands. This type of signal is commonly used to operate a damper or valve actuator in
a modulating fashion, but may also be used with a transducer to generate an analog
signal. If both digital outputs are "off", the actuator does not move. Output 1 "on" will
cause movement in one direction; output 2 "on" will cause movement in the other
direction. The fourth possible signal (both outputs "on") is not used in tri-state operation.
The concept was initially developed to allow electric controls consisting of single pole,
double throw switches with a center-off position to control actuators in a modulating
fashion. Modulating operation is achieved by this action because the actuators being
controlled drive slowly so the change in position is proportional to the amount of time the
output remains energized.
Input Devices and Sensors
Switches Intro

In the world of HVAC control, there is basically one type of device used to complete a
digital input (DI) circuit. A switch, employed in various forms, is this device.

A switch is an electrical device used to enable or disable flow of electrical current in an

electrical circuit. Switches may be actuated in a variety of ways, including movement of
two conducting materials into direct contact (mechanical), or changing the properties of a
semi-conducting material by the application of voltage (electronic).

Switches are typically rated in terms of voltage, voltage type (AC or DC), current
carrying capacity, current interrupting capacity, configuration, and load characteristic
(inductive or resistive). Also specified are applicable ranges of ambient conditions over
which the ratings are valid. Current carrying capacity (or current rating) is the maximum
current that may continuously flow through the closed switch contacts without exceeding
the maximum permissible temperature.

Process medium property sensing switches are also rated by parameters such as
adjustment range, accuracy or repeatability, and deadband or differential. The range of a
control switch is specified by upper and lower process values between which the switch
has been designed to operate. The accuracy or repeatability of a control switch is a value
typically measured in process units or percent of range that represents the expected
maximum deviation from setpoint at which the switch will operate under test conditions.
The switch differential or deadband is the change in process value required to cause the
state of the switch to change. For example, a pressure switch that makes at 10 psig and
breaks at 8 psig has a 2 psig differential.

Switch contacts are characterized in much the same way as relay contacts.

Figure 2.1 describes the most common contact configurations using industry standard
terminology and symbols. Many other configurations are available.
Types of Switches

The following sections outlines common switching devices currently used by the
industry.

Hand Switches

Hand switches are used as digital input devices and in hardwired electrical control
circuits associated with digital outputs. Hand switches come in numerous sizes, shapes,
and configurations. Common switch types include rotary, selector type switches, toggle
switches, and pushbuttons. Selector and toggle switches are almost always maintained
contact type. Pushbuttons may be momentary or maintained contact type. Selector
switches can have key operators to prevent tampering.

Figure 2.2- Pushbuttons and Selector Switches (courtesy IDEC)

Limit Switches

Limit switches convert mechanical motion or proximity into a switching action. Limit
switches are most commonly used in DDC control systems for HVAC to provide position
status feedback to the controller for valve and damper positions. A wide variety of
configurations are available. Common types include industrial limit switches, mercury,
and proximity switches.
Figure 2.3-Industrial Limit Switches

Figure 2.4-Mercury Limit Switches

Figure 2.5-Proximity Switches

Temperature Switches
Temperature switches (also called thermostats, aquastats or freezestats depending on
application) are commonly used in DDC control systems to provide a digital input when a
process medium temperature rises or falls to a set temperature. Switches with a number
of different operating principles are manufactured. Some of the common types include
bimetallic, fluid thermal expansion, freezestat and electronic.

Bimetallic temperature switches use a bonded "bimetal" strip consisting of two dissimilar
metals with different thermal coefficients of expansion. When the temperature changes,
the metals expand or contract at different rates causing the strip to bend. Various
configurations such as coiled elements are used to increase the thermal movement to
cause two contacts to come together or separate. Some configurations use the bimetallic
principle to change the orientation of a bulb containing liquid mercury so that the
mercury flows into contact with two electrodes, completing the circuit.

Fluid thermal expansion temperature switches use the principle of thermal expansion of a
fluid to cause displacement of a bellows, diaphragm, bourdon tube, or piston to open or
close a set of contacts. Fluid system based temperature switches can be connected to a
remote fluid containing bulb by a capillary tube, allowing the switch element to be
remote from the sensing bulb.

Figure 2.6- Remote Bulb Thermostat

The freezestat is commonly used to prevent water or steam coils in air handling units
from freezing. Freezestats use a fluid that is a saturated vapor at the switch set point
temperature. This fluid is confined within a long capillary tube. The tube is installed in a
serpentine fashion over the area of the air stream to being monitored. If any point along
the tube falls below the saturation temperature, the vapor begins to condense causing a
rapid change in pressure in the system and actuating the switch mechanism.

Electronic temperature switches use the same sensing technologies used for analog
temperature sensing to electronically operate a set of output contacts. Refer to the
Temperature Measurement portion of the Analog Input Device Section for more details
of sensing technology.

Figure 2.7-Freezestat

Humidity Switches

Humidity switches, or humidistats, are used in DDC control systems to provide a digital
input when a process or space humidity level rises or falls to a set level. Common
applications are high limit safety interlocks for humidifiers, space or process humidity
alarms, and simple on-off humidity control.

Mechanical humidistats use a hygroscopic material such as animal hair, nylon or other
plastic material that changes dimension with changes in relative humidity. The
dimensional change is amplified via a mechanical link to causing a switch to operate.

Mechanical humidistats are rapidly being replaced by electronic humidistats that use thin
film capacitance or bulk polymer resistance analog humidity sensing technologies
combined with electronic switching circuitry to produce a switching action at an
adjustable set point. These sensing technologies are described in the Humidity
Measurement portion of the Analog Input Device Section.

Flow Switches

Flow switches are used to provide a digital input to DDC controls systems when a fluid
flow rate has risen above or fallen below the set value. Common applications include
safety air and water flow interlocks for electric heaters and humidifiers, chiller safety
interlocks, and burner safety interlocks. Numerous technologies are available, but the
most common types used in DDC systems for HVAC control are mechanical and
differential pressure types.

Mechanical flow switches operate on the principle that the kinetic energy of a flowing
fluid creates a force on an object suspended in the flow stream. The magnitude of the
force varies with (the square of) the velocity of the fluid. Various configurations are used
to transfer this force into operation of a switch. Common configurations include paddles
or sails, pistons or discs.

Differential pressure type flow switches (Figure 2.8) operate on the principle that a
difference in pressure is always associated with fluid flow, or the principle that the total
pressure of a flowing fluid is always greater than the static pressure. These differences in
pressure can be accurately predicted for a given situation and related to the fluid flow
rate. For more information see the Flow Measurement portion of the Analog Input
Section.

Level Switches

Level switches are used in DDC control systems (for HVAC) to provide a digital input
when the fluid level in a tank, vessel or sump has reached a predetermined height.
Common applications include cooling tower sump level control and monitoring, steam
condensate tank level, storm water and sewage sump level monitoring and control and
thermal storage tank level monitoring. Numerous mechanical and analog technologies are
currently available. Some analog technologies include capacitance, ultrasonic, and
magnetostrictive-based devices in combination with solid-state electronics to provide a
switching action based on level. More commonly used technologies include devices that
employ the use of a float (integral, rod and float, submersible), conductivity probe, or
differential pressure mechanism.

Integral float type level switches typically combine an metal or plastic float attached to
the arm of a submersible rotary switch mechanism, or a float that encloses a magnet
which slides on a hollow rod enclosing one or more reed switches.

Submersible float switches utilize an encapsulated integral float type switch or mercury
switch suspended on a fluid tight cord in the vessel being monitored. When the level is
below the cord attachment, the float hangs down and the switch is in its normally open or
closed position. When the fluid level rises, the float rises above the cord attachment
point, changing the float orientation. When the float has position has inverted
sufficiently, the internal switch changes position.
Conductivity probe-type level switches work for conductive liquids only and use the
liquid itself to conduct low level electrical signals between two or more electrodes to
operate higher level electronic switching devices such as transistors or triacs.

Pressure Switches

Pressure switches are used in DDC systems to provide status indication for fans, filters
and pumps, and to provide flow and level status indication by virtue of the predicable
relationships between pressure and these values. Pressure switches may be mechanical or
electronic.

Mechanical pressure switches use a piston, bellows, bourdon tube or diaphragm and a
magnetic or mechanical linkage to convert the forces resulting from the measured
pressure into repeatable motions used to operate one or more switches (Figure 2.3). Low
pressure switches commonly used to measure air pressures in the range of 0.05 inches
water column to 1 psig typically use a flexible diaphragm. Piston, bourdon tube and
bellow type switches are available

Vibration Switches

Vibration switches are used to provide a signal when vibration levels in rotating
machinery such as fans, reach unsafe levels. Vibration switches are commonly applied on
large cooling tower and air handling unit fans.

Moisture Switches

Moisture detecting switches are commonly used to detect moisture under raised floors, in
piping and tank containment areas and in the drain pans of air handling units to alert
system operators before damage or flooding occurs. Most moisture detecting switches are
instruments of the float type or conductivity type. Float types are adapted to actuate at
very low levels. Conductivity types may consist of point sensitive probes located very
close to the bottom of a low point or sump where water will collect, or they may be
ribbons or strips with wires separated by a non-conductive material, such that when any
portion of the ribbon is exposed to liquid moisture, the electrical circuit is completed and
the switch mechanism activates.

Current Switches

Current sensing relays are used in DDC systems to monitor the status of electrical
devices. The devices typically have one or more adjustable current set points. Common
applications include fan and pump on/off status feedback. Current switches can detect
broken fan belts if properly adjusted. Current relays can also be used for phase
monitoring.
Temperature Measurements

One of the most common properties measured in the HVAC control world is temperature.
Human comfort, computer room requirements, and a host of other considerations make
temperature measurement necessary to HVAC control strategies.

Types of Temperature Measurement Devices

Several temperature measurement technologies exist for use with DDC control systems.
The most common utilize resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and thermistor based
devices.

Resistance Temperature Detectors- RTD

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD's) operate on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a metal changes predictably and in an essentially linear and repeatable
manner with changes in temperature. The resistance of the element at a base temperature
is proportional to the length of the element and the inverse of the cross sectional area.
RTD's are commonly used in sensing air and liquid temperatures in pipes and ducts, and
as room temperature sensors. DDC systems may accept RTD inputs directly, or a
transmitter with voltage or current output may be used.

RTDs are typically characterized by their resistance in Ohms () at 0 C and by their

temperature coefficient of resistance (commonly know as "alpha"). Alpha is expressed in
terms of /( C) and is the slope of the line representing the resistance of the element
between 0 C and 100 C. The resistance of a RTD can be expressed mathematically by the
following equation (source i):

R(T) = R0 [1 + A(T - T0)]

Where:

 R(T) = the resistance at temperature T

 R0 = the resistance at reference temperature T0
 A = temperature coefficient of resistance (alpha)
 T0 = a reference temperature (usually 0 C)

RTDs with R0 resistance from 10 to 2000 are readily available. Currently, the most
commonly used RTDs in HVAC applications are sensors with an R0 resistance of 100 ,
500 or 1000.

The accuracy of a RTD sensor is typically expressed in percent of nominal resistance at 0

C (R0). RTDs are relatively accurate when compared to other sensing devices and have
good stability characteristics. RTDs with accuracies of 0.2% to 0.01% are commonly
available.
RTDs are constructed in thin film, thick film, totally supported and "bird-cage"
configurations. They can be made from many materials, some of which include platinum,
tungsten, silver, copper, nickel, nickel alloys and iron. Currently, the most common
RTDs (used in the HVAC field) are constructed in film type configurations with
platinum, nickel or nickel iron.

Since the resistance of the sensor is the property being measured, the resistance of all
elements of the circuit, including the sensor leads, affects the measurement. With RTD's
and particularly those with lower base resistance values, the resistance of long leads can
amount to several percent or more of the sensor circuit. This can result in significant
error. One option for correcting this problem is to locate a transmitter at the sensor. The
other way is to compensate for the lead resistance by the method of wiring.

Three different wiring methods are used, involving two, three and four wires. These are
applied based on accuracy requirements for the application. The circuit diagrams in
Figure 2.9 show the various methods. Two and three wire configurations commonly use a
Wheatstone bridge circuit to create an output voltage that is proportional to the RTD
resistance. The two-wire method provides the lowest accuracy, but is adequate for non-
critical measurements. The three-wire method provides better accuracy because the lead
resistances L1 and L3 cancel when the leads are of identical length. The effect of L2 is
small as long as the bridge is balanced or a high impedance voltage measuring technique
is used. The four-wire circuit is the most accurate, and uses a constant current source to
cancel the effect of unequal length leads. A high-impedance voltage measurement circuit
is used so that the current flow in the measurement leads is negligible.
Thermistor

Thermistors are commonly used for sensing air and liquid temperatures in pipes and
ducts, and as room temperature sensors. The term "thermistor" evolved from the phrase
thermally sensitive resistor. Thermistors are temperature sensitive semiconductors that
exhibit a large change in resistance over a relatively small range of temperature. There
are two main types of thermistors, positive temperature coefficient (PTC) and negative
temperature coefficient (NTC). NTC thermistors are commonly used for temperature
measurement.

Unlike RTD's, the temperature-resistance characteristic of a thermistor is non-linear, and

cannot be characterized by a single coefficient. Manufacturers commonly provide
resistance-temperature data in curves, tables or polynomial expressions. Linearizing the
resistance-temperature correlation may be accomplished with analog circuitry, or by the
application of mathematics using digital computation.
The following is a mathematical expression for thermistor resistance (source ii):

R(T) = R0 exp[b (1/T - 1/T0)]

Where:

 R(T) = the resistance at temperature T, in K

 R0 = the resistance at reference temperature T0, in K
 b = a constant that varies with thermistor composition
 T = a temperature, in K
 T0 = a reference temperature (usually 298.15 K)

Because the lead resistance of most thermistors is very small in comparison to sensor
resistance, three and four wire configurations have not evolved. Otherwise, sensing
circuits are very similar to RTD's, using the Wheatstone bridge (Figure 2.10).

Other Temperature Input Devices

Other temperature measurement technologies are available for use in DDC control
systems. Solid-state sensors are available for space, duct and pipe applications. These
sensors provide a milli-volt level voltage signal used in a two-wire configuration, or a
micro-amp level current signal used in a three-wire configuration.

Thermocouples are available for space, pipe and duct application. Thermocouples operate
on the principle that when two dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the
ends is at a different temperature, a voltage that is proportional to the temperature of the
junction is produced. This principle requires that the leads be made of the same metals in
order to achieve reasonable measurement accuracy. The signal level from a thermocouple
is in the milli-volt range such that transmitters are often used to overcome the effect of
the leads. Although in widespread laboratory and industrial use, thermocouples are not
widely use in commercial HVAC control applications. The American National Standards
Institute has standardized thermocouple types. Common types are listed in Table 2.1.

Infrared Temperature Sensors that sense the wavelength of radiation emitted from the
surface of an object without being in physical contact with the object are available with
voltage or current outputs that are compatible with DDC systems.

Comparison

Table 2.2 is a comparison of the most common temperature measurement technologies

applicable to DDC control systems for HVAC. The comparisons made are general in
nature and not intended to be all inclusive for each sensor type.
Installation

RTD's, thermocouples, thermistors, and solid-state temperature sensors are all small
devices with similar mounting techniques used for all of the types. Sensors for pipe and
duct mounting are commonly sheathed in a stainless steel sheath of 1/8 to 1/4" diameter
(larger and smaller diameters are available). Wiring may be exposed or contained in
various types of enclosures. Sensors for liquid piping systems may be mounted with
direct immersion into the fluid or installed in a tubular sheath called a thermowell or well
to allow removal without draining the piping system and to reduce the likelihood of
leaks. Sensors installed in wells should be installed with a heat transfer compound filling
the space between the sensor and the well to insure good thermal contact between the
measured fluid and the sensor.

In measuring the temperature of air in large ducts, it is often desirable to use an averaging
element because the air temperature can vary significantly over the cross section of the
duct. RTD and thermistor sensors have been developed that accomplish this using
multiple sensors installed in a single flexible tubular element. The element is typically
arranged in a serpentine fashion so as to obtain representative measurements over the
entire cross sectional area of the duct. Very large ducts or air handling unit casings ften
require multiple sensors that are customarily wired in parallel-series arrangements.
Averaging elements are commonly applied downstream of mixing dampers, and
following large or multiple heating or cooling coils.

Sensors for outdoor air applications should be located in normally shaded areas to
prevent the heating effects of solar radiation. These sensors are usually provided with a
shield or hood to reduce the effects if exposed to direct sunlight and prevent direct
contact with precipitation.

In adverse or outdoor environments, it is sometimes desirable to enclose sensors in

aspirated cabinets to prolong their life and reduce maintenance. Aspirated cabinets
typically include a filtered air intake and an exhaust fan to provide positive airflow
through the enclosure. Flush mount wall sensors, wire guards or locking guards are also
used to protect sensors in areas subject to vandalism.

Humidity Measurements

Humidity is the presence of water vapor in air. The amount of water vapor present in air
can affect human comfort and numerous material properties. It is a parameter that HVAC
designs often must take into account and therefore can be a required measurement in
HVAC control schemes. The amount of water vapor in air can be defined by one of
several ratios, which include relative humidity, humidity ratio, specific humidity, and
absolute humidity. By far the most common measurement of humidity in the HVAC
industry is relative humidity (RH).

Relative humidity is the ratio of partial water vapor pressure in an air-water mixture, to
the saturation vapor pressure of water at the same temperature. This is analogous to the
ratio of the number of water molecules per unit volume of the mixture to the number of
water molecules that would exist in a saturated mixture at the same temperature.

Types of Relative Humidity Sensors

Relative Humidity sensors are used in DDC control systems for HVAC to measure
relative humidity in conditioned spaces and ducts. Commonly applied sensor types
include thin-film capacitance, bulk polymer resistance, and integrated circuit type. The
integrated circuit type combines a sensor (commonly of the capacitance type) and some
of the signal conditioning circuitry to form a solid-state device. Relative humidity can
also be measured along with dew point and other humidity measurements by chilled
mirror hygrometers. See the Chilled Mirror Hygrometers section in the section on Dew
Point Measurement.

Thin Film Capacitance

Thin film capacitance sensors operate on the principle that changes in relative humidity
cause the capacitance of a sensor (made by laminating a substrate, electrodes, and a thin
film of hygroscopic polymer material) to change in a detectable and repeatable fashion.
Because of the nature of the measurement, capacitance humidity sensors are combined
with a transmitter to produce a higher-level voltage or current signal. Key considerations
in selection of transmitter sensor combinations include range, temperature limits, end-to-
end accuracy, resolution, long-term stability, and interchangeability.

Capacitance type relative humidity sensor/transmitters are capable of measurement from

0-100 % relative humidity with application temperatures from -40 to 200 F. These
systems are manufactured to various tolerances, with the most common being accurate to
1%, 2%, and 3%. Capacitance sensors are affected by temperature such that accuracy
decreases as temperature deviates from the calibration temperature. Sensors are available
that are inter-changeable within plus or minus 3% without calibration. Sensors with long
term stability of <1% per year are available.

Bulk Polymer Resistance

Bulk Polymer Resistance sensors use the principle that resistance change across a
polymer element varies with relative humidity and is measurable and repeatable. As with
capacitance humidity sensors, polymer resistance sensors are combined with transmitters
to produce a higher-level voltage or current signal.

Bulk polymer resistance humidity sensor/transmitters are commonly capable of

measurement from 0-100 % relative humidity with application temperatures from -20 to
140 F. These systems are manufactured to various tolerances, with the most common
being accurate to 2%, 3%, and 5%. Some manufacturers rate their published accuracy to
the 20 - 95 % RH ranges. Resistance sensors are affected by temperature such that
accuracy decreases as temperature deviates from the calibration temperature. Bulk
polymer resistance humidity sensors are not commonly interchangeable. Sensors with
long term stability of <1% drift per year are available.

Installation

Sensors are commonly enclosed in at least a louvered plastic or metal enclosure. Sensors
for rugged use are usually enclosed by a filtering element such as a plastic or stainless
steel screen, or a sintered metal cup or tube. Mounting methods are similar for all the
technologies in common use.
Dew Point Measurements

Dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled under constant pressure to
cause condensation to occur. It can be an important parameter to consider in some HVAC
applications were possible condensation is undesirable and therefore must be measured
and controlled.

Methods for Measuring Dew Point

Dew point measurements for use in HVAC control systems are typically made by one of
two methods. One method is by measuring temperature and relative humidity correctly
and calculating the dew point using empirical mathematical formulas. The second is by
direct measurement using a chilled mirror type sensor.

Calculation from Temperature and Relative Humidity

It is common practice when measuring relative humidity to combine a temperature sensor

and transmitter into the same device as the humidity sensor. Using a microprocessor, it is
then possible to calculate and transmit dew point. Accuracy is limited by the combined
accuracy of the sensors and the electronics. Typical accuracy is 1.8 F. Typical
repeatability is 0.7 F. Commonly, these devices can be configured to output calculated
humidity ratio, wet bulb temperature, and absolute humidity as well as dew point.

Chilled Mirror Hygrometers

Chilled mirror sensing technology has been in use since the 1950's for determination of
dew point temperature. Modern chilled mirror hygrometers use a thermoelectric heat
pump (also called a Peltier device) to move heat away from a mirror. A light beam from
an LED is directed to the mirror and back to a photocell. When condensation (above 0 C)
or frost (below 0 C) forms on the mirrors surface, the light reaching the mirror is
scattered and the intensity detected by the photocell is reduced. The mirror is maintained
at the dew point temperature by controlling the output of the thermoelectric heat pump. A
high accuracy, platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) senses the temperature of the
mirrors surface and therefore reports the dew point temperature. Chilled mirror
hygrometers require a vacuum pump to draw the sample through the sensor, and
additional filtration elements in dirty environments.

Chilled mirror hygrometers are subject to inaccuracies resulting from soluble and
insoluble contaminants depositing on the mirror. Insoluble contaminants affect the optical
characteristics of the mirror. Soluble contaminants affect the vapor pressure of the
condensed moisture on the mirror. Most sensors have insoluble contaminant
compensation cycles that heat the mirror (to dry it) and then reset the optical parameters
of the light sensor to the current mirror optical parameters. Unless the soluble
contaminants are volatile, the insoluble contaminant compensation does not remove the
soluble contaminants. Virtually all chilled mirror sensors require periodic inspection and
cleaning.
Many chilled mirror hygrometers have microprocessor control and when combined with
a dry bulb temperature sensor can calculate and output any humidity parameters desired
in addition to or instead of dew point. Chilled mirror hygrometers are available for
sensing dew/frost point temperatures from -100 to 185 F. Accuracy of better than 0.5 F is
available.

Pressure Measurements

Pressure is measured in DDC controls systems for HVAC in order to control the
operation and monitor the status of fans and pumps. Space pressure is sometimes
measured and used for control. Pressure is also the basis of many flow and level
measurements.

Types of Pressure Sensors

Diverse electrical principles are applied to pressure measurement. Those commonly used
with DDC control systems include capacitance and variable resistance (piezoelectric and
strain gage).

Capacitance

Capacitance pressure sensors typically use a capacitance cell (Figure 2.11) consisting of a
diaphragm exposed to the pressure medium separated from another plate by a fill fluid.
When the applied pressure deflects the diaphragm, the capacitance characteristic of the
sensing element changes. The capacitance cell is excited by a high frequency source. The
frequency changes as the capacitance of the cell changes. This frequency shift is
converted to the output signal by the transmitter electronics. Capacitance transmitters are
available configured for either differential or gauge pressure measurement. Usual outputs
are voltage or current.
Capacitance transmitters are available with ranges from a few inches water column (in.
w.c.) to thousands of pounds per square inch (psi). Transmitter accuracy of 1% of full
scale is common for inexpensive versions. Accuracy to 0.1% of full scale is available
with 'smart' transmitters using microprocessor signal conditioning and compensation.
Smart transmitters can be calibrated using hand-held operator interface devices, or by
digital communication over analog signal wiring using any of several protocols. Varying
grades of transmitter packaging (molded plastic to forged stainless steel) are available
depending on the application and price.

Variable Resistance

Variable resistance technology includes both strain gage and piezo-resistive or

piezoelectric technologies.

Traditional strain gages are constructed of wire filament bonded to a substrate. The
resistance of the wire changes in proportion to the strain in the substrate, which is
transmitted to the wire through the bond. Strain gauges are applied to diaphragms or
other mechanical pressure elements and change resistance in response to strains induced
in the element by the applied pressure. When arranged to form a Wheatstone bridge
circuit, an analog voltage signal is produced that is proportional to applied pressure.

Piezo-resistive sensors operate on the principle that certain semiconductor materials, such
as silicon, change resistance with stress or strain. These piezo-resistive elements are
implanted on a solid-state chip that is attached to a mechanical sensing element or used as
the sensing element. When the piezo-resistive elements are arranged to form a bridge
circuit (as with the wire filament strain gage sensor), an analog voltage signal is produced
that is proportional to the applied pressure.
Piezo-resistive type sensors have a sensitivity of approximately 100 times greater than a
wire strain gage. Also, other strain gages must usually be bonded to a dissimilar force
sensing material with different composition and thermal characteristics. The wire strain
gage sensor is subject to degradation from failure of the bond to the force sensing
element, thermal effects and plastic deformation of the force-sensing element. In contrast,
the silicon based piezo resistors may be integral with a silicon wafer that serves as the
force-sensing element. This eliminates many of the inherent problems with thermal
effects and bonding. Silicon has very good elasticity throughout the typical operational
range and normally fails only by rupturing.

Strain gage and piezo-resistive transmitters are available with ranges of a few inches
water column (in. w.c.) to thousands of pounds per square inch (psi). Transmitter
accuracy of 1% of full scale is common for inexpensive versions. Accuracy better than
0.1% of full scale is available with 'smart' transmitters using microprocessor signal
conditioning and compensation. Smart transmitters can be calibrated using hand-held
operator interface devices, or by digital communication over analog signal wiring using
any of several protocols. Available transmitter packaging ranges from molded plastic to
forged stainless steel depending on the application and price.

Installation

Process connections for pressure instruments are typically made using piping or tubing.
The majority of applications in the HVAC DDC field fall into two categories, the first
being ductwork and plenums, and the second being piping.

Ductwork and Plenums

Special sensing tips are often used when connecting pressure instruments to ductwork for
measurement of static, velocity, or total pressures. This is necessary because improper
orientation of an open-ended tube type probe can result in unreliable readings due to the
directional nature of the pressures being measured (with the exception of very low
velocity flow). Numerous types of pressure probes have been developed for these
applications. Many of these probes are adaptations of the Pitot tube used in pressure and
flow measurement and discussed in detail in the Differential Pressure Measurement
Systems section of this document

Piping

The major considerations for the installation of a pressure element in a fluid system
should include provisions for the following:

 sensor location (pipe mounted, tank mounted, remote);

 isolation of the sensing element from undesirable and potentially damaging
transient pressures, such as those resulting from water hammer and turbulence;
  temporary isolation from the pressure source for maintenance and release of
trapped pressure when removing the sensor for maintenance or for setting zero
during calibration;
 over-range protection for differential pressure instruments;
 protection from process temperature outside of the range of the sensor
application;
 venting trapped, non-condensable gases in liquid sensing piping;
 draining trapped liquids from gas.

Pressure snubbers or dampeners are used to reduce the magnitude of pressure transients.
These can be a sintered metal element with small openings, a small orifice fitting, a high-
pressure drop valve (such as a needle valve), or a pressurized gas filled container
mounted on the sensing piping.

A variety of valving schemes to provide isolation, venting, drain, and pressure relief for
pressure instruments are shown in the Figures 2.12-2.14. One valve (not shown) or two-
valve manifolds are commonly applied to gauge and absolute pressure instruments.
Three- and five- valve manifolds are used with differential pressure instruments. The
equalizing valve in the three- and five- valve manifold insures a proper zero for the
transmitter. It also allows the pressure to be equalized to prevent exposing low
differential transmitters to potentially damaging gauge pressures during installation and
removal.
Flow Measurements

Flow measuring devices are widely used in DDC control systems for HVAC to monitor
and control various air and liquid flows. Typically, airflow-measuring devices are used to
monitor and control the output of fans, dampers, and associated equipment used to
control outside airflow, VAV box airflow, and building and space pressures. Liquid flow
is commonly measured to maintain required flows in boilers, chillers and heat
exchangers, and to control and monitor energy production and use (requires temperature
measurement also).

Numerous reliable technologies are available for use with DDC systems. Some
technologies have been applied to both air and liquid flow measurements as their
principles of operation hold true in either application. Other technologies lend themselves
to being airflow or liquid flow specific.

Methods for Measuring Flow

Flow rate is typically obtained by measuring a velocity of a fluid in a duct or pipe and
multiplying the by the known cross sectional area (at the point of measurement) of that
duct or pipe. Common methods for measuring airflow include hot wire anemometers,
differential pressure measurement systems, and vortex shedding sensors. Common
methods used to measure liquid flow include differential pressure measurement systems,
vortex shedding sensors, positive displacement flow sensors, turbine based flow sensors,
magnetic flow sensors, ultrasonic flow sensors and target flow sensors.

Hot Wire Anemometers

"Hot Wire" or thermal anemometers operate on the principle that the amount of heat
removed from a heated temperature sensor by a flowing fluid can be related to the
velocity of that fluid. Most sensors of this type are constructed with a second, unheated
temperature sensor to compensate the instrument for variations in the temperature of the
air. Hot wire sensors are available as single point instruments for test purposes, or in
multi-point arrays for fixed installation. Hot wire type sensors are better at low airflow
measurements than differential pressure types, and are commonly applied to air velocities
from 50 to 12,000 feet per minute.

Differential Pressure Measurement Systems

Differential pressure measurement technologies can be applied to both airflow and liquid
flow measurements. Sensor manufacturers offer a wide variety of application specific
sensors used for airflow and pressure measurements, as well as wet-to-wet differential
pressure sensors used for liquid measurements. Both lines offer a wide variety of ranges.

For airflow measurements, differential pressure flow devices in common use in HVAC
systems include Pitot tubes (Figure 2.15) and various types of proprietary velocity
pressure sensing tubes, grids, and other arrays. All of these sensing elements are
combined with a low differential pressure transmitter to produce a signal that is
proportional to the square root of the fluid velocity. For example, when using a Pitot-
static tube, this signal can be related to the flow according to the following equations
(source iii):

Where:

Velocity = Velocity (ft/min)

VP = velocity pressure (in w.c.)
p = density of air (lbm/ft2)
gc = gravitational constant (32.174 lbm ft/lbfs2)
C = unit conversion factor (136.8)

Figure 2.16 depicts an example of a velocity pressure measurement with a U tube

manometer and Figure 2.17 depicts an example of the relationship between velocity
pressure (VP), static pressure, and total pressure.
As a permanently mounted sensor, the Pitot tube is limited to small ducts and
applications with low accuracy requirements due to the need to sense the velocity at more
than one point to achieve reliable measurements in larger ducts. The need to sense
multiple points in the cross section of a duct gave rise to averaging type sensors with
arrays of pressure sensing points. This type is most commonly used in HVAC
applications.

Some differential pressure based flow stations include transmitters that have the
capability to electronically extract the square root of the measured pressure and provide
an analog signal that is linear with respect to velocity, whereas others provide an analog
signal that is proportional to measured pressure and depend upon the DDC system to
calculate the square root and therefore, resulting (averaged) velocity. Once the velocity is
obtained, flow can be calculated by multiplying by the cross sectional area of the duct.
Velocity range is limited by the range and resolution of the pressure transmitter used.
Most differential pressure type stations are limited to a minimum velocity in the range of
400 to 600 feet per minute. Maximum velocity is only limited by the durability of the
sensor.
For water flow measurements, differential pressure flow devices in common use in
HVAC systems operate either by measuring velocity pressure (insertion tube type), or by
measuring the drop in pressure across a restriction of known characteristic (orifice, flow
nozzle, Venturi).

Insertion tube type flow sensors are usually constructed of a round or proprietary shape
tube with multiple openings across the width of the flow stream to provide an average of
the velocity differential across the tube and an internal baffle between upstream and
downstream openings to obtain a differential pressure. Insertion tube type meters have a
low permanent pressure loss, and with proper installation and associated pressure
instruments are satisfactory for many common applications. Insertion tube flow sensors
are available that can be installed and removed through a full port valve so that
installation and service are possible without draining the section of piping in which they
are installed.

A concentric orifice plate is the simplest and least expensive of the differential pressure
type meters. The orifice plate constricts the flow of a fluid to produce a differential
pressure across the plate (see Figure 2.18). The result is a high pressure upstream and a
low pressure downstream that is proportional to the square of the flow velocity. An
orifice plate usually produces a greater overall pressure loss than other flow elements. An
advantage of this device is that cost does not increase significantly with pipe size.

Venturi tubes exhibit a very low pressure loss compared to other differential pressure
meters, but they are also the largest and most costly. They operate by gradually
narrowing the diameter of the pipe, and measuring the resultant drop in pressure (see
Figure 2.19). An expanding section of the meter then returns the flow to very near its
original pressure. As with the orifice plate, the differential pressure measurement is
converted into a corresponding flow rate. Venturi tube applications are generally
restricted to those requiring a low pressure drop and a high accuracy reading. They are
widely used in large diameter pipes.
Flow nozzles may be thought of as a variation on the Venturi tube. The nozzle opening is
an elliptical restriction in the flow but with no outlet area for pressure recovery (Figure
2.20). Pressure taps are located approximately 1/2 pipe diameter downstream and 1 pipe
diameter upstream. The flow nozzle is a high velocity flow meter used where turbulence
is high (Reynolds numbers above 50,000) such as in steam flow at high temperatures.
The pressure drop of a flow nozzle falls between that of the Venturi tube and the orifice
plate (30 to 95 percent).

The turndown (ratio of the full range of the instrument to the minimum measurable flow)
of differential pressure devices is generally limited to 4:1. With the use of a low range
transmitter in addition to a high range transmitter or a high turndown transmitter and
appropriate signal processing, this can sometimes be extended to as great as 16:1 or more.
Permanent pressure loss and associated energy cost is often a major concern in the
selection of orifices, flow nozzles, and venturis. In general, for a given installation, the
permanent pressure loss will be highest with an orifice type device, and lowest with a
Venturi. Benefits of differential pressure instruments are their relatively low cost,
simplicity, and proven performance.
Vortex Shedding Sensors

Vortex shedding flow meters operate on the principle (Von Karman) that when a fluid
flows around an obstruction in the flow stream, vortices are shed from alternating sides of
the obstruction in a repeating and continuous fashion. The frequency at which the
shedding alternates is proportional to the velocity of the flowing fluid. Single sensors are
applied to small ducts, and arrays of vortex shedding sensors are applied to larger ducts,
similar to the other types of airflow measuring instruments. Vortex shedding airflow
sensors are commonly applied to air velocities in the range of 350 to 6000 feet per
minute.

Vortex flow meters provide a highly accurate flow measurement when operated within
the appropriate range of flow. Vortex meters are commonly applied where high quality
water, gas and steam flow measurement is desired. Performance of up to 30:1 turndown
on liquids and 20:1 on gases and steam with 1-2 percent accuracy is available.
Turndowns are based on liquid velocities through the meter of up to 25 feet per second
for liquids, 15,000 feet per minute for steam and gases. Actual turndown may be less
depending on design velocity limitations.

Positive Displacement Flow Sensors

Positive displacement meters are used where high accuracy at high turndown is required
and reasonable to high permanent pressure loss will not result in excessive energy
consumption. Applications include water metering such as for potable water service,
cooling tower and boiler make-up, and hydronic system make-up. Positive displacement
meters are also used for fuel metering for both liquid and gaseous fuels. Common types
of positive displacement flow meters include lobed and gear type meters, nutating disk
meters, and oscillating piston type meters. These meters are typically constructed of
metals such as brass, bronze, cast and ductile iron, but may be constructed of engineered
plastic, depending on service.
Due to the close tolerance required between moving parts of positive displacement flow
meters, they are sometimes subject to mechanical problems resulting from debris or
suspended solids in the measured flow stream. Positive displacement meters are available
with flow indicators and totalizers that can be read manually. When used with DDC
systems, the basic meter output is usually a pulse that occurs at whatever time interval is
required for a fixed volume of fluid to pass through the meter. Pulses may be accepted
directly by the DDC controller and converted to flow rate, or total volume points, or a
separate pulse to analog transducer may be used. Positive displacement flow meters are
one of the more costly meter types available.

Turbine Based Flow Sensors

Turbine and propeller type meters operate on the principle that fluid flowing through the
turbine or propeller will induce a rotational speed that can be related to the fluid velocity.
Turbine and propeller type flow meters are available in full bore, line mounted versions
and insertion types where only a portion of the flow being measured passes over the
rotating element. Full bore turbine and propeller meters generally offer medium to high
accuracy and turndown capability at reasonable permanent pressure loss. With electronic
linearization, turndowns to 100:1 with 0.1% linearity are available. Insertion types of
turbine and propeller meters represent a compromise in performance to reduce cost.
Typical performance is 1 percent accuracy at 30:1 turndown. Turbine flow meters are
commonly used where good accuracy is required for critical flow control or measurement
for energy computations. Insertion types are used for less critical applications. Insertion
types are often easier to maintain and inspect because they can be removed for inspection
and repair without disturbing the main piping. Some types can be installed through hot
tapping equipment and do not require draining of the associated piping for removal and
inspection.

Magnetic Flow Sensors

Magnetic flow meters operate based upon Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction,
which states that a voltage will be induced in a conductor moving through a magnetic
field.

Faraday's Law: E=kBDV

The magnitude of the induced voltage E is directly proportional to the velocity of the
conductor V, conductor width D, and the strength of the magnetic field B. As shown in
Figure 2.21, magnetic field coils are placed on opposite sides a pipe to generate a
magnetic field. As the conductive process liquid moves through the field with average
velocity V, electrodes sense the induced voltage. The distance between electrodes
represents the width of the conductor. An insulating liner prevents the signal from
shorting to the pipe wall. The only variable in this application of Faraday's law is the
velocity of the conductive liquid V because field strength is controlled constant and
electrode spacing is fixed. Therefore, the output voltage E is directly proportional to
liquid velocity, resulting in the linear output of a magnetic flow meter.
Magnetic flow meters are used to measure the flow rate of conducting liquids (including
water) where a high quality low maintenance measurement system is desired. The cost of
magnetic flow meters is high relative to many other meter types. Typical performance is
30:1 turndown at 0.5% accuracy.

Ultrasonic Flow Sensors

Ultrasonic flow sensors measure the velocity of sound waves propagating through a fluid
between to points on the length of a pipe. The velocity of the sound wave is dependant
upon the velocity of the fluid such that a sound wave traveling upstream from one point
to the other is slower than the velocity of the of the same wave in the fluid at rest. The
downstream velocity of the sound wave between the points is greater than that of the
same wave in a fluid at rest. This is due to the Doppler effect. The flow of the fluid can
be measured as a function of the difference in time travel between the upstream wave and
the downstream wave.

Ultrasonic flow sensors are non-intrusive and are available at moderate cost. Many
models are designed to clamp on to existing pipe. Ultrasonic Doppler flow meters have
accuracies of 1 to 5% to the flow rate (source iv).

Target Flow Sensors

A target meter consists of a disc or a "target" which is centered in a pipe (see Figure
2.22). The target surface is positioned at a right angle to the fluid flow. A direct
measurement of the fluid flow rate results from the force of the fluid acting against the
target. Useful for dirty or corrosive fluids, target meters require no external connections,
seals, or purge systems.
Target flow meters are commonly used to for liquid flow measurement and less
commonly applied to steam and gas flow. Target Meters offer turndowns up to 20:1 with
accuracy around 1%.

Installation

All airflow sensors work best in sections of ducts that have uniform, fully developed
flow. All airflow sensing devices should be installed in accordance with the
manufacturers recommended straight runs of upstream and downstream duct in order to
provide reliable measurement. A number of manufacturers offer flow straightening
elements that can be installed upstream of the sensing array to improve undesirable flow
conditions. These should be considered when conditions do not permit installation with
the required straight runs of duct upstream and downstream from the sensor.

As with airflow, all liquid flow sensors work best when fully developed, uniform flow is
measured. To attain fully developed, uniform flow sensors should be installed in
accordance with the manufacturers recommended straight runs of upstream and
downstream pipe in order to provide the most reliable measurements.

With most liquid flows measured for HVAC applications, density changes with pressure
and temperature are relatively small and most often ignored due to their insignificant
effect on flow measurements. When measuring the flow of steam or fuel gases, unless
temperature and pressure are constant, ignoring the effect density changes with varying
temperature and pressure will often result in significant or gross errors. For this reason, it
is common to measure the temperature and pressure, in addition to the flow, and
electronically correct the result for the fluid density. This correction may be done using
an integral or remote microprocessor based "flow computer" or it may be made in the
DDC controller with suitable programming.
Liquid Level Measurements

Liquid level measurements are typically used in DDC control systems for HVAC
applications to monitor and control levels in thermal storage tanks, cooling tower sumps,
water system tanks, pressurized tanks, etc.

Types of Liquid Level Sensors

Numerous sensing technologies are available. Common technologies applicable to

HVAC system requirements are based on hydrostatic pressure, ultrasonic, capacitance
and magnetostrictive-based measurement systems.

Hydrostatic

Level measurement by hydrostatic pressure is based on the principle that the hydrostatic
pressure difference between the top and bottom of a column of liquid is related to the
density of the liquid and the height of the column. For open tanks and sumps, it is only
necessary to measure the gauge pressure at the lowest monitored level. For pressurized
tanks it is necessary to take the reference pressure above the highest monitored liquid
level. Pressure transmitters are available that are configured for level monitoring
applications. Pressure instruments may also be remotely located, however this makes it
necessary to field calibrate the transmitter to compensate for elevation difference between
the sensor and the level being measured.

Bubbler type hydrostatic level instruments have been developed for use with atmospheric
pressure underground tanks, sewage sumps and tanks, and other applications that cannot
have a transmitter mounted below the level being sensed or are prone to plugging.
Bubbler systems bleed a small amount of compressed air (or other gas) through a tube
that is immersed in the liquid, with an outlet at or below the lowest monitored liquid
level. The flow rate of the air is regulated so that the pressure loss of the air in the tube is
negligible and the resulting pressure at any point in the tube is approximately equal to the
hydrostatic head of the liquid in the tank.

The accuracy of hydrostatic level instruments is related to the accuracy of the pressure
sensor used.

Ultrasonic

Ultrasonic level sensors emit sound waves and operate on the principle that liquid
surfaces reflect the sound waves back to the source and that the transit time is
proportional to the distance between the liquid surface and the transmitter. One advantage
of the ultrasonic technology is that it is non-contact and does not require immersion of
any element into the sensed liquid. Sensors are available that can detect levels up to 200
feet from the sensor. Accuracy from 1% to 0.25% of distance and resolution of 1/8" is
commonly available.

Capacitance

Capacitance level transmitters operate on the principle that a capacitive circuit can be
formed between a probe and a vessel wall. The capacitance of the circuit will change with
a change in fluid level because all common liquids have dielectric constant higher than
that of air. This change is then related proportionally to an analog signal suitable for DDC
analog inputs. Resolution of 1/8" and accuracy of 1% to 0.25% of span are available.

Magnetostrictive

Magnetostrictive level transmitters (Figure 2.23) operate on the principle that an external
magnetic field can be used to cause the reflection of an electromagnetic wave in a
waveguide constructed of magnetostrictive material. The probe is composed of three
concentric members. The outermost member is a protective, product-compatible outer
pipe. Inside the outer pipe is a waveguide, which is a formed element constructed of a
proprietary magnetostrictive material. A low-current interrogation pulse is generated in
the transmitter electronics and transmitted down the waveguide creating an
electromagnetic field along the length of the waveguide. When this magnetic field
interacts with the permanent magnetic field of a magnet mounted inside the float, a
torsional strain pulse, or waveguide twist, results. This waveguide twist is detected as a
return pulse. The time between the initiation of the interrogation pulse and the detection
of the return pulse is used to determine the level measurement with a high degree of
accuracy and reliability. Accuracy and resolution of 1/16" or better are available from
some manufacturers.
Light Measurements

Light level sensors are used by DDC control systems for lighting control. They are
typically used to turn on night lighting when light level drops below a set level and are
also used to turn off indoor and outdoor lighting when ambient levels are sufficient. Light
level sensors can be used to control the output of dimmable fluorescent lighting to set
levels. Accuracy of 1% of reading is common.

Electrical Measurements

Monitoring of electrical system attributes is performed by DDC control systems to

protect system components, determine power and energy consumption of various
components, and implement usage and demand control strategies to conserve energy. A
variety of hardware and techniques are applied to these measurements.

Types of Electrical Measurement Devices

There are many devices that measure electrical attributes on the market today. The two
most common electrical measuring devices used for DDC are current transducers and
power measuring devices.

Current Transducers

Current transducers are used in DDC control systems to monitor current flow to motors,
heaters, or electrical distribution systems. Their input may be used for demand limiting
purposes, control, or energy accounting. The sensing element of a current transducer is
typically a current transformer. It transforms the current being monitored into a higher
voltage, lower current. Additional circuitry reduces this voltage to the desired level.
Current transducers may have line and load terminals for the monitored current, or they
may be arranged as a coil that the current carrying conductor passes through. With this
arrangement, the load conductor induces the current in the transformer via the
electromagnetic field surrounding the conductor. Current transformers and transducers
are available with solid or split cores. The split core device may be installed without
disconnecting the power conductor provided that there is sufficient slack in the conductor
and room in the enclosure. Accuracy of 0.5 % of full scale is readily available.

Power Monitoring Devices

Commonly monitored characteristics of a power system include:

 Power Demand (typically measured in kW)

 Power Consumption (typically measured kW per hour)
 Voltage (typically measured in Volts)
 Current (typically measured in Amps)
 Frequency (typically measured in Hertz)
 Power Factor
 Reactive Power - (typically measured in kVAR)

Many panel level monitoring devices measure all or most of these characteristics and can
communicate to the DDC system through a gateway. These are typically used to monitor
whole building power systems. Other devices measure power and power consumption
only and provide both analog and pulse signals for input to the DDC system. These
sensors are typically installed at the terminal use point of power systems, such as variable
speed drive controlled pump and fan motors. Accuracy 0.2% of reading and 0.04% of full
scale are available.

There are other methods of monitoring demand and consumption. One of the simplest
methods is to obtain a pulse signal output from the utility company's metering equipment.
This can be input directly to a controller with pulse input capability, or a pulse to analog
signal transducer may be used. The pulse represents a set number of kilowatt-hours.
Average demand is calculated using a rolling time average of the number of pulses over
the stipulated time period. Average demand is typically calculated for billing purposes
over a 5, 15, or 30 minute period. Power consumption and demand may also be
calculated using current transformers to measure current flow and voltage transducers to
measure voltage on the selected load or system. The DDC controller calculates the
demand from these values, and integrates this value over time to determine power use.

Other Electrical Measurement Devices

Transducers are available to provide a standard voltage or current input to a controller

based on measured frequency, reactive power, or power factor. Available devices for load
protection are available that monitor three phase voltages and provide a relay signal to
disconnect loads if the power supply becomes unsuitable for continued operation due to
conditions such as phase loss, phase imbalance, low or high voltage, or phase reversal.

Load protection for motors may be incorporated into the motor starter through the use of
a solid state overload device. These devices provide the required time-current protection
to protect the motor from overload conditions, as well as power monitoring to protect the
motor from unsatisfactory power suppl

Energy Measurements

The measurement of energy is a very important aspect of the DDC system. Savings due
to operational procedures and equipment performance can be directly determined through
this measurement. A variety of devices and methods are currently available.

Types of Energy Measurement Devices

The three most common energy measurements used for DDC systems are airside,
waterside and electrical energy measurements. Airside energy measurements are typically
calculated in the DDC system using air temperature and flow rate measurements.
Waterside energy can be calculated in the DDC system or with energy measuring devices
called BTU meters. Electrical energy measurements can be calculated in the DDC system
or with Power Monitoring Devices.

BTU Metering Devices

BTU meters are used to determine energy flows in hydronic systems within a facility for
accounting or control purposes. Determination of heat flow requires measuring the heat
transfer medium flow and the difference in temperature between the supply and return to
the metered load or producer.

With suitable software, this can be accomplished using the DDC system. This may also
be accomplished external to the DDC system using a microprocessor-based computer
with flow and temperature inputs, and analog output to the DDC system representing
totalized energy consumption in BTU or ton-hours, or energy flow in BTU per hour, tons,
or similar units. Many manufacturers of flow measurement devices offer this type of
system.

Power Monitoring Devices

Power monitoring devices can be used to monitor electrical energy usage. They can either
directly measure the energy usage by providing pulses that represent kW per hour, or can
provide an analog signal that measures power which can be used in an energy calculation
(over time) in the DDC system. For more details please refer to the previous section on
Power Monitoring Devices.

Occupancy Measurements

Occupancy sensors are commonly used in building control systems to operate lighting
and room air conditioning equipment. Sensors turn lights and air conditioning equipment
off (or to reduced levels) when no occupants are detected. This is done to minimize
energy consumption. Occupancy sensors may be designed to detect motion or differences
in background infrared radiation and the radiation emitted from a human occupant. Many
occupancy sensors used for lighting also incorporate photocells or other light sensitive
devices to reduce lighting when ambient light is sufficient.

Position Measurements

Position sensors and transmitters are used in HVAC system controls where the feedback
of position is necessary for precise control of system components, such as valves and
dampers, or where monitoring of position is necessary or desired. Position transmitters
commonly operate using a slidewire or rotary potentiometer to provide a variable
resistance that changes with linear or rotary position.
Gas Concentration Measurements

With the increased interest in indoor air quality and the need to monitor potentially
dangerous gases, gas concentration measurements have become increasing more
prevalent in DDC system design. Many devices are currently available for use in HVAC
applications.

Types of Gas Concentration Measuring Devices

There are many types of gas measuring devices available for use with DDC systems.
Currently, the three most common gases measured in HVAC applications are carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and refrigerant gases.

Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas that is most commonly generated as the byproduct
of the incomplete combustion of carbon based fuels. Carbon monoxide is generated by all
fuel burning equipment, including internal combustion engines. Carbon Monoxide
detectors are used to operate ventilation equipment to prevent carbon monoxide levels
from becoming unsafe. They are also used to warn facility owners and occupants of
unsafe levels in garages, loading docks, tunnels, and other areas where vehicles are
operated. Solid state sensing technology is most commonly used. Single or multiple
sensing point versions are available that can provide contact closures at one or more set
levels and/or analog signals that are proportional to carbon monoxide concentration.

Carbon Dioxide

Carbon dioxide is a non-toxic gas produced by the respiration of living organisms, by the
complete combustion of carbon, and by photosynthesis in green plants. Carbon dioxide
exists in the air in the amount of 320-350 parts per million. Carbon dioxide concentration
inside of buildings has been related to general ventilation adequacy and is commonly
monitored by DDC control systems as a measure of indoor air quality and ventilation
adequacy. It is also measured by DDC systems and used to control outdoor air fans and
dampers to keep the concentration below set levels.

The most commonly used sensing technology is Non-Dispersive Infra-Red (NDIR). This
is based on the principle that carbon dioxide gas absorbs infrared radiation at the 4.2 m
wavelength. Attenuation of an infrared source can be related to the gas concentration in
air in the range of 0-5000 parts per million with a general accuracy of plus or minus 150
ppm or 50 ppm over narrower ranges.
Refrigerant Gas

Refrigerant gas detectors have been in widespread use since safety codes for mechanical
refrigeration required their use in the operation of emergency ventilation systems to
evacuate hazardous concentrations of refrigerant gas in machinery rooms and other
applicable enclosed areas.

Detectors broadly sensitive to families of CFC and HCFC gases commonly used, as
refrigerants are available. Gas specific detectors are also available to detect individual
refrigerant gases including CFC, HFC, HCFC and ammonia specific to the equipment in
use. The most commonly used are infrared (IR), photo-acoustic, and solid state sensing
technologies. Single or multiple sensing point versions are available that can provide
contact closures at one or more set levels and/or analog signals that are proportional to
refrigerant concentration.
Chapter 3
Output Devices
Analog Devices

There are numerous analog devices used in the HVAC controls world. Typically, analog
output devices are used to provide modulating control of valves, dampers, electric motors
through variable speed drives and a wide variety of other devices. The most common
devices associated with analog outputs are sequencers, variable speed drives, silicon
controlled rectifiers and actuators.

Sequencers

Sequencing of multiple on-off devices based on a single analog output from a control
loop is often required for items, such as cooling towers with multiple two-speed fans,
multi-stage electric heaters and multi-stage refrigeration systems. This sequencing can be
accomplished within the DDC controller, or it may be accomplished externally using a
discrete sequencing device. These devices have two or more relay or digital outputs that
are adjusted to spread the signal range that they turn on and off. For example, a two-stage
sequencer might be adjusted so the stage one relay turns on at 37.5% analog signal level
and off at 12.5%. The stage two relay would be adjusted to turn on at 87.5% analog
signal and off at 67.5%. More advanced sequencers may incorporate adjustable inter-
stage time delays, minimum on and off times, etc.

Variable Speed Drives

Variable speed drives are used to vary the speed of AC and DC motors in order to control
the output of driven equipment. DC variable speed drives are costly and offer very
precise control. They are widely used in industry for precise speed control of conveyors
and printing presses, but are not widely used in the HVAC industry. AC variable speed
drives are less costly and offer good control for equipment, such as centrifugal
compressors, fans and pumps.

AC variable speed drives operate on the principle that the synchronous speed of an AC
induction motor is directly proportional to the frequency of the AC power supplied to the
motor. In the US, the standard frequency at which AC power is distributed and motors
are rated is 60 cycle per second (hertz). Virtually all AC variable speed drives currently
manufactured use solid state components to accept AC power at standard distribution
voltages and 60 hertz frequency (50 hertz in Europe) and output a variable frequency
power supply to the controlled motor(s). Commonly available drives have provisions for
external on/off control by a contact closure, analog speed feedback signal for monitoring,
and accept a standard analog voltage or current signal for speed input. Many drives are
available with one or more drive status alarms. Some are also available with digital
communication interfaces that allow detailed status and fault monitoring by DDC control
systems.

Most drives use an AC to DC converter and a DC to AC inverter. The converter may

consist of a diode rectifier, a diode rectifier with a DC chopper, or a silicon controlled
rectifier (SCR) sometimes called a thyristor. The simple diode rectifier creates a constant
DC voltage for input to the inverter. The addition of the DC chopper allows regulation of
the voltage to the inverter. Silicon controlled rectifiers also allow regulation of the
voltage to the inverter.

The inverter section of the drive consists of solid state switching devices that reconstruct
an AC power signal with controlled frequency. The three most common types of inverters
are variable voltage source (also called six step), current source and pulse width
modulated (PWM). The six step inverter uses six solid state switching devices in
combination with six diodes. The solid state switches are controlled to produce a six step
voltage wave form for each phase. Changing the conducting time for each of the six
switches results in a change in frequency of the output wave. The current source inverter
operates much the same as the six step variable voltage source except that solid state
switching devices construct a six step current wave for each phase instead of a voltage
wave. Pulse width modulated inverters use solid state switching devices to produce a
series of constant voltage pulses of various widths to produce an AC output. The timing
and number of pulses are varied to produce the varying frequency.

Application Considerations For Motors and Drives. The following items should be
considered for any variable speed drive application:

1. Normally, NEMA Design B squirrel cage induction motors with continuous duty
rating are used.
2. Multiple motor loads can be controlled from a single AC variable speed drive,
however the manufacturer's guidelines must be followed regarding operation if
some or all motors are not connected. This applies in particular to drives with
current source-type inverters.
3. With current source and PWM-type inverters there is some additional stress on
the motor insulation. These stresses are usually not significant.
4. PWM inverters usually cause motors to produce more noise than normal.
5. Any type of inverter produces a current waveform that contains harmonics that do
not produce any additional torque, but do cause additional heating in the motor
windings. This will typically produce 5% - 15% additional heating load and must
be considered when operating motors controlled by drives near full load
conditions.
6. With current source inverters, an open circuit (such as a disconnected load) will
cause an excessive voltage rise in the inverter. Unless appropriate protection is
provided, this condition may cause inverter failure.
 7. Jerky shaft motion can result with any inverter type at low speed (typically below
about 10 hertz) due to badly distorted waveforms at these frequencies. Some
PWM drives are available that are optimized for operation at low speed and can
reduce this effect.
8. It is important to consider the torque - speed characteristic of the load to be
imposed on the drive. Most HVAC applications are for centrifugal machines
(pumps, fans and compressors) and are described as "variable torque" because the
torque is low at low speed and rises according to the cube of the motor speed.
Infrequent applications for HVAC, such as positive displacement pumps, may
have constant torque characteristics.

Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs)

SCRs are used to regulate an AC power supply to a typically resistive electrical load,
such as an electric heater, to provide continuously variable output. SCRs accept standard
analog control signals (usually voltage or current) and regulate the output of their load
proportionally.

With microprocessor-based controls, SCRs can be used in combination with sequenced

contactors to provide vernier control that is continuous in proportion to the input signal,
but does not require control of the entire load by a SCR and thus reduces the cost.

Actuators

Analog signal controlled actuators are one of the most important components of DDC
systems today. Air temperature control is commonly accomplished with actuators of
various types through the control of damper position and valve position. The majority of
modern HVAC designs include actuators of one type or another.

Types of Actuators

With the invention and continual refinement of DDC systems, electric motor controlled
actuators are steadily replacing pneumatic controlled actuators as the application allows.
There are still a large number of both types available and in service today.

Pneumatic Actuators

The pneumatic actuator has been widely used for HVAC control for decades. With the
inventions of the electric-to-pneumatic signal transducers and EP relays, DDC systems
can readily integrate pneumatic actuators into the control scheme for steam valves,
dampers, etc. Diaphragm- and piston-type actuators are the two most common pneumatic
actuators.

Diaphragm-type actuators are most commonly used with low pressure pneumatic control
signals in the range of 0 to 30 psig, but are available for industrial application at higher
pressures. Diaphragm actuators typically have an opposing spring, with air supply to only
the side of the diaphragm opposing the spring. The spring constant sets the range of air
pressure over which the valve will operate and also provides for failure in an open or
closed position, depending on orientation. The action of diaphragm actuators is normally
linear, but may be converted to rotary motion approaching 180 degrees through the use of
suitable links.

Piston-type actuators are most commonly used with higher air pressures in the range of
80 to 100 psig. Piston actuators are generally more compact than diaphragm-type
actuators, particularly for larger valve sizes. Pistons may be single acting (air applied to
piston on one side, spring pressure on opposite side of piston provides return pressure) or
double acting (air pressure is applied alternately to either side of the piston to produce bi-
directional motion). Piston actuators may have linear or rotary motion through the rack
and gear or other mechanisms.

Positioners are commonly used with a pneumatic actuator to control the stroke or rotation
of the actuator so that it positions the controlled device in a fashion that is linear in
proportion to the control signal. Limit switches may be mechanical- or proximity-type
actuators and are often mounted within a positioner enclosure.

Electric Actuators

A wide variety of sizes and shapes of electric actuators are available to meet the
requirements for valve and damper actuation for HVAC systems. Most electric actuators
are based on an electric motor and output mechanism. Some mechanisms are designed for
spring return; others are designed so that the mechanism locks in place when the motor is
off. Most actuators relate the analog control signal proportionally to the position or
percent of total travel. Torque switches may be used on large electric motor-driven
actuators to stop the valve motor when the valve has reached full open or closed position.
Digital Devices

Digital outputs (DO) are typically used to provide on/off control of valves, dampers,
electric motors, lighting and external signaling devices, such as alarm bells and indicator
lights. Digital outputs may also be used to control analog devices using tri-state or pulse
width modulation (PWM) previously described in Chapter 1. The most common devices
associated with digital outputs are relays, contactors, starters and two-position actuators.

Relays, Contactors and Starters

A relay is a device where power applied to a coil or input terminal causes the path
between pairs of separate, additional terminals to either allow electrical current flow, or
stop current flow. Contactors and starters are essentially relays designed for interrupting
and applying power to larger loads (i.e., integral horsepower motors) and significant
resistance loads (i.e., lighting and heaters).

Types of Relays, Contactors and Starters

The most common types of relays are standard instantaneous control, latching, and
timing. Contactors and starters can be considered common types of heavier duty relays
with and without load protection.

Standard Instantaneous Control Relays

Standard instantaneous control relays are electromechanical or solid state.

Electromechanical control relays use a magnetic coil and armature to cause contacts to
open or close when current is applied to the coil. Solid state relays use semi-conducting
devices (such as transistors or triacs) that become electrically conductive between output
terminals when a voltage is applied to the input.

Relays are typically used to switch AC and DC control signals with voltages from 0 to
600 volts and typically have contact ratings of less than 20 amps. Control relays come in
numerous sizes and shapes. Relays used on printed circuit boards for pilot duty can be
made very small, with the largest dimension under 1/2 inch (12.5 mm). Modular,
miniature and sub-miniature rail mounted plug-in type relays are often used in shop or
field-fabricated control panels because they are less costly and easy to mount and replace.

Latching Relays

Latching relays are a variation of the standard instantaneous control relay where the
contacts change position when initially energized, but do not revert to the normal state
(when the input signal is removed) until a separate reset signal is applied. Latching relays
may have mechanical latches using a set and reset coil, or they may latch magnetically.
Latching relays are also available with manual reset latches.

Timing Relays

Timing relays (also known as time delay relays) are a variation of the standard
instantaneous control and latching relay where a fixed or adjustable time delay must
occur following a change in the control signal before the switching action occurs.
Common time delay relay configurations include on delay, off delay and on/off delay.
Numerous other configurations are available.

Contactors and Starters

Contactors are essentially large capacity relays specifically designed to control the flow
of electrical power to electrical loads, such as motors, heaters and lights. Contactors are
multi-pole devices typically arranged to interrupt all energized conductors serving an
electrical load, thus removing all voltage from the load. Contactors can include normally
closed and normally open contacts, but are most often of the single throw, normally open,
double break configuration. Contactors do not include overload protection for the load
they are serving. When contactors are applied to control motors, the power circuit must
include thermal overload protection for the motor.

Starters are specially adapted contactors that include overload protection designed to
sense motor overloads and interrupt the power circuit to the motor before severe damage
can occur. Contactors and starters are rated according to national and international
standards including NEMA/EEMAC (National Electrical Manufacturers
Association/Electrical and Electronic Manufacturers Association of Canada ) and IEC
(International Electrotechnical Commission). Contactors and starters are listed by
recognized testing agencies such as UL (Underwriters Laboratory) and CSA (Canadian
Standards Association).

Ratings typically include maximum voltage, maximum continuous current and maximum
single-phase and three-phase motor horsepower at voltage. NEMA/EEMAC standards for
magnetic motor controllers designate two types of motor duty (non-plugging, non-
jogging duty and plug-stop, plug-reverse or jogging duty) and a series of standard sizes
with standard horsepower ratings for each size. The most commonly used starters and
contactors in the United States conform to the NEMA standards.

The oldest and simplest motor overload protection scheme consists of a thermal overload
for each power conductor. These power conductors consist of a resistance heating
element and fusible metal or bimetallic temperature switch wired in the starter coil
control circuit. The resistance heating element heats in proportion to the current flowing
to the motor, creating a rise in temperature at the switch element that is proportional to
the motor current and the time over which the current has been applied. If the motor
overload is severe, heat will build up quickly, and the switch will open in a few seconds
or less. If the overload current is just above the overload rating, the switch will take a
longer time to open. Thermal overloads are typically non-adjustable, or adjustable over a
very narrow current setting range.

In recent years, solid state overload relays have been developed that sense the motor
current in each phase, digitize it and apply digital logic to determine when an overload or
unsafe operating condition exists. Solid state overload relays can typically sense phase
failure, asymmetrical current loading, severe overload or locked rotor conditions. Solid
state overload relays typically allow for the adjustment of motor full-load current values.
They also allow for setting a variety of time-current trip characteristics to provide optimal
protection for the motor they are protecting.

Two-Position Actuators

Two-position control is commonly used in a wide variety of control schemes for HVAC
applications. Fluid flow, damper position and fuel flow are commonly controlled
(depending upon application) to open/closed positions through the use of a two-position
actuator.

Types of Two-Position Actuators

Two-position actuators are used to control the linear or rotary motion of a controlled
device (such as a valve or damper) to one of two positions, usually open or closed. The
two most common types of two-position actuators are the solenoid type and rotary type.

Solenoid Actuators

One of the simplest actuators is the solenoid, which consists of a coil wound around a
fixed core and a movable core that is usually enclosed in a non-magnetic case. When the
coil is energized, the movable core is attracted to the fixed core, causing a rapid linear
motion. Solenoid actuators are most commonly applied to small valves for control of
water and air flow in pipe and tubing. Solenoid valves are available in pilot-operated
models, where fluid pressure of the fluid being controlled actually provides the motive
force for operating the valve. The solenoid is used to control the internal flow of the pilot
fluid within the valve, causing the operation of the valve. Non-pilot type solenoid valves
open and close very quickly and may cause water hammer when used for controlling flow
in liquid systems. Pilot-operated valves may be designed for slower opening and closing
time to reduce this tendency.

Solenoid valves are also commonly applied to the on/off control of pneumatic control air
supply (sometimes referred to as EP Relays). Two state, on/off control of pneumatic
dampers and actuators is almost universally accomplished using the electrical signal to
operate a solenoid valve that turns air supply to the pneumatic actuator on or off.

Rotary Actuators
Rotary actuators typically are based on rotary electric motors combined with a gear train
that may be reversible, or combined with a spring, such that the position is reversed by
the energy stored in the spring when the motor is de-energized. Spring-return actuators
are commonly applied where a device must be returned to a safe or normal position when
the power supply or control signal fails. Linkages, rack and pinion configurations, cams
and various other mechanisms are used to convert the rotary actuator motion to linear
motion when applied to devices (such as globe-type control valves) requiring linear
motion for actuation.

With the exception of the solenoid type, most two-position electric actuators can also be
used for modulating control with the appropriate analog control circuitry.