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UNIT 1 – GENERAL
Heat is a form of energy which transfers between bodies which are kept
under thermal interactions. When a temperature difference occurs between
two bodies or a body with its surroundings, heat transfer occurs. In this
article, we are going to deal with the different modes of heat transfer. Heat
transfer occurs basically in three modes:
a. Conduction
b. Convection and
c. Radiation
a. Conduction
Metals are the best thermal conductors; while non-metals are poor
thermal conductors. For comparison, the thermal conductivity (k) of the
copper is 401 W/m*K, while the thermal conductivity (k) of the air is 0.0263
W/m*K. The thermal conductivity of the carbon dioxide (CO2) is 0.01672
W/m*K, almost the thermal conductivity of an isolator.
q = - kA (Δ T/Δ n)
b. Convection
Formula of Convection:
q = hA (Ts - T ∞)
c. Radiation
heated. The exchange of heat between the Sun and the object occurs by
radiation.
q = e σ A [(ΔT)^4]
At Earth's location, the outer space, the gravity field (Guth. 1999. Pp.
29-31) and the false void are heat sinks.
Water has a specific Heat of 4.190 kJ/Kg.K, while air has a specific
heat of 1.0057 kJ/Kg.K, and soil have a Specific Heat of 0.725 kJ/Kg.K.
Water has a Specific Heat higher than soil and air; then, the Thermal
Capacity of water is higher than the Thermal Capacity of the air and the
soil. To a greater Thermal Capacity, a slower rate of dissipation of heat.
motor so that the electric motor does not exceed its safe limit during
operation. At time „t‟, let the motor has following parameters
A = Cooling Surface, m2
Now, if time dt, let the temperature rise of the machine be dθ, Therefore,
heat absorbed in the machine = (Heat generated inside the machine – Heat
dissipated to the surrounding cooling medicine)
Where,
So, from the above equation we can find out the rise in temperature inside a
working machine, which is very near to being accurate and if we plot a
graph for the variation of temperature risk with time during heating and
cooling and thus the thermal modelling of a motor gets completed.
electric motor. When the motor have insufficient rating, there will be
frequent damages and shut downs due to over loading, and this is not
intended. On the other hand, if the power rating of a motor is decided
liberally, the extra initial cost and then loss of energy due to operation below
rated power makes this choice totally uneconomical.
1. To obtain the suitable thermal model of motor and design the machine
properly.
Now a days, in almost every applications, electric motors are used, and to
control them electrical drives are employed. But the operating time for all
motors are not the same. Some of the motors runs all the time, and some of
the motor's run time is shorter than the rest period. Depending on this,
concept of motor duty class is introduced and on the basis of this duty
cycles of the motor can be divided in eight categories such as
a. Continuous duty
Continuous Duty: This duty denotes that, the motor is running long
enough AND the electric motor temperature reaches the steady state value.
These motors are used in paper mill drives, compressors, conveyors etc.
Short Time Duty: In these motors, the time of operation is very low and the
heating time is much lower than the cooling time. So, the motor cooks off to
ambient temperature before operating again. These motors are used in crane
drives, drives for house hold appliances, valve drives etc.
Intermittent Periodic Duty: Here the motor operates for some time and
then there is rest period. In both cases, the time is insufficient to raise the
temperature to steady state value or cool it off to ambient temperature. This
is seen at press and drilling machine drives.
Constructional Features
1. Core construction
2. Winding arrangements
Core construction:
used for the core material. Over the years progressively better magnetic
properties are obtained by going in for Hot rolled non-oriented to Hot rolled
grain oriented steel.
Hence butt joints between laminations must be avoided. Lap joints are
used to provide alternate paths for flux lines thus reducing the reluctance of
the flux paths. Some typical constructional details are shown in Fig. 6. In
some power transformers the core is built up by threading a long strip of
steel through the coil in the form of a toroid. This construction is normally
followed in instrument transformers to reduce the magnetizing current and
hence the errors.
Winding Arrangements:
Three most common types of coils viz. helical, cross over and disc coils
are shown in Fig
(i) Helical Windings: One very common cylindrical coil arrangement is the
helical winding. This is made up of large cross section rectangular
conductor wound on its flat side. The coil progresses as a helix. This is
commonly used for LV windings. The insulation requirement also is not too
high. Between layers no insulation (other than conductor insulation) is
needed as the voltage between layers is low. The complexity of this type of
winding rapidly increases as the current to be handled becomes more. The
conductor cross section becomes too large and difficult to handle. The eddy
current losses in the conductor rapidly increases. Hence two or more
conductors have to be wound and connected in parallel. The parallel circuits
bring in problems of current sharing between the circuits. Transpositions of
the parallel paths have to be adopted to reduce unequal current
distribution. The modern practice is to use continuously transposed and
bunched conductors.
(ii) Cross over coils: The second popular winding type is the cross over coil.
These are made of circular conductors not exceeding 5 to 6 sq mm in cross
(iii) Disc coils: Disc coils consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form
at the same place spiraling outwards. Alternate discs are made to spiral
from outside towards the center. Sectional discs or continuous discs may be
used. These have excellent thermal properties and the behavior of the
winding is highly predictable. Winding of a continuous disc winding needs
specialized skills.
(iv) Sandwich coils: Sandwich windings are more common with shell type
core construction. They permit easy control over the short circuit impedance
of the transformer. By bringing HV and LV coils close on the same magnetic
axis the leakage is reduced and the mutual flux is increased. By increasing
the number of sandwiched coils the reactance can be substantially reduced.
Transformer Auxiliaries
Turns ratio = secondary winding turns (Ns)/ primary winding turns (Np).
By the above formulas it is stated that if the primary turns decreases the
turn‟s ratio increases hence then secondary voltage decreases. Opposite for
the reverse case i.e. primary turns increase leads to turns ratio decrease
which increases the secondary voltage.
Figure shows the tap changer on primary winding with tap changing interval
of 2.5 % per tap. With this we can understand three conditions:
Consider the load voltage decreased then the tap changer shift towards
negative side to increase the primary turns and hence decreases the turn‟s
ratio. The secondary voltage will increase to compensate the change.
In this the tap changer is placed in secondary side of the transformer. This
type of taping is used in step-up transformer where low voltage winding is in
primary side and high voltage winding is in secondary side. Figure shows
the tap changer circuit on secondary side with tap interval of 2.5 %. In some
distribution transformers the tap changer resolution can be up to 1% for
fine adjustments.
In this the case is reverse compared to primary tap changer. To increase the
secondary voltage the tap changer will move towards positive direction and it
moves in negative direction to decrease the secondary voltage.
The natural air always consists of more or less moisture in it and this
moisture can be mixed up with oil if it is allowed to enter into the
transformer. The air moisture should be resisted during entering of the air
into the transformer, because moisture is very harmful for transformer
insulation. A silica gel breather is the most commonly used way of filtering
air from moisture. Silica gel breather for transformer is connected with
conservator tank by means of breathing pipe.
This is a cylindrical shaped oil container closed from both ends. One large
inspection cover is provided on either side of the container to facilitate
maintenance and cleaning inside of the conservator. Conservator pipe, i.e.
pipe comes from main transformer tank, is projected inside the conservator
from bottom portion. Head of the conservator pipe inside the conservator is
provided with a cap. This pipe is projected as well as provided with a cap
because this design prevent oil sludge and sediment to enter into main tank
from conservator. Generally silica gel breather fixing pipe enters into the
conservator from top. If it enters from bottom, it should be projected well
above the level of oil inside the conservator. This arrangement ensure that
oil does not enter the silica gel breather even at highest operating level.