Research 1

Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) - LAS
RESEARCH 1-BACC7A
Revision No. 00, series of 2022
Effective: Second Semester, Academic Year 2021 – 2022
Professor: Cecilia A. Balaoing, Ph.D.-BM
Course Code : RESEARCH 1

Course Title : Research 1
Course Pre-requisite : Statistics, Purposive Communication, and at least 80% of core/professional courses
Course Requisite : None
Course Credit : 3 units
Course Description : Management Research 1
Lesson Proper
Define Research
Longman Dictionary of contemporary English .(1997) Research as a serious study of a subject that is intended to discover new facts or test ideas.
According to The Merriam- (Webster online Dictionary). A studious inquiry or examination, especially; investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or law in the light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or law.
According to Waltz and Bansell (1981). Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems or to discover
and interpret new facts and relationships.
According to Kothari (2006). Research is a pursuit of trust with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment, the search for knowledge
through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a problem.
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This OBE-LAS is exclusive for CDSGA faculty and students use only. Unauthorized reproduction and distribution by any means are prohibited.
According to Payton (1979). Research is the process of looking for a specific question in an organized, objective, reliable way.
Kerlinger (1873). Research is a systematic controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among
natural phenomena.
Importance of Research
10 Reasons Why Research is Important

No matter what career field you’re in or how high up you are, there’s always more to learn. The same applies to your personal life. No matter how many
experiences you have or how diverse your social circle, there are things you don’t know. Research unlocks the unknowns, lets you explore the world from different
perspectives, and fuels a deeper understanding. In some areas, research is an essential part of success. In others, it may not be absolutely necessary, but it has many
benefits. Here are ten reasons why research is important:
1. Research expands your knowledge base

The most obvious reason to do research is that you’ll learn more. There’s always more to learn about a topic, even if you are already well-versed in it. If you
aren’t, research allows you to build on any personal experience you have with the subject. The process of research opens up new opportunities for learning and growth.
2. Research gives you the latest information

Research encourages you to find the most recent information available. In certain fields, especially scientific ones, there’s always new information and
discoveries being made. Staying updated prevents you from falling behind and giving info that’s inaccurate or doesn’t paint the whole picture. With the latest info, you’ll
be better equipped to talk about a subject and build on ideas.
3. Research helps you know what you’re up against

In business, you’ll have competition. Researching your competitors and what they’re up to helps you formulate your plans and strategies. You can figure out
what sets you apart. In other types of research, like medicine, your research might identify diseases, classify symptoms, and come up with ways to tackle them. Even if
your “enemy” isn’t an actual person or competitor, there’s always some kind of antagonist force or problem that research can help you deal with.
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4. Research builds your credibility
People will take what you have to say more seriously when they can tell you’re informed. Doing research gives you a solid foundation on which you can build
your ideas and opinions. You can speak with confidence about what you know is accurate. When you’ve done the research, it’s much harder for someone to poke holes
in what you’re saying. Your research should be focused on the best sources. If your “research” consists of opinions from non-experts, you won’t be very credible. When
your research is good, though, people are more likely to pay attention.
5. Research helps you narrow your scope

When you’re circling a topic for the first time, you might not be exactly sure where to start. Most of the time, the amount of work ahead of you is overwhelming.
Whether you’re writing a paper or formulating a business plan, it’s important to narrow the scope at some point. Research helps you identify the most unique and/or
important themes. You can choose the themes that fit best with the project and its goals.
Take a short course on research
6. Research teaches you better discernment

Doing a lot of research helps you sift through low-quality and high-quality information. The more research you do on a topic, the better you’ll get at
discerning what’s accurate and what’s not. You’ll also get better at discerning the gray areas where information may be technically correct but used to draw
questionable conclusions.
7. Research introduces you to new ideas

You may already have opinions and ideas about a topic when you start researching. The more you research, the more viewpoints you’ll come across. This
encourages you to entertain new ideas and perhaps take a closer look at yours. You might change your mind about something or, at least, figure out how to position your
ideas as the best ones.
8. Research helps with problem-solving

Whether it’s a personal or professional problem, it helps to look outside yourself for help. Depending on what the issue is, your research can focus on what others
have done before. You might just need more information, so you can make an informed plan of attack and an informed decision. When you know you’ve collected good
information, you’ll feel much more confident in your solution.
9. Research helps you reach people
Research is used to help raise awareness of issues like climate change, racial discrimination, gender inequality, and more. Without hard facts, it’s very difficult to
prove that climate change is getting worse or that gender inequality isn’t progressing as quickly as it should. The public needs to know what the facts are, so they have a
clear idea of what “getting worse” or “not progressing” actually means. Research also entails going beyond the raw data and sharing real-life stories that have a more
personal impact on people.
10. Research encourages curiosity

Having curiosity and a love of learning take you far in life. Research opens you up to different opinions and new ideas. It also builds discerning and analytical skills.
The research process rewards curiosity. When you’re committed to learning, you’re always in a place of growth. Curiosity is also good for your health. Studies
show curiosity is associated with higher levels of positivity, better satisfaction with life, and lower anxiety.
Goals of research
What are the goals of your research?
The purpose of research objectives is to drive the research project, including data collection, analysis and conclusions. Research objectives also help you narrow in
on the focus of your research and key variables, guiding you through the research process.\
What is an example of a research goal?

For example, a goal such as "to increase public safety in the neighborhood" would pose a difficult, possibly insurmountable, challenge to a researcher. ... Effective
goal or topic statements do the following: They are objective or impartial. They clearly state the purpose of the research.
Purpose of research
What are the main purposes of research?

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The main purposes of research are to inform action, gather evidence for theories, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field of study. This article discusses
the significance of research and the many reasons why it is important for everyone—not just students and scientists.
Characteristics of research
Characteristics of quantitative research

● Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on theories.
● Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
● Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant.
● Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process.
Characteristics of Qualitative Research

● Real-world Setting.
● Researcher Plays an important role.
● Different Research methods.
● Complex reasoning.
● Participants meanings.
● Flexible.
● Reflexivity.
● Holistic Account.
The use of research

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Conceptual use of research can take different forms
1. First, engagement with research can introduce new concepts. In our recent study, we asked district leaders across three major districts to name a piece of
research that they have found useful in the last year, if any. One district leader named a researcher and reported:
He makes me think conceptually. He wrote an article, which is what got me into multiplication as scaling: “Stop teaching multiplication as repeated addition.”
I’ve been thinking about what that means, how it could happen, how you could do that. That’s a huge mind-bender for me. It’s more conceptual, I guess.
Reading this article caused the district leader to think differently about mathematics teaching. This new insight had broader impact as well. The leader
incorporated these new ideas into the district core curriculum and professional development for teachers.
2. Another form of conceptual use is that engagement with research enables people to see a problem they didn’t see before, or see a problem in a new light. In an
earlier longitudinal study of district policymaking in English and mathematics, one of us saw conceptual use of research in close to half of the decisions that
unfolded in the central office over three years. For instance, after discussing research on professional development with an outside provider multiple times across
a year, district leaders began to see their then-current approach to professional development as problematic.
Here, the ideas from the research (along with their engagement with the consultant) helped leaders to reframe their conceptions of what constitutes high-quality
PD. As a result, they not only began to shift their PD offerings from one-off workshops to more extended and in-depth offerings rooted in the districts’
curriculum, they also shifted district policy, changing school schedules to allow for time during the school day for ongoing, situated training.
3. Third, findings from research can help broaden or narrow understandings about the kinds of solutions should be considered and are most appropriate to pursue.
In our recent three-district study, leaders charged a task force with developing a new policy on middle- and high-school mathematics courses, given the
reorganization of mathematics content in the Common Core State Standards. Early on in the debate, we observed meetings where task force members
considered a range of possible policy solutions, including honors courses in middle school.
During this deliberation, they read research on the impact of detracking and heterogeneous mathematics courses. Soon thereafter, the honors options were taken
off the table, and the task force ultimately advocated for a heterogeneous approach to middle-school mathematics. When asked about this decision, members of
the task force pointed to the research as playing a significant role in identifying policy solutions that served all students.
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4. Finally, research can also provide a framework to guide action. In interviews, district leaders reported that research-based frameworks, like the one presented in
Organizing for School Improvement, were valuable to their daily work. In another example, the book Instructional Rounds in Education: A Network Approach
to Improving Teaching and Learning played a role in how leaders organized instructional walk-throughs. One leader told us that Instructional Rounds framed
what he and colleagues looked for in classrooms, the kinds of questions they asked, and the type of feedback that they shared with teachers and principals. The
framework guided the way that he and his colleagues engaged with one another around a shared vision of high-quality instructional practice.
The conceptual use of research is a potentially powerful way to inform policy. When used conceptually, research serves to introduce new ideas, help people
identify problems and appropriate solutions in new ways, and provide new frameworks to guide thinking and action. What’s more, the conceptual use of research can
have long-term consequences. Rather than influencing a single decision, it shapes how people see the world, how they respond to problems they encounter in their every
day work, and how they design and manage solutions. It touches not only policymaking but also policy implementation. We agree with Carol Weiss, who argued “…this
process—bringing new perspectives to attention and formulating issues for resolution—may be the most important contribution that social research makes to
government policy.”
Types of applied research

There are 3 types of applied research. These are evaluation research, research and development, and action research. Evaluation research is
a type of applied research that analyses existing information about a research subject to arrive at objective research outcomes or reach informed decisions.
Research and Development. What is research and development?
Research and development is the generation of new knowledge. In a business context, it is an activity that companies undertake in order to develop new
products, processes or services, or improve those that already exist. In order to do this, businesses often take on risk. This is because uncertainties exist around if what
they are attempting is technologically feasible, or, more commonly, they don’t know how they will achieve their objectives in practical terms.
R&D is an essential function for many businesses. Launching new offerings or improving existing ones is a way for a business to remain competitive and make
profit.
When developing a new product, process or service, or refining an existing one, R&D is one of the earliest phases. Experimentation and innovation is often rife at
this stage, along with risk. The R&D cycle often begins with ideation and theorising, followed by research and exploration and then into design and development.
Action Research
Action research is a philosophy and methodology of research generally applied in the social sciences. It seeks transformative change through the
simultaneous process of taking action and doing research, which are linked together by critical reflection. Action Research is a form of collective self-reflective
enquiry, undertaken by participants in social situations such as employees within an organization.
Action research in the context of business and management

As we have noted above, in the context of business and management, action research operates in the realm of strategies, operational tasks, and structured
hierarchical organizational systems, addressing challenges of customer service, innovation, globalization, financial management, human resource management,
supply chain management, and organizational change. Different business sectors have their respective business contexts, competitive forces, critical success
factors, and technologies.
The foundations of action research in industrial settings lie in the work of Kurt Lewin (1890–1947). Lewin (1944) provided his own account of engaging as
an external action researcher (without using the term) in organizational change, and two of his closest associates, Alfred Marrow and John French, described
how they engaged as action researchers in enabling change to take place in a manufacturing plant (Marrow & French, 1945). Coch and French’s
(1948) engagement in the Harwood pyjama factory is considered to be the seminal action research work in a factory and the foundation of OD (Burnes, 2007),
with Shepard’s and Katzell's (1960) action research work in ESSO a significant development. A rich action research tradition developed in OD in the 1960s,
1970s, and 1980s (Bushe & Marshak, 2009; Clark, 1972; Coghlan, 2015; Cunningham, 1993; Foster, 1972; French & Bell, 1999; Frohman, Sashkin, & Kavanagh,
1976). One of the pillars of OD is the view of organizations as systems and the development of socio-technical systems theory of organizations and management
within which the practice of change and development emerged (Mohrman & Winby, 2018; Pasmore, 2001). This foundation provides the context and the
orientation for a high level of engagement and the collaborative work between a wide variety of actors.
Over the 70 years of action research projects in industrial settings, there have been multiple approaches, interventions, and studies in diverse industries and
business disciplines. Action research is found in industries such as agriculture, biopharma, business and information, construction, education, energy, fashion
design, food, defense, health care, automotive, telecommunication, fish farming, mining, pharmaceutical, and public service. It is found in business functions,
which include accounting, e-marketing, e-commerce, e-learning, finance, information systems (IS/IT), lean operation management, management, consulting,
customer service, marketing, human resource, research and development (R&D), manufacturing, purchasing, supply chain management, research and
development, and sales to improve organizational efficiency. It explores interorganizational dynamics, such as in supply chain management and mergers. It is
expressed through the lenses of action learning, action science, appreciative inquiry, collaborative management research, intervention research, and learning
history within the rubric of OD.
The business and management literature provides many examples of action research implementation. This section presents an illustration of the wide range
of action research projects and perspectives that were impactful both in addressing specific organization issues and in advancing our understanding of business
and management. To capture the wide range of action research projects and insights, we have grouped examples by industry sector.
Over the years, action research has been utilized in wide variety of industries, such as manufacturing (Pace & Argona, 1989; Pasmore & Friedlander, 1982),
agriculture (Meister & Gronski, 2007), biopharma (Roth, Shani, & Leary, 2007), business and information, construction, energy (Baker & Jayaraman, 2012),
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fashion design (Cirella, Canterino, Guerci, & Shani, 2015), media (Walton & Gaffney, 1989), food (Kocher, Kaudela-Baum, & Wolf, 2011), defense, health care,
automotive (Williander & Styhre, 2006), telecommunication, fish farming (Lund, 2008), mining (Blumberg & Pringle, 1983), pharmaceutical (Ngwerume &
Themessl-Huber, 2010; Stebbins & Valenzuela, 2015) and electronics (Fredberg, Norrgren, & Shani, 2011; Schuiling, 2014).
Action research also has been utilized in various business functions/disciplines. For instance, in the field of operations management, Coughlan and Coghlan
(2002, 2016) have provided theoretical foundations for the enactment of action research in this particular business discipline (e.g. Zhang, Levenson, & Crossley,
2015). Some of the business disciplines’ journal outlets have devoted special issues to action research such as the European Journal of Marketing, Human
Resource Management and the Journal of Information Systems. Other function/disciplines included e-commerce (Daniel & Wilson, 2004), marketing (Ballantyne,
2004), finance (Waddell, 2012), human resource management (Lindgren, Henfridsson, & Schultze, 2004), information systems (Avital, 2005), research and
development/R&D (Hildrum, Finsrud, & Klethagen, 2009), lean management (Wyton & Payne, 2014), operations management (Rytter, Boer, & Koch, 2007),
supply chain management (Coghlan & Coughlan, 2015), and mergers/acquisitions (Canterino, Shani, Coghlan, & Bruneli, 2016).
Some of the action research studies were conducted within a specific modality such as action learning (Coghlan and Coughlan, 2015; Ystrom, Ollila, Agogue,
& Coghlan, 2019), action science (Beer, 2011), appreciative inquiry (Avital, 2005), clinical inquiry (Stebbins & Shani, 2009), collaborative management research
(Canterino et al., 2016), intervention research (Raedelli et al., 2014), and learning history (Roth & Kleiner, 2000).
A comprehensive review of the emerging action research practice is beyond the scope of this article. Yet, as Table 1 below illustrates, the diverse utilized
action research practices in business and management are wide and impactful. The table captures examples of varied AR projects that have taken place during
the past 50 years, in different countries and industries, addressing a wide range of issues while utilizing the four factors of context, quality of relationships, and
the quality of the action research process and outcomes.
The Process of action research

The first step in the action research process is regarding the diagnosing of the organizational issue. In this step, the actual problem is identified to promote the
start of the action research. The Bittner Team has already diagnosed that there is a motivation issue with the employees.
Action planning is the second step that constitutes alternative paths of action. The Bittner Team has spent many weeks trying to create a list of different ways
they could improve employee outlook. After many employee interviews, they have found that a shorter or more flexible work week is wanted by the workers.
The third step is taking action, where a specific alternative is selected to solve the issue. Bittner has read studies with other technology companies that have had
success with employee motivation and productivity through adopting a shorter workweek. He believes this is worth a try.
Evaluating is the next step, where the action results are studied to see the overall impact. The Bittner Team held a company-wide presentation to explain when
and how the new workweek would be implemented. Starting in one month, all employees would need to be at work 7am to 7pm Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays.
The employees would have a four-day weekend! The employees were excited to try this new plan and so was Bittner.
The last step in the action research process is specifying learning, where learning and results can be used to help future issues within the organization. After a
three-month trial period of the new shorter workweek, the company deemed the plan a success. Employees were active in formulating any changes, such as working
remotely if needed on one other day, and productivity and motivation were at an all-time high. Bittner himself felt relaxed and had a new sense of excitement for his
work.
Principles of action research

Bittner's action research had six key principles that helped provide the key to the success of the plan. There are six key principles of action research, which consists
of:
1. Reflexive Critique
2. Dialectical Critique
3. Collaborative Research
4. Risk
5. Plural Structure
6. Theory, Practice and Transformation
Reflexive critique is the need to take consideration of evidence-based information, such as reports and documents, and also reflective comments and observations
made in a work setting to determine the actual situation. The Bittner Team spent an enormous amount of time interviewing the employees before making an alternative
consideration. He spent time observing, listening and reporting on the work day.
Dialectical critique is when two sides to an issue exist. The individuals are given time to promote their reasoning for the answer they believe is best. Usually, outsiders
or group consensus will make the determination of what the answer will be for the company. The Bittner Team did have some serious opposition to their idea of the
shorter workweek. They held open meetings for all managers to give ideas and help overcome any objections to the new schedule.
The third key principle of action research is the idea of collaborative research. In this manner, all participants in the research have equally important views. This
ensures a collaborative method of conducting research and determining solutions. The Bittner Team allowed all employees to offer feedback from the initial idea to the
final outcome of the schedule. Certain elements of the shorter workweek underwent changes due to the feedback of the personnel.
Time dimensions in research
Time
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Nothing is constant. It would be really nice to freeze everything following a major event and then deal with each change one at a time. There is even a phrase in
Latin, ceteris paribus, which means 'all things held constant.'
Unfortunately, you can't really hold everything at a standstill while you focus on one thing. Real life and real experiments have to happen in real time. Sorry for
the repetition, but it is kind of what this lesson is all about. What does this mean specifically when you're doing research? It means that time is not standing still. It
means that all the distractions and issues that happen in the real world are happening to your participants.
For instance, if you need to look at how some participants change over time, you need to be aware that some of your participants may die. It's not pretty, but it's
possible. Other times huge events can occur, like terrorist attacks or national tragedies, that can distract people so much your results will be skewed.
In this lesson, we will discuss how time affects three particular types of research designs: cross-sectional, longitudinal and case studies
Cross-Sectional Design
Before we get into the nitty-gritty, cross-sectional designs use sampled groups along a developmental path in an experiment to determine how development
influences a dependent variable. This is where you're interested in how something changes as it develops, and typically this means taking children and adolescents of
different ages and testing to see how they're different.
Maybe you think age has something to do with increased anger control, or maybe you think age is irrelevant in mathematical abilities. You could use a cross-
sectional study to address these questions.
Time comes into play here in how it affects your participants over the course of their lives. Since cross-sectional studies examine samples along a continuum, the
individual's experience up until that point can be very different.
For example, if you look at the life events of people who are:
● 100 years old: World War II and the Great Depression may play a strong part in their lives
● 75 years old: May be impacted by Sputnik and the Space Race
● 50 years old: May have been shaped by the end of the USSR
● 25 years old: Have computers which will likely factor into their development
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While the oldest have experienced all of these events, the youngest didn't experience the earlier ones. Equally important, the older individuals did not experience the
more recent events in the same way as the younger generations. There are kids now who have never known the world without computers! The passage of time has
brought about many new events and each generation experiences these events differently.
So how do you account for this? Typically, age difference is an understood phenomenon and a limitation of the cross-sectional design. Generations of people aren't
the same.
Longitudinal Studies
A quick definition of a longitudinal design is a research study where a sample of the population is studied at intervals to examine the effects of development. This
means you have a sample of the population and you study them periodically throughout their lives. After your tests, you release them back into their natural habitat and
then a few weeks, months or years later, you call them up and test them again to see if there are any differences. Sometimes you can call them back two, three or more
times.
As time passes, people develop and change, and your entire study is based on those changes. Without the time aspect in this study, you wouldn't really have a
longitudinal design; you would just have a regular experiment.
In a longitudinal design, you are focusing on the development as time passes. You need to report and focus on how much time has elapsed between specific
experiments because this can become an important area later in your discussion. For example, if you checked every five years on developing children, then a lot can
happen between each check-in. With adults, while a lot happens in five years.
Classification of research according to design and methodology
Types of quantitative research

There are four main types of Quantitative research: Descriptive, Correlational, Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental
Research. attempts to establish cause- effect relationships among the variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with some
key differences.
Descriptive quantitative research - Descriptive research is one of three basic types of research design. It is a quantitative research method that is considered conclusive
and is used to test specific hypotheses and describe characteristics or functions. Descriptive research should have a clear and accurate research question/problem.
Some reasons you would choose to conduct a descriptive research project are:
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1. To describe a certain group. For example: define a profile of heavy, light, and none-buyers of carbonated soft drinks.
2. To ascertain perceptions of a brand or product. For example: how do heavy buyers perceive different soft drink brands in terms of salience?
3. To estimate the portion of a population that exhibits a certain behavior. For example: how many light users also purchase iced tea?
4. To determine the degree to which variables are connected. For example: to what extent is soft drink purchases relate to prepackaged cookies purchases?
5. To forecast and make specific predictions. For example: What will be the sales of Pepsi in San Diego?
Quantitative descriptive data can be obtained in two ways: survey and observation methods.
The survey method is the most popular by far, with only ~1% of descriptive research being observation-based; however, the observation method has an advantage: it
allows you to measure actual behavior and not rely on reported or intended behavior. While it’s often more expensive, time-consuming, and difficult, it’s worth
considering under the right circumstances and if your research question allows it.
Note: Correlational research refers to a non-experimental research method which studies the relationship between two variables with the help of statistical
analysis. ... A correlational research is useful for all kinds of quantitative data sets, but it is commonly used within market research.
Correlational quantitative research - Correlational research refers to a non-experimental research method which studies the relationship between two
variables with the help of statistical analysis. ... A correlational research is useful for all kinds of quantitative data sets, but it is commonly used within market
research.
Causal-Comparative quantitative research - Correlational research refers to a non-experimental research method which studies the relationship between
two variables with the help of statistical analysis. ... A correlational research is useful for all kinds of quantitative data sets, but it is commonly used within
market research.
Example: A CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF CULTURAL IDENTITY AND GENDER ON EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
LEVELS OF CHRISTIAN COLLEGE STUDENTS
Quasi-Experimental quantitative research - "Quasi-experimental research is similar to experimental research in that there is manipulation of an
independent variable. ... It differs from experimental research because either there is no control group, no random selection, no random assignment, and/or no
active manipulation."
Example: A Quasi-Experimental Research on the Educational Value of Performance Assessment
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Experimental Research - Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be
manipulated by the researcher, and variables that can be measured, calculated and compared. Most importantly, experimental research is completed in a
controlled environment.
Example: For example – if a cake shop wants to check whether adding extra flour will change the overall response, then it will add different amounts of flour
and will check the response by customers. To actually check the net result, different concentrations of flour will have to be tested against the same customers.
Example of an experimental research Title:

● Make an overview of “Awareness of Different Brands”.
● Explain in brief “Diversity of Workplace”.
● Analyze factors affecting “Consumer Loyalty & Risk Management”.
● Give a brief description of “Short term Finance”.
● What are all possible Ethics of Work & Market?
Qualitative Research - Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials – case study, personal experience,
introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts – that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in
individuals' lives.
Types of qualitative research:
Common types of qualitative research are phenomenological, ethnographic, grounded theory, historical, case study, and action research.
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Phenomenological - Phenomenological research has its roots in psychology, education and philosophy. Its aim is to extract the purest data that hasn’t been attained before.
Sometimes researchers record personal notes about what they learn from the subjects. This adds to the credibility of data, allowing researchers to remove these
influences to produce unbiased narratives. Through this method, researchers attempt to answer two major questions:
● What are the subject’s experiences related to the phenomenon?
● What factors have influenced the experience of the phenomenon?
A researcher may also use observations, art and documents to construct a universal meaning of experiences as they establish an understanding of the phenomenon. The
richness of the data obtained in phenomenological research opens up opportunities for further inquiry.
Example of phenomenological research include exploring the lived experiences of women undergoing breast biopsy or the lived experiences of family members waiting
for a loved one undergoing major surgery.
Phenomenological research is a way to understand individual situations in detail. The theories are developed transparently, with the evidence available for a reader to
access. We can use this methodology in situations such as:
● The experiences of every war survivor or war veteran are unique. Research can illuminate their mental states and survival strategies in a new world.
● Losing family members to Covid-19 hasn’t been easy. A detailed study of survivors and people who’ve lost loved ones can help understand coping
mechanisms and long-term traumas.
● What’s it like to be diagnosed with a terminal disease when a person becomes a parent? The conflict of birth and death can’t be generalized, but
research can record emotions and experiences.
Phenomenological research is a powerful way to understand personal experiences. It provides insights into individual actions and motivations by examining long-held
assumptions. New theories, policies and responses can be developed on this basis. But, the phenomenological research design will be ineffective if subjects are unable to
communicate due to language, age, cognition or other barriers. Managers must be alert to such limitations and sharp to interpret results without bias.
grounded theory - Grounded theory (GT) is a research method concerned with the generation of theory,1 which is 'grounded' in data that has been
systematically collected and analysed.2 It is used to uncover such things as social relationships and behaviours of groups, known as social processes.3 It was
developed in California, USA
grounded theory - Grounded theory is often used by the HR department. For instance, they might study why employees are frustrated by their work. Employees
can explain what they feel is lacking. HR then gathers this data, examines the results to discover the root cause of their problems and presents solutions.
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Its flexibility allows its uses to be virtually endless. But there are still advantages and disadvantages that make the grounded theory more or less appropriate for a
subject of study. Here are the advantages:

● Grounded theory isn’t concerned with whether or not something has been done before. Instead, grounded theory researchers are interested in what
participants say about their experiences. These researchers are looking for meaning
● The grounded theory method allows researchers to use inductive reasoning, ensuring that the researcher views the participant’s perspectives rather
than imposing their own ideas. This encourages objectivity and helps prevent preconceived notions from interfering with the process of data collection
and analysis
● It allows for constant comparison of data to concepts, which refines the theory as the research proceeds. This is in contrast with methods that look to
verify an existing hypothesis only
● Researchers may also choose to conduct experiments to provide support for their research hypotheses. Through an experiment, researchers can test
ideas rigorously and provide evidence to support hypotheses and theory development
● It produces a clearer theoretical model that is not overly abstract. It also allows the researcher to see the connections between cases and have a better
understanding of how each case fits in with others
● Researchers often produce more refined and detailed analyses of data than with other methods
● Because grounded theory emphasizes the interpretation of the data, it makes it easier for researchers to examine their own preconceived ideas about a
topic and critically analyze them.

As with any method, there are some drawbacks too that researchers should consider. Here are a few:
● It doesn’t promote consensus because there are always competing views about the same phenomenon
● It may seem like an overly theoretical approach that produces results that are too open-ended. Grounded theory isn’t concerned with whether
something is true/false or right/wrong
● Grounded theory requires a high level of skill and critical thinking from the researcher. They must have a level of objectivity in their approach, ask
unbiased, open-minded questions and conduct interviews without being influenced by personal views or agenda.
Example of grounded theory - Publication - Article

A Grounded Theory of Filipino Wellness (Kaginhawaan)
Psychological Studies, 61(4), 279-287 - October 2016
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s12646-016-0373-7
Authors
1. Maria Cristina F. Samaco-Zamora - Ateneo de Manila University; University of San Francisco; Golden Gate University
Corresponding Author
2. Karina Therese Galang Fernandez - Ateneo de Manila University
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to develop a theory to explain Filipino wellness (kaginhawaan). Open-ended and semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted among
18 Filipinos. Nine resided in the city and the rest lived in the rural areas. The participants were also representative of the low, middle, and high levels of family income prescribed
by the Philippine’s National Statistics Office. Glasser and Strauss’ (The discovery of grounded theory: strategies for qualitative research. Aldine Publishing Company, Chicago,
1967) grounded theory approach was used to guide the process of investigation. The findings suggest that Filipino wellness is a condition where an individual enjoys economic
freedom and security and psycho-emotional wellness within the context of the family.
historical – Historical research design involves synthesizing data from many different sources. Stan could interview former Nazis or read diaries from Nazi soldiers to
try to figure out what motivated them. He could look at public records and archives, examine Nazi propaganda, or look at testimony in the trials of Nazi officers. There
are several steps that someone like Stan has to go through to do historical research:
1. Formulate an idea: This is the first step of any research, to find the idea and figure out the research question. For Stan, this came from his mother, but it could come
from anywhere. Many researchers find that ideas and questions arise when they read other people's research.
2. Formulate a plan: This step involves figuring out where to find sources and how to approach them. Stan could make a list of all the places he could find information
(libraries, court archives, private collections) and then figure out where to start.
3. Gather data: This is when Stan will actually go to the library or courthouse or prison to read or interview or otherwise gather data. In this step, he's not making any
decisions or trying to answer his question directly; he's just trying to get everything he can that relates to the question.
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4. Analyze data: This step is when Stan goes through the data he just collected and tries more directly to answer his question. He'll look for patterns in the data. Perhaps
he reads in the diary of the daughter of a Nazi that her father didn't believe in the Nazi party beliefs but was scared to stand up for his values. Then he hears the same
thing from a Nazi soldier he interviews. A pattern is starting to emerge.
5. Analyze the sources of data: Another thing that Stan has to do when he is analyzing data is to also analyze the veracity of his data. The daughter's diary is a secondary
source, so it might not be as true as a primary source, like the diary of her father. Likewise, people have biases and motivations that might cloud their account of things;
perhaps the Nazi soldier Stan interviews is up for parole, and he thinks that if he says he was scared and not a true Nazi believer, he might get out of jail.
Once Stan has gone through all of these steps, he should have a good view of what he wants to know about his question. If he doesn't, then he goes back to step two
(formulating a plan) and starts again. He will keep doing steps two through five until he finds something that he can use.
Characteristics of historical research:
Historical research involves the careful study and analysis of data about past events.It is a critical investigation of events, their development, experiences of past.
¬ The purpose is to gain a clearer understanding of the impact of past on present and future events related to life process.
What are disadvantages of historical research?

Disadvantages associated with historical research include bias, inaccessibility and incompleteness. Because many of the papers or references that are used were
not originally intended to be researched, the information that is presented may be exaggerated in order to provide more interesting details about an account.
What is the main purpose of historical research?

The purpose of historical research is to gain a clear understanding of the impact of the past on the present & future events related to the life process. It involves
detailed analysis of what has been written or done & is used to describe, explain or interpret these events.
Sample of historical research: “Problems and Challenges in Business History Research with Special Reference to the History of Business Administration and Operation”
Case study - A case is usually a "description of an actual situation, commonly involving a decision, a challenge, an opportunity, a problem or an issue faced by
a person or persons in an organization."1 In learning with case studies, the student must deal with the situation described in the case, in the role of the manager
or decision maker facing the situation.
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An important point to be emphasized here is that a case is not a problem. A problem usually has a unique, correct solution. On the other hand, a decision-maker
faced with the situation described in a case can choose between several alternative courses of action, and each of these alternatives may plausibly be supported by
logical argument. To put it simply, there is no unique, correct answer in the case study method.
Case Study method
The case study analysis can be broken down into the following steps:
● Identify the most important facts surrounding the case.
● Identify the key issue or issues.
● Specify alternative courses of action.
● Evaluate each course of action.
● Recommend the best course of action.
Example: Knowing how the best businesses have succeeded can help you succeed, too.
Success is a choice. Or rather, a good choice can lead to great success. If you want to understand how this is possible, just look at some of the great business management
decisions of the last 20 years. From company name changes to product diversification, these smart choices have led to exceptional gains. Whether you’re a business
manager or thinking about earning a business degree (or both), the following case studies can add to your business knowledge and help you understand how successful
businesses got that way.
Apple’s Name Change
At first glance, Apple’s 2008 name change may not seem like a big deal. After all, the company simply went from Apple Computer to Apple. But the choice to drop
“Computer” from their name has helped Apple change its brand identity from a company that made desktops and laptops to a company that’s a pioneer in interactive
technology. Now, Apple is known for everything from the iPhone to its lucrative online music store, iTunes. The company’s business model has followed suit. From 2007
to 2013, computers went from 42% of Apple’s revenues to just 13%, even as overall profits grew. *
Action research in business - Action research, also known as participatory research, is learning by doing in the sense that a group of workers identify a problem,
develop a resolution, implement the solution and then analyze the final results.
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Example:
● Smart practices to increase motivation among employees.
● Women leadership.
● Managing conflict in a team.
● Networking between business and companies.
● Organizational crisis management.
● Social entrepreneurship.
● Causes of low employee retention rate.
Sources of research:
Your research resources can come from your experiences; print media, such as books, brochures, journals, magazines, newspapers, and books; and CD-ROMs and
other electronic sources, such as the Internet and the World Wide Web. They may also come from interviews and surveys you or someone else designs.
Sources of research problems:
A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in either a theoretical or practical situation and want to get a solution for the same. Past
researches and literature review.
● Casual observation. ...
● Related literature.
● Current social and economic issues .
● Personal interest and experience.

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Phases in a qualitative study
There are seven steps to help structure your next qualitative research effort. It is not necessary need to follow these steps linearly, or even include them all in your
research, but having these steps should both help structure your next project and help focus the discussion the next time you’re working with someone who proposes a
qualitative research approach.
1) Determine Research Questions: Focused questions are at the heart of actionable qualitative research.
2) Design the Study: Getting input from users instead of just internal discussions is an essential first step. With research questions defined, the “What” of the study has
been established. Now think Who, When, Where and How. There are logistical advantages and challenges to collecting the data you need. It’s a matter of trading them
off.
3) Collect Data: Qualitative is often used synonymously with small samples, but one can take a qualitative approach to larger sample sizes (more than 50 participants)
just as one can take a quantitative approach to small sample sizes (less than 10).
4) Analyze Data: Most qualitative research studies generate a lot of data. Creating a system for coding actions and notable quotes helps speed through the process of
turning utterances into actionable insights.
5) Generate Findings: This step involves synthesizing the copious amount of notes, videos and artifacts. As many of the responses from participants will be open-ended,
there will be a need to identify patterns.
6) Validate findings: One of the best ways to validate findings is to triangulate using other methods, including surveys or additional sources. Every researcher, of course,
does bring with her biases on the problems with a product or what deserves emphasis in the interview. One approach to minimize this researcher bias is to include a
section on the interviewer or principal investigator’s background and how it might influence their conclusions.
7) Report : We start with the most important findings, and then note the number of participants that supported these findings and some good quotes to support what we
concluded. We also provide confidence intervals around the issue and insight frequency so readers have some idea about the prevalence of an issue.
Example of Qualitative Study: A good example of a qualitative research method would be unstructured interviews which generate qualitative data through the use of
open questions. This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words. ... Photographs, videos, sound recordings and so on, can be considered
qualitative data.
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Example topic of Qualitative Research:
● Long-term planning methods for better project management.
● How to deal with issues during a project implementation program.
● The best practices for dealing with tight project deadlines.
● Why time management is essential for goal setting.
● The Lived experience of those investors in crypto currency.
What Are the Advantages of Qualitative Research?

1. It becomes possible to understand attitudes.
Consumer patterns can often change. When that happens suddenly, businesses can be left wondering what happened to them. The processes which are provided by
qualitative research provide for a potential understanding as to why an attitude may shift. This may even lead to a definitive explanation, which can allow the business to
adapt to the perspective shift. Because qualitative research helps us all understand attitudes better, it becomes easier to maintain consumer relationships.
2. It is a content generator.
Finding new ways to present old content can be very difficult, even to an experienced marketer. The qualitative research approach allows for genuine ideas to be
collected from specific socioeconomic demographics. These ideas are then turned into data that can be used to create valuable content which reflects the brand
messaging being offered. When this process is performed properly, everyone benefits from a refined and beneficial value proposition.
3. It saves money.
The qualitative research process uses a smaller sample size than other research methods. This is due to the fact that more information is collected from each participant.
Smaller sample sizes equate to lower research costs. Not only does this research process save money, but it can also produce faster results. If data is needed quickly for
an important decision, this is one of the best research options that is available today.
4. It can provide insights that are specific to an industry.

Relationships and engagement are the two most important factors for customer retention. Modern brands can use qualitative research to find new insights that can
further these two needed items so their communication to their core demographics is as accurate and authentic as possible. The insights a business can find may lead
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them to change their jargon, add value to the products/services being offered, or look for ways to fix a declining reputation. With qualitative research, the risks of
experiencing a negative reaction because of miscommunication are greatly reduced.
5. It allows creativity to be a driving force.

Research often wants facts instead of opinions. It wants observations instead of creativity. The qualitative research process goes in a different direction than traditional
research. This format eliminates the bias that tends to come through collected data as respondents attempt to answer questions in a way that please the researcher.
Respondents are encouraged to be themselves. Their creativity becomes a commodity. In return, the data that can be collected from the respondents tends to have more
accuracy to it.
6. It is a process that is always open-ended.

Many people have a trained, superficial response that is built from habit. “Hi. How are you?” someone might ask at the grocery store. “Fine. How are you?” Would be
the typical response. The qualitative research process allows researchers to get underneath these habits to mine the actual data that someone can provide. It accesses the
emotional data that drives decision-making responses. Because it is an open-ended process, there is no “right” or “wrong” answer, which makes data collection much
easier.
7. It incorporates the human experience.

Facts are important. Statistics can identity trends. Yet, the human experience cannot be ignored. The human experience causes two different people to see the same
event in two different ways. By using qualitative research, it becomes possible to incorporate the complexity of this type of data into the conclusions that come from the
collected research. Every perspective becomes important. That leads to conclusions that have more accuracy, so everyone gets to benefit from the process at the end of
the day.
8. It has flexibility.
There isn’t a rigid structure to the qualitative research process. It seeks authentic data and emotional responses instead. Because of this flexibility, trained researchers
are permitted to follow-up on any answer they wish to generate more depth and complexity to the data being collected. Unlike research formats that allow for zero
deviation, the qualitative research can follow any thought tangent and mine data from the answers provided.
9. It offers predictive qualities.

People who have similar perspectives will have similar thought patterns. They may even purchase similar products. The data which is gathered through qualitative
research is perspective-based, which is why it has a predictive quality to it. The trademarks of what make that person unique can be collected and used to identify people
with similar preferences or thinking patterns, making it possible for brands to develop messaging, products, and services that have greater value.
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10. It allows for human instinct to play a role.
Ever have a “gut feeling” that you should do something? Did you listen to that instinct? Did you see a positive result from it? Many people have, but many research
methods discount human instinct in the data collection process. The qualitative research process allows for human instinct to play a role. The subconscious mind offers
many secrets that we may not scientifically understand, but we can collect the data it produces. That data often has a higher level of accuracy and authenticity than any
other form of data offered.
11. It can be based on available data, incoming data, or other data formats.
The qualitative research method does not require a specific pattern or format for data collection. Information reporting is based on the quality and quantity of
information that is collected. If researchers feel like they are not generating useful results from their efforts, they can change their processes immediately. There are
more opportunities to gather new data when using this approach.
12. It allows for detail-orientated data to be collected.

Numerous restrictions are part of the data-collection process in most research methods. This is done to help create measureable outcomes in a short time period. Instead
of focusing on a specific metric, qualitative research focuses on data subtlety. It wants as many details as possible, whether those details fit into a specific framework or
not. It is within those details that genuine insights tend to be found.
What Are the Disadvantages of Qualitative Research?

1. It is not a statistically representative form of data collection.
The qualitative research process does not provide statistical representation. It will only provide research data from perspectives only. Responses with this form of
research cannot usually be measured. Only comparisons are possible, and that tends to create data duplication over time. If statistical data is required, qualitative
research is not the form of research that should be used.
2. It relies upon the experience of the researcher.

The data collected through qualitative research is dependent upon the experience of the researchers involved in the process. Industry-specific data must be collected by a
researcher that is familiar with the industry. Researchers must also have good interviewing skills, have the courage to ask follow-up questions, and be able to form
professional bonds with participants to ensure the accuracy of the data.
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3. It can lose data.
Data must be recognized by the researchers in qualitative research for it to be collected. That means there is a level of trust present in the data collection process that
other forms of research do not require. Researchers that are unable to see necessary data when they observe it will lose it, which lessens the accuracy of the results from
the qualitative research efforts. That could even lead some research efforts toward false conclusions.
4. It may require multiple sessions.

The qualitative research may be effective in collecting authentic data, but the small sample size of the research can be problematic. To make an important decision,
numerous perspectives are often required to avoid making a costly mistake. That might mean multiple research periods may be required to gather all of the data that is
needed to make such a difficult decision. Should that be the case, a larger follow-up sample may create more costs instead of fewer when a fork in the road is reached.
5. It can be difficult to replicate results.

Because qualitative research is based on individual perspectives, it is almost impossible to duplicate the results that are found. Even the same person may have a
different perspective tomorrow than they had today. That means the data collected through qualitative research can be difficult to verify, which can lead some to
question the conclusions that researchers generate through this process.
6. It can create misleading conclusions.

Although like-minded people tend to think, feel, and act in similar ways, this is not always the case. 80% of Caucasian evangelical Christians may have voted for Donald
Trump in the U.S. Presidential election in 2016, but that means 20% did not. A small qualitative research sample that only includes people in the 80% would completely
ignore the perspectives of those in the other 20%. There is no absolute way to know if the conclusions generated through qualitative research can apply to an entire
demographic.
7. It can be influenced by researcher bias.

The term “fake news” has been used quite often since the beginning of 2017. The term is used to describe a certain bias that seems to be present in media reporting, even
though the reporting is said to be unbiased. In qualitative research, the bias of the researcher, whether conscious or subconscious, can affect the data. The conclusions
researched can even be influenced by this bias. Controls must be part of the data collection process to prevent researcher bias from influencing results.
8. It may not be accepted.

Even though there is a certain authenticity to qualitative research, there is also a certain subjectivity to it. Because of this nature, the data collected may not be accepted.
If similar qualitative research efforts cannot produce similar results, the data originally collected might even be rejected.
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9. It creates data that is difficult to present.
Because individuals have different perspectives, the reaction to qualitative research findings can often be at two extremes. There will be those who support the findings
and there will be people who do not support the findings. The data being collected will be viewed as valuable by both groups, but how each group chooses to act is based
on their own perspective. That means two very different outcomes can be achieved, making the data difficult to present to generalized audiences.
10. It creates data with questionable value.

Even researchers may disagree about the value of data being collected because of their different perspectives. What is included during the qualitative research process
or what is excluded relies upon the researcher involved. That is why this data collection process is highly subjective. Detailed data is always possible, but only if the
researcher can set aside their bias and perspective to present the data collected in raw form.
11. It can be time consuming.

Because researchers follow numerous tangents when collecting data, it takes more time to gather it. Sorting through all of that extra data takes time as well. Every data
point is evaluated subjectively, so the worth of it is always in question. Other research formats have rigid guidelines and expectations for collected data that allow for it
to be evaluated and used with greater speed than what is collected through qualitative research.
12. It has no rigidity.

The qualitative research method is based on individual perspectives. Since those perspectives can change, the data gathered is only reliable at the time it is gathered.
Human memory tends to prefer remembering good things. We keep close access to fond memories and put bad memories into the back corner of the mind. There is an
instinctual desire to seek out the good in what has happened to each of us. Because of this trait, it can be hard for researchers to draw conclusions from the data that can
apply over a long-term perspective.
13. It lessens the value of data mining.

Data mining can provide valuable insights to an entire demographic of customers. In qualitative research, data mining is useful for the one person who is providing
information in the first place. Imagine that you’re on a friend’s computer for the first time. Cookies and search storage have created advertising for Coca-Cola on
almost every site you visit. You prefer Pepsi. Will you be swayed by the advertising? Probably not, even if you and your friend both prefer cola over other soft drink
options.
Purpose of mixed methods
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Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques utilized in the collection of data or evidence for analysis in order to uncover new information or
create better understanding of a topic. There are different types of research methods which use different tools for data collection.
What is mixed method? A mixed methods research design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and “mixing” both quantitative and qualitative research and methods
in a single study to understand a research problem.
Basic rules for ethical research
1. Relations With and Responsibilities Towards Research Participants
The close and often lengthy association of anthropologists with the people among whom they carry out research entails personal and moral relationships, trust and
reciprocity between the researcher and research participants; it also entails a recognition of power differentials between them.
(1) Protecting research participants and honoring trust: Anthropologists should endeavor to protect the physical, social and psychological well-being of those whom they
study and to respect their rights, interests, sensitivities and privacy:
(a) Most anthropologists would maintain that their paramount obligation is to their research participants and that when there is conflict, the interests and rights of those
studied should come first;
(b) Under some research conditions, particularly those involving contract research, it may not be possible to fully guarantee research participants' interests. In such
cases anthropologists would be well-advised to consider in advance whether they should pursue that particular piece of research.
(2) Anticipating harms: Anthropologists should be sensitive to the possible consequences of their work and should endeavor to guard against predictably harmful effects.
Consent from subjects does not absolve anthropologists from their obligation to protect research participants as far as possible against the potentially harmful effects of
research:
(a) The researcher should try to minimize disturbances both to subjects themselves and to the subjects' relationships with their environment. Even though research
participants may be immediately protected by the device of anonymity, the researcher should try to anticipate the long-term effects on individuals or groups as a result
of the research;
(b) Anthropologists may sometimes be better placed than (at the least, some of) their informants to anticipate the possible repercussions of their research both for the
immediate participants and for other members of the research population or the wider society. In certain political contexts, some groups, for example, religious or ethnic
minorities, may be particularly vulnerable and it may be necessary to withhold data from publication or even to refrain from studying them at all.
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(3) Avoiding undue intrusion: Anthropologists should be aware of the intrusive potential of some of their enquiries and methods:
(a) Like other social researchers, they have no special entitlement to study all phenomena; and the advancement of knowledge and the pursuit of information are not in
themselves sufficient justifications for overriding the values and ignoring the interests of those studied;
(b) They should be aware that for research participants becoming the subject of anthropological description and interpretations can be a welcome experience, but it can
also be a disturbing one. In many of the social scientific enquiries that have caused controversy this has not arisen because participants have suffered directly or
indirectly any actual harm. Rather, the concern has resulted from participants' feelings of having suffered an intrusion into private and personal domains, or of having
been wronged, (for example, by having been caused to acquire self-knowledge which they did not seek or want).
(4) Negotiating informed consent: Following the precedent set by the Nuremberg Trials and the constitutional laws of many countries, inquiries involving human
subjects should be based on the freely given informed consent of subjects. The principle of informed consent expresses the belief in the need for truthful and respectful
exchanges between social researchers and the people whom they study.
(a) Negotiating consent entails communicating information likely to be material to a person's willingness to participate, such as: - the purpose(s) of the study, and the
anticipated consequences of the research; the identity of funders and sponsors; the anticipated uses of the data; possible benefits of the study and possible harm or
discomfort that might affect participants; issues relating to data storage and security; and the degree of anonymity and confidentiality which may be afforded to
informants and subjects.
(b) Conditions which constitute an absence of consent: consent made after the research is completed is not meaningful consent at all. Further, the persons studied must
have the legal capacity to give consent. Where subjects are legally compelled (e.g., by their employer or government) to participate in a piece of research, consent cannot
be said to have been meaningfully given by subjects, and anthropologists are advised not to pursue that piece of work.
(c) Consent in research is a process, not a one-off event, and may require renegotiation over time; it is an issue to which the anthropologist should return periodically.
(d) When technical data-gathering devices such as audio/visual-recorders and photographic records are being used those studied should be made aware of the capacities
of such devices and be free to reject their use.
(e) When information is being collected from proxies, care should be taken not to infringe the 'private space' of the subject or the relationship between subject and
proxy; and if there are indications that the person concerned would object to certain information being disclosed, such information should not be sought by proxy;
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(f) The long period over which anthropologists make use of their data and the possibility that unforeseen uses or theoretical interests may arise in the future may need to
be conveyed to participants, as should any likelihood that the data may be shared (in some form) with other colleagues or be made available to sponsors, funders or
other interested parties, or deposited in archives.
(5) Rights to confidentiality and anonymity: informants and other research participants should have the right to remain anonymous and to have their rights to privacy
and confidentiality respected. However, privacy and confidentiality present anthropologists with particularly difficult problems given the cultural and legal variations
between societies and the various ways in which the real interests or research role of the ethnographer may not fully be realized by some or all of participants or may
even become & quote ; invisible & quote; over time:
(a) Care should be taken not to infringe uninvited upon the 'private space' (as locally defined) of an individual or group;
(b) As far as is possible researchers should anticipate potential threats to confidentiality and anonymity. They should consider whether it is necessary to even a matter of
propriety to record certain information at all; should take appropriate measures relating to the storage and security of records during and after fieldwork; and should
use where appropriate such means as the removal of identifiers, the use of pseudonyms and other technical solutions to the problems of privacy in field records and in
oral and written forms of data dissemination (whether or not this is enjoined by law or administrative regulation);
(c) Researchers should endeavor to anticipate problems likely to compromise anonymity; but they should make clear to participants that it may not be possible in field
notes and other records or publications totally to conceal identities, and that the anonymity afforded or promised to individuals, families or other groups may also be
unintentionally compromised. A particular configuration of attributes can frequently identify an individual beyond reasonable doubt; and it is particularly difficult to
disguise, say, office-holders, organizations, public agencies, ethnic groups, religious denominations or other collectivities without so distorting the data as to compromise
scholarly accuracy and integrity;
(d) If guarantees of privacy and confidentiality are made, they must be honoured unless they are clear and over-riding ethical reasons not to do so. Confidential
information must be treated as such by the anthropologist even when it enjoys no legal protection or privilege, and other people who have access to the data should be
made aware of their obligations likewise; but participants should be made aware that it is rarely, if at all, legally possible to ensure total confidentiality or to protect the
privacy of records;
(e) Anthropologists should similarly respect the measures taken by other researchers to maintain the anonymity of their research field and participants.
(6) Fair return for assistance: There should be no economic exploitation of individual informants, translators and research participants; fair return should be made for
their help and services.
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(7) Participants' intellectual property rights: It should be recognised that research participants have contractual and/or legal, interests and rights in data, recordings
and publications, although rights will vary according to agreements and legal jurisdiction.
(a) It is the obligation of the interviewer to inform the interviewee of their rights under any copyright or data protection laws of the country where research takes place,
and the interviewer must indicate beforehand any uses to which the interview is likely to be put (e.g., research, educational use, publication, broadcasting etc).
(b) Under the UK Copyright Act (1988), researchers making audio or video recordings must obtain 'copyright clearance' from interviewees if recordings are to be
publicly broadcast or deposited in public archives. Any restrictions on use (e.g., time period) or other conditions (e.g., preservation of anonymity) which the interviewee
requires should be recorded in writing. This is best done at the time of the interview, using a standard form. Retrospective clearance is often time-consuming or
impossible where the interviewee is deceased or has moved away.
(c) Interviewers should clarify before interviewing the extent to which subjects are allowed to see transcripts of interviews and fieldnotes and to alter the content,
withdraw statements, to provide additional information or to add glosses on interpretations.
(d) Clarification must also be given to subjects regarding the degree to which they will be consulted prior to publication.
(8) Participants' involvement in research: As far as is possible anthropologists should try and involve the people being studied in the planning and execution of research
projects, and they should recognise that their obligations to the participants or the host community may not end (indeed should not end, many would argue) with the
completion of their fieldwork or research project.
II. Relations With and Responsibilities Towards Sponsors, Funders and Employers
Anthropologists should attempt to ensure that sponsors, funders and employers appreciate the obligations that they have not only to them, but also to research
participants, and to professional colleagues.
(1) Clarifying roles, rights and obligations: Anthropologists should clarify in advance the respective roles, rights and obligations of sponsor, funder, employer and
researcher:
(a) They should be careful not to promise or imply acceptance of conditions which would be contrary to professional ethics or competing commitments. Where conflicts
seem likely, they should refer sponsors or other interested parties to the relevant portions of the professional guidelines;
(b) Anthropologists who work in non-academic settings should be particularly aware of likely constraints on research and publication and of the potentiality for conflict
between the aims of the employer, funder or sponsor and the interests of the people studied;
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(c) Where some or all of the research participants are also acting as sponsors and/or funders of the research the potential for conflict between their different roles and
interests should be made clear to them.
(2) Obligations to sponsors, funders and employers: Anthropologists should recognize their general and specific obligations to sponsors, funders and employers whether
these are contractually defined or are only the subject of informal, and often unwritten, agreements. In particular:
(a) They should be honest about their qualifications and expertise, the limitations, advantages and disadvantages of their methods and data, and they should
acknowledge the necessity for discretion with confidential information provided by sponsors and employers;
(b) They should not conceal personal or other factors which might affect the satisfactory conduct or completion of the proposed research project or contract.
(3) Negotiating 'research space': Anthropologists should be careful to clarify, preferably in advance of signing contracts or starting their research, matters relating to
their professional domain and to control over the research project and its products:
(a) They are entitled to full disclosure of the sources of funds, personnel, aims of the institution, the purpose(s) of the research project and the disposition of research
results;
(b) They are entitled to expect from a sponsor, funder or employer a respect for their professional expertise and for the integrity of the data, whether or not these
obligations are incorporated in formal contracts. Even when contractual obligations may necessitate the guarding of privileged information, the methods and procedures
that have been utilised to produce the published data should not be kept confidential;
(c) They should pay particular attention to matters such as: - their ability to protect the rights and interests of research participants; their ability to make all ethical
decisions in their research; and their (and other parties') rights in data collected, in publications, copyright and royalties.
(4) Relations with gatekeepers: Where access to subjects is controlled by a national or local 'gatekeeper', researchers should not devolve their responsibilities onto the
gatekeeper. Whilst respecting gatekeepers' legitimate interests, researchers should adhere to the principle of obtaining informed consent directly from subjects once
access has been gained. They should be wary of inadvertently disturbing the relationship between subjects and gatekeepers since that will continue long after the
researcher has left the field.
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III. Relations With, and Responsibilities Towards, Colleagues and the Discipline
Anthropologists derive their status and certain privileges of access to research participants and to data not only by virtue of their personal standing but also by virtue of
their professional citizenship. In acknowledging membership of a wider anthropological community anthropologists owe various obligations to that community and can
expect consideration from it.
(1) Individual responsibility: Anthropologists bear responsibility or the good reputation of the discipline and its practitioners. In considering their methods, procedures,
content and reporting of their enquiries, behavior in the field and relations with research participants and field assistants they should therefore try to ensure that their
activities will not jeopardize future research.
(2) Conflicts of interest and consideration for colleagues: That there may be conflicts of interest (professional and political) between the anthropologists, particularly
between visiting the local researchers and especially when cross-national research is involved, should be recognized:
(a) Consideration for and consultation with anthropologists who have worked or are working in the proposed research setting is advisable and is also a professional
courtesy. In particular the vulnerability of long-term research projects to intrusion should be recognized;
(b) In cross-national research, consideration should be given to the interests of local scholars and researchers, to the problems that may result from matters such as the
disparities in resources available to visiting researcher, and to problems of equity in collaboration. As far as is possible and practicable, visiting anthropologists should
try and involve local anthropologists and scholars in their research activities but should be alert to the potential for harm that such collaboration might entail in some
contexts.
(3) Sharing research materials: Anthropologists should give consideration to ways in which research data and findings can be shared with colleagues and with research
participants:
(a) Research findings, publications and, where feasible, data should be made available in the country where the research took place. If necessary, it should be translated
into the national or local language. Researchers should be alert, though, to the harm to research participants, collaborators and local colleagues that might arise from
total or even partial disclosure of raw or processed data or from revelations of their involvement in the research project;
(b) Where the sharing with colleagues of raw, or even processed, data or their (voluntary or obligatory) deposition in data archives or libraries is envisaged, care should
be taken not to breach privacy and guarantees of confidentiality and anonymity, and appropriate safeguards should be devised.
(4) Collaborative and team research: In some cases anthropologists will need to collaborate with researchers in other disciplines, as well as with research and field
assistants, clerical staff, students etcetera. In such cases they should make clear their own ethical and professional obligations and similarly take account of the ethical
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principles of their collaborators. Care should be taken to clarify roles, rights and obligations of team members in relation to matters such as the division of labour,
responsibilities, access to and rights in data and fieldnotes, publication, co-authorship, professional liability, etcetera.
(5) Responsibilities towards research students and field assistants: Academic supervisors and project directors should ensure that students and assistants are aware of
the ethical guidelines and should discuss with them potential (as well as actual) problems which may arise during fieldwork or writing-up.
IV. Relations With Own and Host Governments
Anthropologists should be honest and candid in their relations with their own and host governments.
(1) Conditions of access: Researchers should seek assurance that they will not be required to compromise their professional and scholarly responsibilities as a condition
of being granted research access.
(2) Cross-national research: Research conducted outside one's own country raises special ethical and political issues, relating to personal and national disparities in
wealth, power, the legal status of the researcher, political interest and national political systems:
(a) Anthropologists should bear in mind the differences between the civil and legal, and often the financial, position of national and foreign researchers and scholars;
(b) They should be aware that irresponsible actions by a researcher or research team may jeopardise access to a research setting or even to a whole country for other
researchers, both anthropologists and non-anthropologists.
(3) Open research: Anthropologists owe a responsibility to their colleagues around the world and to the discipline as a whole not to use their anthropological role as a
cover for clandestine research or activities.
(4) Legal and administrative constraints: Anthropologists should note that there may be a number of national laws or administrative regulations which may affect the
conduct of their research, matters pertaining to data dissemination and storage, publication, rights of research subjects, of sponsors and employers, etcetera. They
should also remember that, save in a very few exceptional circumstances, social research data are not privileged under law and may be subject to legal subpoena. Such
laws vary by jurisdiction. Some which may have consequences for research and publication in the U.K. are, for example, the Data Protection Act, law of confidence,
Race Relations Act, defamation laws, copyright law, law of contract, and the Official Secrets Act; in the U.S.A. particularly important are the federal regulations
governing human subjects' research, the Privacy Act, the Freedom of Information Act and the Copyright Act.
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V. Responsibilities to the Wider Society
Anthropologists also have responsibilities towards other members of the public and wider society. They depend upon the confidence of the public and they should in
their work attempt to promote and preserve such confidence without exaggerating the accuracy or explanatory power of their findings.
(1) Widening the scope of social research: Anthropologists should use the possibilities open to them to extend the scope of social inquiry, and to communicate their
findings, for the benefit of the widest possible community. Anthropologists are most likely to avoid restrictions being placed on their work when they are able to stipulate
in advance the issues over which they should maintain control; the greatest problems seem to emerge when such issues remain unresolved until the data are collected or
the findings emerge.
(2) Considering conflicting interests: Social inquiry is predicated on the belief that greater access to well-founded information will serve rather than threaten the
interests of society:
(a) Nonetheless, in planning all phases of an inquiry, from design to presentation of findings, anthropologists should also consider the likely consequences for the wider
society, groups within it, and possible future research, as well as for members of the research population not directly involved in the study and the immediate research
participants;
(b) That information can be misconstrued or misused is not in itself a convincing argument against its collection and dissemination. All information is subject to misuse;
and no information is devoid of possible harm to one interest or another. Individuals may be harmed by their participation in social inquiries, or group interests may be
harmed by certain findings. Researchers are usually not in a position to prevent action based on their findings; but they should, however, attempt to pre-empt likely
misinterpretations and to counteract them when they occur.
(3) Maintaining professional and scholarly integrity: Research can never be entirely objective - the selection of topics may reflect a bias in favour of certain cultural or
personal values; the employment base of the researcher, the source of funding a various other factors may impose certain priorities, obligations and prohibitions - but
anthropologists should strive for objectivity and be open about known barriers to its achievement:
(a) Anthropologists should not engage or collude in selecting methods designed to produce misleading results, or in misrepresenting findings by commission or omission;
(b) When it is likely that research findings will bear upon public policy and opinion anthropologists should be careful to state the significant limitations on their findings
and interpretations.
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Epilogue
The reputation of anthropological research will inevitably depend less on what professional bodies assert about their ethical norms than on the conduct of individual
researchers. These guidelines are aimed at helping anthropologists to reach an equitable and satisfactory resolution of their dilemmas. This statement of ideals does not
impose a rigid set of rules backed by institutional sanctions, given the variations in both individuals' moral precepts and the conditions under which they work.
Guidelines cannot resolve difficulties in a vacuum nor allocate greater priority to one of the principles than another. Instead, they are aimed at educating
anthropologists, sensitizing them to the potential sources of ethical conflict and dilemmas that may arise in research, scholarship and professional practice, at being
informative and descriptive rather than authoritarian or prescriptive. They aim to ensure that where a departure from the principles is contemplated or where the
privileging of one group or interested party or parties is deemed situationally or legally necessary, the researcher's decisions should be based on foresight and informed
deliberation.
The Ethical Guidelines for Good Research Practice were adopted by the Association at its Annual Business Meeting in March 1999.
Ethical consideration:
Ethical consideration is a collection of principles and values that should be followed while doing human affairs. The ethical considerations make sure that no-one acts in
such a way that is harmful to society or an individual. It refrains people and organizations from indulging in vicious conduct.
Ethical considerations play an essential role, especially in research.
Your whole efforts of research may get wasted if you miss following any of the ethical considerations. The following are the ethical issues that must be considered while
performing the research study.
1. The validity of the research
The first and most basic ethical issue that may arise in research is the invalidity of research questions. Research is conducted to answer a particular research question.
The research conclusion must match with the research question asked in the beginning.
The failure to match research questions with the research conclusion will be considered a violation of ethical consideration.
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2. The research method used for the research
The research method is an essential part of every study. Many research methods can be used to conduct research. The most appropriate research method is selected to
conduct the study. Choosing the right research method becomes essential when it comes to ethical considerations.
The following are the points that must be kept in mind when it comes to selecting a research method for research purposes.
1. The method should completely fit with the purpose of the research.
2. The method should not have risks associated with the particular research method used. All the risks related to the research method should be declared
before using it for research purposes.
III. The strengths and limitations of the research method should be evaluated before using it for research purposes.
3. Consent of participants
Most of the researches includes participants. To abide by the ethical considerations, the researcher needs to inform the participants about all the activities taking part in
the research and make informed consent from them before starting research work. The information that participants are entitled to be aware of is as following:
● Purpose of the research project

● The expected outcome of the search
● The adverse effect of the research on the participants
● Who is funding the research project and how that funding will be used.
The reason for taking informed consent from the participants is that they will be aware of what they are getting themselves into. If they are aware of the research
purpose, they can decide whether they want to participate in the research.
In addition to this, participants are also entitled to ask for additional information if they have any doubts or become anxious in the middle of the research. Once you
clear all the participants’ doubts, you can ask them to sign a consent form.
The form will act as a sign of trust between the researcher and the participants.
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4. Confidentiality
One of the most important ethical considerations is the confidentiality of the information provided by the participant. The meaning of privacy is that any information
related to participants or provided by the participants can’t be made available or accessed by anyone other than the researcher under no circumstances.
The information is only used only to protect the participants from the outside threat.
Moreover, confidentiality also ensures that participants’ identifying information is not mentioned in the research reports or any other published documents. The
participants are always referred to as anonymous in the research reports.
In addition to this, the research is required to keep in mind that the information or output about the participants is mentioned in such a way so that no one can identify
it.
5. The risk to the participant
Previously, we learned that the participants should be informed about the study’s nature and risks associated with it. However, if the risk is high for the participant than
the benefit they gain from it, then in such a case, the study should be abandoned.
The risk can be either physical or psychological. The study should be suspended in case the participants are getting stressed, anxious, or in pain.
6. The anonymity of the participants
Keeping the anonymity of the participant is very crucial in the study process. The participants should also not be known to the research team. The research team should
never be aware of the participants’ names and should refer to the participants by the “subject number” name.
Participants’ anonymity is very difficult to follow as most of the participants are known to the researchers, and it is human nature to interact with one another when
they work together.
7. A sampling of the participants
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Sampling is one of the initial tasks that a researcher must perform before starting the research work. The researcher is needed to explain why he selected a specific
group of participants for the study purpose and why he has not included certain people.
All of this information should be clear and should be provided to the funders and participants if they have any objections about your sampling style.
8. Accessibility to only relevant information
When participants sign on the consent form, they give consent to provide only relevant information for the research purpose. That means the researchers can’t use them
as guinea pigs to gather information about any topic that interests them.
Legally, a researcher can’t ask any questions other than the questions related to the research purpose. The participants have the right to walk out of the research if they
feel any violation of the accessibility of information.
Therefore, it is always suggested that the researchers use as simple as possible research methods and explain everything in detail to the participants to avoid
repercussions related to the violation of ethical considerations.
9. Integrity and transparency
Another ethical issue that might arise in research is the issue of honesty and transparency. A researcher needs to make sure that they maintain integrity and
transparency in front of the ethical committee.
A researcher is expected to share all the potential conflicts of interest that might affect their research work.
Conclusion: Ethical considerations are the principles that must be followed in conducting any type of research. Ethical considerations make sure that no human rights
are violated, and research being conducted has no hidden agenda.
Phases of the research (conceptual phase, empirical phase, interpretative phase)
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Conceptual Phase. The conceptual phase is the initial phase of research and involves the intellectual process of developing a research idea into a realistic and
appropriate research design.
Step 1: Choose your topic

First you have to come up with some ideas. Your thesis or dissertation topic can start out very broad. Think about the general area or field you’re interested in—maybe
you already have specific research interests based on classes you’ve taken, or maybe you had to consider your topic when applying to graduate school and writing a
statement of purpose.
Even if you already have a good sense of your topic, you’ll need to read widely to build background knowledge and begin narrowing down your ideas. Conduct an
initial literature review to begin gathering relevant sources. As you read, take notes and try to identify problems, questions, debates, contradictions and gaps. Your aim
is to narrow down from a broad area of interest to a specific niche.
Make sure to consider the practicalities: the requirements of your programme, the amount of time you have to complete the research, and how difficult it will be to
access sources and data on the topic. Before moving onto the next stage, it’s a good idea to discuss the topic with your thesis supervisor.
Step 2: Identify a problem

So you’ve settled on a topic and found a niche—but what exactly will your research investigate, and why does it matter? To give your project focus and purpose, you
have to define a research problem.
The problem might be a practical issue—for example, a process or practice that isn’t working well, an area of concern in an organization’s performance, or a difficulty
faced by a specific group of people in society.
Alternatively, you might choose to investigate a theoretical problem—for example, an underexplored phenomenon or relationship, a contradiction between different
models or theories, or an unresolved debate among scholars.
To put the problem in context and set your objectives, you can write a problem statement. This describes who the problem affects, why research is needed, and how your
research project will contribute to solving it.
Step 3: Formulate research questions

Next, based on the problem statement, you need to write one or more research questions. These target exactly what you want to find out. They might focus on describing,
comparing, evaluating, or explaining the research problem.
A strong research question should be specific enough that you can answer it thoroughly using appropriate qualitative or quantitative research methods. It should also be
complex enough to require in-depth investigation, analysis, and argument. Questions that can be answered with “yes/no” or with easily available facts are not complex
enough for a thesis or dissertation.
In some types of research, at this stage you might also have to develop a conceptual framework and testable hypotheses.
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Step 4: Create a research design
The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you’ll
use to collect and analyze it, and the location and timescale of your research.
There are often many possible paths you can take to answering your questions. The decisions you make will partly be based on your priorities. For example, do you want
to determine causes and effects, draw generalizable conclusions, or understand the details of a specific context?
You need to decide whether you will use primary or secondary data and qualitative or quantitative methods. You also need to determine the specific tools, procedures,
and materials you’ll use to collect and analyze your data, as well as your criteria for selecting participants or sources.
>>Read more about creating a research design
Step 5: Write a research proposal

Finally, after completing these steps, you are ready to complete a research proposal. The proposal outlines the context, relevance, purpose, and plan of your research.
As well as outlining the background, problem statement, and research questions, the proposal should also include a literature review that shows how your project will fit
into existing work on the topic. The research design section describes your approach and explains exactly what you will do.
You might have to get the proposal approved by your supervisor before you get started, and it will guide the process of writing your thesis or dissertation.
Empirical phase
The Empirical Phase. The next phase of the research process is the empirical phase. This involves the collection of data and the preparation of data for
analysis.
The Empirical Phase is based on the researcher's direct observation and measurement of phenomena which involves the collection of data and the preparation of data
for analysis. It is the most time-consuming aspect of the research because it allows the researchers to conduct their own research studies that is back up with their own
actual experiments and data gathering.
The result of empirical phase is production of data in two main forms:
● Qualitative form and Quantitative form in analogue or in digital form.
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Steps of Empirical Phase
1. Collecting the Data
- where and when data will be collected.
- what, who, where, when and how.
- describes participants
2. Preparing the Data for Analysis
Preliminary Activities
● Examine questionnaire to determine if they are usable.

● Assign identification no. to the responses or observations of different subjects.
● Coding of data / Translation of data in numeric forms.
● Written document to compute files.
● Transferring the data from written docs into computer files for subsequent analysis.
Important points to Remember!
Researchers must:
● Maintain confidentiality.
● Should be serious in keeping their appointment.
● Participants should be informed time and place their pressure are required.
● Enough materials are available to complete the study.
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Important Dimension
1. Structure
● Structured Method
- Limited opportunities to explain.
- Includes fixed set of question to be answered.
● Unstructured Method
- No formal instrument
- “Essay type”
- Very hard to analyze.
2. Quantifiability
- Subjective to analysis must be gathered in such a way that data can be quantified.
3. Researcher’s Obtrusiveness
- Obviousness of the researcher.
4. Objectivity
- No feelings.
- Evident when 2 independent researchers arrive at similar observations.
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- Checklist.
The Empirical Research Cycle is a five-phase cycle that describes how to perform empirical research in a systematic way. It was created in the 1940s by A.D. de
Groot, a Dutch psychologist, and it aligns five main phases that can be interpreted as deductive approaches to scientific study. This cycle clearly describes the
various stages involved in developing research hypotheses and systematically testing these hypotheses utilizing empirical evidence.
· Observation
This is the procedure for collecting empirical data of the study. The researcher collects relevant empirical data using qualitative or quantitative observation
methods at this point, which is then used to inform the research hypotheses.
· Induction
The researcher employs inductive reasoning at this point to arrive at a general research conclusion based on his or her observations. The researcher develops a
general hypothesis that seeks to explain the empirical data, and then observes the empirical data in accordance with this hypothesis.
· Deduction
This is the stage of deductive reasoning. This is where the researcher creates theories based on his or her observations using logic and reason.
· Testing
The researcher puts the hypotheses to test using qualitative or quantitative research methods. In the testing stage, the researcher combines relevant instruments
of systematic inquiry with empirical methods in order to arrive at objective findings that support or contradict the study hypotheses.
· Evaluation
The evaluation research is the last stage of an empirical research project. The empirical evidence, research conclusions, and supporting points, as well as any
obstacles faced during the research process, are all outlined here.
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Interpretative phase
The interpretive interactionist, in the phase of construction, endeavors to gather together the lived experiences that relate to and define the phenomenon
under inspection. The goal is to find the same recurring forms of conduct, experience, and meaning in all of them.
Research topics (Business)
Influence of banking sector on economic growth
The main aim to choose this topic for thesis is to study and examine the influence of the development of banking sector on country’s economy. Banks are the main body
for deposit, withdrawal, investment, etc in the country. The students who have chosen accounting or banking as their field of specialization may select this topic for
thesis.
Main factors that affect employee retention in call centers
Students with their interest in Human Resource Management can select this topic for thesis. This topic examines essential factors that directly or indirectly affects
employee turnover at call centers. Employee retention is the prior concern of all the organizations. This thesis topic addresses the tips for retaining the employees.
Impact of TQM on service industry
In this competitive era, quality is the main bridge between the company and consumers. Service industry can be severely affected by TQM. Students selecting
management as their field of specialization can choose this thesis topic.
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Relationship of financial incentives to worker morale
Monetary gains are one of the main motives of workers. Higher the financial incentives, higher will be the motivation and thus, worker morale will be greater. Students
with the interest in HRM, can choose this inspirational topic.
Influence of advertising on consumer behavior
Advertising and promotion are the initial stages in the business development. Choosing this topic for thesis, can be a source of inspiration for the students of marketing.
Modern advertising is very much different from the traditional methods of advertising. Technology took over the place of newspaper and other old fashioned mediums.
Meanwhile, the choices of people vary in accordance with the change in environment. The dissertation topic is related to the marketing domain. The dimensions of the
advertising are as follows.
What are the contents of a research proposal?

Contents of a research proposal
The presentation of a research proposal follows a logical sequence according to the following steps:
1. introduction to the research topic, formulation of the problem, and justification for its selection;
2. development of the causal model;

3. formulation of the hypothesis;
4. definition of all variables and their indicators;
5. selection of the study design;
6. description of the population to be studied;
7. description of the sampling procedure;
8. selection of measurement methods and statistical methods;
9. development of the operational plan, including time schedule, human resources, equipment, material, and budget.
10. Identification of a research gap.
Each of the following sections describes a component of a research proposal.
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What is a Research Gap? A research gap is a question or a problem that has not been answered by any of the existing studies or research within your field. Sometimes, a
research gap exists when there is a concept or new idea that hasn't been studied at all.
Sources of research understanding

Scholarly Journals report on research in a particular discipline. The articles may be peer-reviewed by other scholars to verify accuracy and validity.
Examples: Journal of Educational Psychology, Nature, Journal of Roman Studies
Trade Journals provide information of use to a field/industry, and are usually not research-based. The articles are not peer-reviewed. Contents include tips and
tools for practitioners and innovations in a field. Example: Instructor, Live Design
Popular Journals/Magazines usually focus on current topics for a general reader and are not research-based. Examples: Time, The New Yorker, Popular
Mechanics
News Sources are ideally (though not perfectly) unbiased accounts of current events. Examples: The New York Times, BBC - News
Government Documents are materials authored by various governmental agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency or the Department of
Education. Example: Mapping Illinois' Educational Progress (2008)
When considering how useful a resource is to your own research, you will want to consider several factors including:
● when the resource was published;

● who the author of the article is and whether her work is written from an objective or biased perspective;
● who funded the research under discussion;
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● whether factual assertions are accompanied by footnotes or other references.
A primary source is an original resource that is contemporaneous with the time period being studied. Scholars and researchers use primary sources in their work as
building blocks in an evaluation or interpretation of an event, a time period, or a specific subject.
Unlike primary sources, secondary sources are not necessarily contemporaneous with the issue or research being discussed. Secondary sources involve looking at past
findings and evidence and using these tools to build a discussion around a given theme, issue, person, or place.
For example, let's imagine we were studying the role that religion played in America's antislavery movement of the 19th century.
The diary of an antislavery activist from this time period would be a primary source.
A 20th century article that uses this diary, among other resources, to posit and substantiate an original claim that religion was THE motivating factor in the antislavery
crusade would be a secondary source.
In our example, the journal article was a secondary source. Does this mean you can always assume that an article is a secondary source? NO!!!
The format or look of a source - whether book, film, article, etc. - does not dictate whether the source is primary or secondary. Your use of any resource dictates whether
it is functioning as a primary or secondary source, and different disciplines use different types of resources in different ways.
Guidelines in writing research title, introduction, statement of the problem, hypothesis:
6 Tips on How to Choose a Brilliant Research Paper Title
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If you have no idea what a good title should look like and you often wonder "how do you start a research paper"! Follow the 6 useful tips for crafting catchy research
paper titles that will attract the attention of your reader. Keep in mind all pieces of advice on how to create a good title and great success is guaranteed!
1. Create a brief but informative name which would help the reader have a clear picture of what your work is about. Avoid disorder in your thoughts making the
work’s name logical.
2. Make your heading eye-catching with the help of effective hooks. Paper titles in the form of questions perform this function well
3. Make it clear and concise avoiding insignificant words. Ensure that the number of words doesn't exceed 15 maximum
4. Make it narrow specifying your target audience. For example, “How to write an A-grade essay: Guide for college students.”
5. Give preference to active verbs rather than the number of nouns. Avoid complex phrases consisting of several nouns as titles of papers like this may distract the
attention of the reader
6. Think which keywords to include in your research title. You should find out which words people use to find work on the same topic and underline them in your
project
Examples of Good Research Paper Titles
Does composing a heading seem as easy as ABC anymore? If you don’t know how to apply your theoretical knowledge of how to title a college paper in practice, then,
have a look at these research paper title examples.
Titles of psychology research papers:
1. How to Fight Stress Quickly and Effectively: 5 Natural Methods
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2. Effective Techniques on How to Make People Do What You Want
3. A Full Guide on How not to Be Influenced by Society
4. Adults Who Behave Aggressively Are Those Who Were Unhappy in Childhood
5. Methods on How to Change Your Attitude to Life that Really Work
Business:
1. How to Start Your Own Business without a Large Investment
2. Benefits of Being Self-Employed You Have Never Thought Of
3. 10 Great Business Ideas for Those Who Have No Money
4. The Most Common Mistakes Beginning Businessmen Do
5. The Secret Behind a Successful Business
Guidelines in writing research introduction
1.　 Start broadly and then narrow down

In the first paragraph, briefly describe the broad research area and then narrow down to your particular focus. This will help position your research topic within the
broader field, making the work accessible to a broader audience, not just to specialists in your field.
2.　 State the aims and importance
Papers rejected for "not showing the importance of the topic" or "lacking clear motivation" usually neglect this point. Say what you want to achieve and why your
reader should be interested in finding out whether you achieve it. The basic structure can be as simple as "We aim to do X, which is important because it will lead to Y."
3.　 Cite thoroughly but not excessively
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Once you've narrowed your focus to the specific topic of your study, you should thoroughly cover the most recent and most relevant literature pertaining to your study.
Your review of the literature should be complete, but not overly long—remember, you're not writing a review article. If you find that your introduction is too long or
overflowing with citations, one possible solution is to cite review articles, rather than all the individual articles that have already been summarized in the review.
4.　 Avoid giving too many citations for one point

Consider the following sentence: "Many studies have found a significant association between X and Y [4-15]." This sentence cites too many studies at once. Although
references [4-15] might provide a good overview of the topic, this sentence doesn't provide enough context or explanation for these past studies. If all of these references
are worth citing, they should be discussed in greater specificity. For example, "A significant association has been found between X and Y in men [4-7], women [8-11],
and children [12-15]."
5.　 Clearly state either your hypothesis or research question
For research in empirical sciences, stating a hypothesis can be an effective way of framing the research. For example, instead of stating "In this study, we show that X is
related to Y by method A," you could say, "In this study, we hypothesize that X is related to Y, and we use method A to test this hypothesis." For research in formal
sciences or exploratory research, you could consider stating a research question instead: "In this study, we examine the following research question: Is X related to Y?"
Note that the research question doesn't always have to be stated in the interrogative form (with a question mark); instead, you can put the question into a declarative
sentence: "In this study, we investigate whether X is related to Y." Hypotheses and research questions are effective because they help give shape to the paper and serve
as "signpost phrases" that guide readers through your paper smoothly.
6.　 Consider giving an overview of the paper
An organizational overview is more common in some fields than others. It is particularly common in technology, but less so in medicine. In the last paragraph of your
introduction, consider giving a section-by-section overview of your paper if it is appropriate for your field. For example, "In Section II, we describe our analysis methods
and the datasets we used. In Section III we present the results. In Section IV, we discuss the results and compare our findings with those in the literature. In Section V,
we state our conclusions and suggest possible topics for future research."
7.　 Keep it short

Try to avoid an overly long introduction. A good target is 500 to 1000 words, although checking the journal's guidelines and past issues will provide the clearest
guidance.
8.　 Show, don't tell
One goal of the introduction is explaining why your research topic is worthy of study. One of the most common pitfalls is to simply say, "Subject X is important."
Instead of simply saying that the topic is important, show why the topic is important. For example, instead of writing "The development of new materials is important
for the automotive industry," you could write, "The development of new materials is necessary for the automotive industry to produce stronger, lighter vehicles, which
will improve safety and fuel economy."
9.　 Don't bury your readers in detail
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In the introduction, if your paper is in a field that commonly summarizes the study's main results before starting the methods, you should avoid stating too many
detailed results because these results need the development in the other sections of your paper to be properly understood. Instead of saying "We find that our algorithm
requires 55% of the memory and 45% of the computation time of the conventional algorithm," it is usually better to give a general overview of the findings in the
introduction: "Here we compare the proposed algorithm with a conventional algorithm in terms of memory use and computational speed, showing that the proposed
algorithm is both smaller and faster." Some older style guides suggest holding back the main result to build suspense, but now journals in many fields—medicine being a
notable exception—encourage giving a preview of your main results in the introduction.
10.　 Check the journal requirements
Many journals have specific requirements for the introduction in their guidelines for authors. For example, there might be a maximum word count stated or the
guidelines might require specific content, such as a hypothesis statement or a summary of your main results.
Concluding remarks
I would like to close with one last piece of advice: When you begin drafting a paper, the introduction should be one of the first things you plan. The introduction serves
as the roadmap for your paper; by clearly stating the study's background, aims, and hypothesis/research question, the introduction can guide you as you write the rest of
the paper. It's such an important section—setting the scene for everything that follows—that many authors write the methods, results, and discussion sections in full
before completing the introduction.
Guidelines in writing research Statement Of The Problems

What is a problem statement?
A problem statement is a statement of a current issue or problem that requires timely action to improve the situation. This statement concisely explains the barrier the
current problem places between a functional process and/or product and the current (problematic) state of affairs. This statement is completely objective, focusing only
on the facts of the problem and leaving out any subjective opinions. To make this easier, it's recommended that you ask who, what, when, where and why to create the
structure for your problem statement. This will also make it easier to create and read, and makes the problem at hand more comprehensible and therefore solvable. The
problem statement, in addition to defining a pressing issue, is a lead-in to a proposal of a timely, effective solution.
How to write a problem statement
A problem statement is a tool used to gain support and approval of the project from management and stakeholders. As such, it must be accurate and clearly written.
There are a few key elements to keep in mind when crafting a problem statement that can have a positive impact on the outcome of the project.
1. Describe how things should work
To begin, you'll want to provide some context that will make it easier to understand the problem. Start by explaining how this particular process should work. Concisely
describe how the process would function if the current problem didn't exist before mentioning the problem, keeping the end-user in mind. For example, let's say that you
51
have an idea of how to increase efficiency in a process to maximize the best use of resources. You might begin by describing a theoretical situation in which the system is
more efficient and working toward your proposal from there, always keeping in mind who, what, when, where and why to keep yourself on track.
2. Explain the problem and state why it matters
The problem statement should address not only what the problem is, but why it's a problem and why it's important to solve it. This will wrap the other 'W' questions in
organically, in most cases. For example: Why should we fix this problem? Because it affects the efficiency of departments X, Y and Z, wasting resources and driving
prices up for consumers. This addresses what the problem is, who is affected and why the problem should be fixed. You may also consider including what attempts have
already been made to solve the problem and why they didn't work out. As concisely as possible, explain everything you know about the current problem.
3. Explain your problem's financial costs

When you state the problem to decision-makers, you'll want to explain the costs of not fixing it. Seeing as money is the language in which businesspeople speak, it's
easiest to frame the problem and proposed solution in terms of financial costs. For example, if the problem is actively costing unnecessary money, preventing the
company from making more money or damaging the company's public image (indirectly costing money) make sure you explain it specifically and clearly in terms they
understand. Try to pinpoint exact dollar amounts for the problem's cost.
4. Back up your claims

Once you claim the problem is costing the company money, you must be prepared to support your claims with evidence. If you neglect this step, you may not be taken
seriously. Do your research, cite your sources and have the data ready to present.
5. Propose a solution
The problem statement should describe your proposed solution(s) to the problem. At this point, you won't be focused on finding a single solution, but you should have a
solid grasp on the causes of the problem and be prepared to propose practical approaches to understanding and remedying it. State your objectives by suggesting well-
thought-out plans for attacking the problem.
6. Explain the benefits of your proposed solution(s)

Now, you've described an ideal scenario in which the problem doesn't exist. You've pointed out the problem, explaining the ramifications of choosing not to fix it (using
dollars and solid data) and proposed some realistic approaches to finding a solution. Now is a very good time to demonstrate why this solution will work, again focusing
on efficiency and the financial impact of your solution. Address what expenses the solution will decrease, how this solution will free up revenue streams and what
intangible benefits, such as increased client satisfaction, your solution will bring. This should all fit into a single short paragraph.
52
7. Conclude by summarizing the problem and solution
Now you'll move onto your conclusion. This should consist of the problem, why it needs to be fixed and a summarized argument of why your solution is the best answer
to the problem.
Following this format will help all parties who read it to understand the problem and be open to considering the best solution.
Example
Problem statements usually follow the same general format, though they can fluctuate in length depending on the complexity of the situation. Here's an example of a
basic problem statement:
Problem: Voter turnout in the southwest region of Florida has been significantly decreasing over the past decade, while other areas of the state continue to see increasing
numbers of voters at the polls.
Background: Surveys conducted by the Florida Voter's Association suggest that voter turnout is lowest among people between the ages of 18 to 25 and low-income
households (making under $30,000 annually for a two-person household). The research conducted on voting patterns in other southern U.S. states suggests that this could
indicate a broader trend, but this region's demographics suggest that it could become a more significant problem [expand and explain with sources]. Other parts of the
country have made attempts, and succeeded, to a degree, to improve voter turnout, but similar solutions haven't had the desired effect here in southwest Florida [cite sources].
More research is needed on the reasons these attempts have failed and what strategies might have more of an impact on reaching younger and lower-income households.
Relevance: Areas with low voter turnout have historically been shown to have lower levels of social cohesion and civic engagement and higher numbers of instances of civil
unrest. More recently, this has become increasingly concerning for parts of the U.S. [give examples and cite sources]. Data shows that when certain parts of society lack
political representation, they're more likely to become increasingly disillusioned over time, eroding society's trust in democracy and systematically triggering challenges in
governance [explanation and sources]. Addressing this problem will give regional parties much-needed insights to help them adjust their policies and campaign strategies to
include more of the residents of this region. It will also contribute to gaining a more nuanced understanding of voter behavior trends.
Objectives: The purpose of this research is to examine proactive engagement plans to increase voter turnout in the southwest region of Florida. It will distinguish the largest
determinants in non-voting through surveys, interviews and social experiments designed to observe the impact of each of these strategies on voter turnout.
Example
53
1. Describe how things should work
To begin, you'll want to provide some context that will make it easier to understand the problem. Start by explaining how this particular process should work. Concisely
describe how the process would function if the current problem didn't exist before mentioning the problem, keeping the end-user in mind. For example, let's say that you
have an idea of how to increase efficiency in a process to maximize the best use of resources. You might begin by describing a theoretical situation in which the system is
more efficient and working toward your proposal from there, always keeping in mind who, what, when, where and why to keep yourself on track.
2. Explain the problem and state why it matters
The problem statement should address not only what the problem is, but why it's a problem and why it's important to solve it. This will wrap the other 'W' questions in
organically, in most cases. For example: Why should we fix this problem? Because it affects the efficiency of departments X, Y and Z, wasting resources and driving
prices up for consumers. This addresses what the problem is, who is affected and why the problem should be fixed. You may also consider including what attempts have
already been made to solve the problem and why they didn't work out. As concisely as possible, explain everything you know about the current problem.
3. Explain your problem's financial costs

When you state the problem to decision-makers, you'll want to explain the costs of not fixing it. Seeing as money is the language in which businesspeople speak, it's
easiest to frame the problem and proposed solution in terms of financial costs. For example, if the problem is actively costing unnecessary money, preventing the
company from making more money or damaging the company's public image (indirectly costing money) make sure you explain it specifically and clearly in terms they
understand. Try to pinpoint exact dollar amounts for the problem's cost.
4. Back up your claims

Once you claim the problem is costing the company money, you must be prepared to support your claims with evidence. If you neglect this step, you may not be taken
seriously. Do your research, cite your sources and have the data ready to present.
5. Propose a solution
The problem statement should describe your proposed solution(s) to the problem. At this point, you won't be focused on finding a single solution, but you should have a
solid grasp on the causes of the problem and be prepared to propose practical approaches to understanding and remedying it. State your objectives by suggesting well-
thought-out plans for attacking the problem.
6. Explain the benefits of your proposed solution(s)

Now, you've described an ideal scenario in which the problem doesn't exist. You've pointed out the problem, explaining the ramifications of choosing not to fix it (using
dollars and solid data) and proposed some realistic approaches to finding a solution. Now is a very good time to demonstrate why this solution will work, again focusing
54
on efficiency and the financial impact of your solution. Address what expenses the solution will decrease, how this solution will free up revenue streams and what
intangible benefits, such as increased client satisfaction, your solution will bring. This should all fit into a single short paragraph.
7. Conclude by summarizing the problem and solution

Now you'll move onto your conclusion. This should consist of the problem, why it needs to be fixed and a summarized argument of why your solution is the best answer
to the problem.
Following this format will help all parties who read it to understand the problem and be open to considering the best solution.
Example
Problem statements usually follow the same general format, though they can fluctuate in length depending on the complexity of the situation. Here's an example of a
basic problem statement:
Problem: Voter turnout in the southwest region of Florida has been significantly decreasing over the past decade, while other areas of the state continue to see increasing
numbers of voters at the polls.
Background: Surveys conducted by the Florida Voter's Association suggest that voter turnout is lowest among people between the ages of 18 to 25 and low-income
households (making under $30,000 annually for a two-person household). The research conducted on voting patterns in other southern U.S. states suggests that this could
indicate a broader trend, but this region's demographics suggest that it could become a more significant problem [expand and explain with sources]. Other parts of the
country have made attempts, and succeeded, to a degree, to improve voter turnout, but similar solutions haven't had the desired effect here in southwest Florida [cite sources].
More research is needed on the reasons these attempts have failed and what strategies might have more of an impact on reaching younger and lower-income households.
Relevance: Areas with low voter turnout have historically been shown to have lower levels of social cohesion and civic engagement and higher numbers of instances of civil
unrest. More recently, this has become increasingly concerning for parts of the U.S. [give examples and cite sources]. Data shows that when certain parts of society lack
political representation, they're more likely to become increasingly disillusioned over time, eroding society's trust in democracy and systematically triggering challenges in
governance [explanation and sources]. Addressing this problem will give regional parties much-needed insights to help them adjust their policies and campaign strategies to
include more of the residents of this region. It will also contribute to gaining a more nuanced understanding of voter behavior trends.
Objectives: The purpose of this research is to examine proactive engagement plans to increase voter turnout in the southwest region of Florida. It will distinguish the largest
determinants in non-voting through surveys, interviews and social experiments designed to observe the impact of each of these strategies on voter turnout.
55
Guidelines in writing research hypothesis
To write a strong hypothesis, keep these important tips in mind.

● Don't just choose a topic randomly. Find something that interests you.
● Keep it clear and to the point.
● Use your research to guide you.
● Always clearly define your variables.
● Write it as an if-then statement. If this, then that is the expected outcome.
Developing a hypothesis
1. Ask a question
Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your
project.
Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results?
2. Do some preliminary research

Your initial answer to the question should be based on what is already known about the topic. Look for theories and previous studies to help you form educated
assumptions about what your research will find.
At this stage, you might construct a conceptual framework to identify which variables you will study and what you think the relationships are between them.
3. Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the question in a clear, concise sentence.
Attending more lectures leads to better exam results.
4. Refine your hypothesis

You need to make sure your hypothesis is specific and testable. There are various ways of phrasing a hypothesis, but all the terms you use should have clear definitions,
and the hypothesis should contain:
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● The relevant variables
● The specific group being studied
● The predicted outcome of the experiment or analysis
5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if…then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the
dependent variable.
If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.
In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.
The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their exam scores.
If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find between them.
First-year students who attended most lectures will have better exam scores than those who attended few lectures.
6. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing, you will also have to write a null hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association
between the variables. The null hypothesis is written as H 0, while the alternative hypothesis is H1 or Ha.
H0: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final exam scores.
H1: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their final exam scores.
What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research
projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.
A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through
scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).
Variables in hypotheses
Hypotheses propose a relationship between two or more variables. An independent variable is something the researcher changes or controls. A dependent variable is
something the researcher observes and measures.
57
Daily apple consumption leads to fewer doctor’s visits.
In this example, the independent variable is apple consumption — the assumed cause. The dependent variable is the frequency of doctor’s visits — the assumed effect.
What is Independent variable? Dependent Variable. The variable that depends on other factors that are measured. These variables are expected to
change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent variable or variables.
What is dependent variable? The independent variable (IV) is the characteristic of a psychology experiment that is manipulated or changed by researchers, not by other
variables in the experiment. For example, in an experiment looking at the effects of studying on test scores, studying would be the independent variable.
Independent and Dependent Variables | Uses & Examples

Published on May 20, 2020 by Lauren Thomas. Revised on August 27, 2021.
In research, variables are any characteristics that can take on different values, such as height, age, species, or exam score.
In scientific research, we often want to study the effect of one variable on another one. For example, you might want to test whether students who spend more time
studying get better exam scores.
The variables in a study of a cause-and-effect relationship are called the independent and dependent variables.
● The independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of other variables in your study.
● The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on changes in the independent variable.
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Examples of independent and dependent variables
Research questions Independent variable(s) Dependent variable(s)
Do tomatoes grow fastest under ● The type of light the tomato ● The rate of growth of the
fluorescent, incandescent, or natural plant is grown under tomato plant
light?
What is the effect of diet and regular ● The type of soda you drink ● Your blood sugar levels
soda on blood sugar levels? (diet or regular)
How does phone use before bedtime ● The amount of phone use ● Number of hours of sleep
affect sleep? before bed ● Quality of sleep
How well do different plant species ● The amount of salt added to the ● Plant growth
tolerate salt water? plants’ water ● Plant wilting
● Plant survival rate
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What are the Steps in a literature review?
1. Narrow your topic and select papers accordingly

Consider your specific area of study. Think about what interests you and what interests other researchers in your field.
Talk to your professor, brainstorm, and read lecture notes and recent issues of periodicals in the field.
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Limit your scope to a smaller topic area (ie. focusing on France's role in WWII instead of focusing on WWII in general).
● Four Steps to Narrow Your Research Topic (Video)
This 3-minute video provides instructions on how to narrow the focus of your research topic.
● Developing a Research Question + Worksheet
Use this worksheet to develop, assess, and refine your research questions. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
2. Search for literature

Define your source selection criteria (ie. articles published between a specific date range, focusing on a specific geographic region, or using a specific methodology).
Using keywords, search a library database.
Reference lists of recent articles and reviews can lead to other useful papers.
Include any studies contrary to your point of view.
3. Read the selected articles thoroughly and evaluate them
Evaluate and synthesize the studies' findings and conclusions.
Note the following:
● assumptions some or most researchers seem to make

● methodologies, testing procedures, subjects, material tested researchers use
● experts in the field: names/labs that are frequently referenced
● conflicting theories, results, methodologies
● popularity of theories and how this has/has not changed over time
4. Organize the selected papers by looking for patterns and by developing subtopics
Note the following:
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● Findings that are common/contested
● Important trends in the research
● The most influential theories
Tip: If your literature review is extensive, find a large table surface, and on it place post-it notes or filing cards to organize all your findings into categories.
● Move them around if you decide that (a) they fit better under different headings, or (b) you need to establish new topic headings.
● Develop headings/subheadings that reflect the major themes and patterns you detected
5. Develop a thesis or purpose statement

Write a one or two sentence statement summarizing the conclusion you have reached about the major trends and developments you see in the research that has been
conducted on your subject.
● Templates for Writing Thesis Statements
This template provides a two-step guide for writing thesis statements. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
● 5 Types of Thesis Statements
Learn about five different types of thesis statements to help you choose the best type for your research. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
● 5 Questions to Strengthen Your Thesis Statement
Follow these five steps to strengthen your thesis statements. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
6. Write the paper

Follow the organizational structure you developed above, including the headings and subheadings you constructed.
Make certain that each section links logically to the one before and after.
Structure your sections by themes or subtopics, not by individual theorists or researchers.
62
● Tip: If you find that each paragraph begins with a researcher's name, it might indicate that, instead of evaluating and comparing the research literature from an
analytical point of view, you have simply described what research has been done.
Prioritize analysis over description.
● For example, look at the following two passages and note that Student A merely describes the literature, whereas Student B takes a more analytical and
evaluative approach by comparing and contrasting. You can also see that this evaluative approach is well signaled by linguistic markers indicating logical
connections (words such as "however," "moreover") and phrases such as "substantiates the claim that," which indicate supporting evidence and Student B's
ability to synthesize knowledge.
Student A: Smith (2000) concludes that personal privacy in their living quarters is the most important factor in nursing home residents' perception of their autonomy.
He suggests that the physical environment in the more public spaces of the building did not have much impact on their perceptions. Neither the layout of the building
nor the activities available seem to make much difference. Jones and Johnstone make the claim that the need to control one's environment is a fundamental need of life
(2001), and suggest that the approach of most institutions, which is to provide total care, may be as bad as no care at all. If people have no choices or think that they have
none, they become depressed.
Student B: After studying residents and staff from two intermediate care facilities in Calgary, Alberta, Smith (2000) came to the conclusion that except for the amount of
personal privacy available to residents, the physical environment of these institutions had minimal if any effect on their perceptions of control (autonomy). However,
French (1998) and Haroon (2000) found that availability of private areas is not the only aspect of the physical environment that determines residents' autonomy. Haroon
interviewed 115 residents from 32 different nursing homes known to have different levels of autonomy (2000). It was found that physical structures, such as
standardized furniture, heating that could not be individually regulated, and no possession of a house key for residents limited their feelings of independence. Moreover,
Hope (2002), who interviewed 225 residents from various nursing homes, substantiates the claim that characteristics of the institutional environment such as the extent
of resources in the facility, as well as its location, are features which residents have indicated as being of great importance to their independence.
● How to Integrate Critical Voice into Your Literature Review (Video)
7. Review your work
● Look at the topic sentences of each paragraph. If you were to read only these sentences, would you find that your paper presented a clear position, logically
developed, from beginning to end? The topic sentences of each paragraph should indicate the main points of your literature review.
● Make an outline of each section of the paper and decide whether you need to add information, to delete irrelevant information, or to re-structure sections.
● Read your work out loud. That way you will be better able to identify where you need punctuation marks to signal pauses or divisions within sentences, where
you have made grammatical errors, or where your sentences are unclear.
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● Since the purpose of a literature review is to demonstrate that the writer is familiar with the important professional literature on the chosen subject, check to
make certain that you have covered all of the important, up-to-date, and pertinent texts. In the sciences and some of the social sciences it is important that your
literature be quite recent; this is not so important in the humanities.
● Make certain that all of the citations and references are correct and that you are referencing in the appropriate style for your discipline. If you are uncertain
which style to use, ask your professor.
● Check to make sure that you have not plagiarized either by failing to cite a source of information, or by using words quoted directly from a source. (Usually if
you take three or more words directly from another source, you should put those words within quotation marks, and cite the page.)
● Text should be written in a clear and concise academic style; it should not be descriptive in nature or use the language of everyday speech.
● There should be no grammatical or spelling errors.
● Sentences should flow smoothly and logically.
American Psychological Association (APA) formats for citation of print and electronic materials
General Format
APA uses an author-date form of in-text citation to acknowledge the use of another writer’s words, facts, or ideas. When you are summarizing or paraphrasing, provide
the author’s last name and the year of publication either in the sentence or in parentheses at the end of the sentence. You may include a page or chapter reference if it
would help readers find the original material in a longer work. When you are quoting, the citation in parentheses must include the page(s) or paragraph(s) (for sources
that do not have pages) in which the quotation can be found.
Although APA requires page or paragraph numbers only for direct quotations, your instructor might prefer that you include a page or paragraph number with every
source you cite in your document. If you are not certain of the requirements for your project, ask your instructor for guidance. For more information refer to the sixth
edition of the APA Publication Manual or visit the Additional Resources page of this guide.
Document Format
Page Format
APA format requires 1-inch margins at the top, bottom, left and right of an 8 1/2 by 11-inch page, with 12 point Times New Roman font.
Double-space the entire paper: between the title and the body of the paper, within the title, any footnotes, in the References, and in figure captions. Never use single
spacing or one-and-a-half spacing, except within tables or figures.
Do not justify lines. Lines should be flush on the left and ragged on the right. In addition, do not break words at the end of a line with a hyphen. Instead, let the line run
short and put the entire word on the following line.
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Indent every paragraph five spaces, using the tab key. You do not need to indent the abstract, block quotations, titles, headings (unless the heading level calls for it),
table titles or table notes, or figure captions. Titles should always be centered.
Title Page
Titles are an important part of a paper and need to convey the key ideas of a paper in a concise and clear way. Creating strong titles takes practice and is not always
easy. Be willing to play around with different titles and try out different wordings before settling on the best one. In general, do not use abbreviations or redundant or
explanatory words (i.e. "Study", Research", Investigation"). Also, a good general guideline is to keep titles to 12 words or less.
Poor Title:

Research on How Higher Grades May Appear to Affect the Mood of Freshman Students
Better Title:

The Perceived Effect of Higher Grades on Mood Freshman Year

Type the title in both uppercase and lowercase letters (meaning the entire title should not be uppercase, nor should only the first letter of the first word of the title be in
uppercase). Center the title and position it in the upper half of the page.
In addition to the title, the title page should include the author's name and the institutional affiliation where the research was carried out or the paper was written. The
author's name should include the first name, a middle initial, and a last name. Do not abbreviate the institutional affiliation.
Page Numbers and Running Head
Pages should be numbered consecutively, beginning with the title page. In addition to page numbers, every page should include a running head. The running head is the
title of the paper or a shortened version of the title. On the title page the words "Running Head:" should appear in the left hand corner, followed by the title or
shortened title in all capital letters. The page number should appear in the right hand corner. Subsequent pages should repeat this format minus the "Running Head:"
portion.
Abstract
An abstract is a summary of the paper. It is appropriate to include the results and your conclusions in the abstract. Succinctly explain the type of research done and the
conclusions reached. Be sure to use key words and important information in the abstract, remembering to be accurate and coherent without giving an evaluation. The
abstract should be objective, telling readers what was done, but without opinion. Meaning, do not imply that the research is groundbreaking, or the conclusions
unexpected or surprising. Most abstracts have word limits, usually between 150 and 250 words. A good abstract takes practice and revision, much like a good title.
Writing and Grammar Tips
Good writing should be clear, concise, and free of biased language. Read your writing with this in mind. Do not use vague words or phrases, avoid euphemisms and
irrelevant evaluation, and keep your audience in mind. For guidelines on reducing bias and writing clearly, refer to chapter three in the sixth edition of the APA
Publication Manual.
APA style allows for the use of personal pronouns, such as I, or we if there are coauthors, when discussing actions and research that you have conducted. There is no
need to speak in the third person ("the researchers") when you are conducting the research.
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Use the active voice, avoiding the passive voice unless specifically directed to do so by your instructor. When referring to actions that occurred as a specific time in the
past, use the past tense. If referring to an action that is still occurring into the present, or that did not occur at a specific time, use the present perfect (i.e. "have
conducted").
When writing numbers, use numerals for numbers 10 and above, and write numbers out below 10.
Parallel construction is a way to structure your sentences, and it can enhance your writing as well as your readers' understanding of the ideas in your paper. To create
parallelism use a pair of coordinating conjunctions (between....and, both....and, neither....nor, either.....or, not only.....but also), placing the first conjunction immediately
before the first clause or phrase making up the parallel structure.
The forward moved downfield while dribbling the ball and looking for defenders.
The phrases in italics create the parallelism because they are both constructed using the participle of a verb. While...and is the pair of coordinating conjunctions.
Neither the cat in the tree nor the fireman in the street knew what to do.
Part of the key to creating parallelism is to use the same words or to structure the parallel elements in the same way. The same information is in the sentence below,
but it is not written in parallel.
Neither the cat out on a branch in the tree nor the fireman standing below knew what to do.
Creating parallelism takes practice and thought. For more ideas or information on how to create parallel sentences see section 3.23 in the sixth edition of the APA
Publication Manual or stop by the CSU Writing Center.
Punctuation
Insert two spaces after punctuation when ending a sentence. Use one space after commas, colons, and semicolons, after periods that separate parts of a reference
citation, and after periods of initials in personal names (e.g. J. Power). Do not insert any spaces after internal periods in abbreviations (10 a.m., the U.S.) or with colons
in ratios.
Sections
Research papers frequently employ specific sections, such as the Methods, Results, and Discussion. Other common sections are a Literature Review or Appendices. Brief
explanations for each section are listed below. For more in-depth explanations see sections 2.05-2.13 in the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual.
Introduction
The introduction should begin with a presentation of the specific problem that the author is studying as well as the research strategy. The introduction does not require
a heading. A good introduction should explore the importance of the problem, review relevant scholarship, and lay out the hypotheses and how the hypotheses relates to
the research design.
Method
This section describes how the research was conducted, including sampling procedures, participant characteristics, research design, sample sizes, and experimental
manipulations and interventions.
Results
The results section reviews the data and analyses that were conducted. This section usually explains the data that is presented in accompanying figures or tables.
Discussion
The discussion evaluates and interprets the results that were laid out in the previous section. This is where your interpretation of the results is explored, as well as the
implications of the results and any suggestions for future research.
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Literature review
A literature review does more than review previous research and studies. It explains how the previous research leads or points to the research done in this paper. This is
where you build an argument for the relevance and need for your research.
Appendices
This is where material (extra data, tables, figures) that doesn't fit smoothly into the body of the paper can be included. Appendices are labeled A, B, C, etc. If there is
only one Appendix, then it is Appendix A.
Levels of Headings
There are five heading formats in APA. The section headings (Methods, Results, Discussion, etc) would be the highest, or the first level, and then depending on how
many levels of subheadings there are, progress downward to the next level.
Heading Level Format
1 Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and
Lowercase Heading
2 Flush left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
3 Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading
ending with a period.
4 Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.
5 Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading
ending with a period.
Example:
Method (1)
Sample Selection (2)
Participant Selection (2)
Participant characteristics. (3)
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History of participants. (4)
Age and gender of participants. (4)
Participant anomolies. (5)
In-Text Citation Format

For specific rules and examples see the In-Text Citations section
The APA's in-text citation system follows a parenthetical format, much like the MLA's; however, it emphasizes authors and dates of publication because authors and
dates of research are important benchmarks denoting relevancy and validity in both the social and the natural sciences.
Format
APA uses an in-text author-date citation system. The in-text citation directs readers to the References list at the end of the paper, where every source that is cited in-text
is listed alphabetically. If a source is not cited in-text, it should not appear in the References list. However, there are two types of sources that are cited in-text
but not listed in the References list: classical works and personal communications.
Some general rules for APA in-text citations are:
1. If someone's ideas, research, or theories have influenced your thinking or work, you should cite them in your writing
2. Cite facts or figures that are not common knowledge.
3. Always give the author's last name and the publication date.
4. Place a comma between the author's name and the year of publication: (Fisher, 2012).
5. If the author's name is given in the sentence where the citation appears, only the publication date needs to be given in parentheses. If the author's name is not
mentioned, give both pieces of information in parentheses.
6. Parenthetical citations are always included inside sentence punctuation.
7. Page numbers are included for direct quotations and must include abbreviations ("p." or "pp."). Page numbers are encouraged but not required for
paraphrased material.
For more detailed information on in-text citations format see chapter 6 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual.
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References Format
The end documentation in the APA system is called References. It is located at the end of a document and contains publication information for all sources that you have
cited within your document, with two exceptions. Entire websites and personal communication, such as e-mail messages, letters, and interviews, are cited only in the text
of the document.
Begin the list on a new page at the end of the document, and center the title “References” at the top. Organize the list alphabetically by author (if the source is an
organization, alphabetize it by the name of the organization: if the source has no know author, alphabetize it by title). All the entries should be double-spaced with no
extra space between entries. Entries are formatted with a hanging indent: the first line is flush with the left margin, and subsequent lines are indented one-half inch.
Only the initial word and proper nouns (names of people, organizations, cities, states, and so on) in a source title and subtitle are capitalized.
In longer documents, a references list may be given at the end of each chapter or section. In digital documents that use links, such as websites, the references list is often
a separate page to which other pages are linked.
For information on how to format individual entries instead of the page as a whole, see the References pages
● This guide includes only the most common formatting rules. If what you are looking for is not included here, please click on Additional Resources for more
information. When formatting online/electronic sources becomes confusing, clarify expectations with your instructor.
Abbreviations
Below is a list of accepted abbreviations for the References list to use in entries:
Abbreviation | Book or publication part
ed. edition
Rev. ed. Revised edition
2nd ed. second edition
Ed. (Eds.) Editor (Editors)
Trans. Translator(s)
n.d. no date
p. (pp.) page (pages)
Vol. Volume (as in Vol. 4)
Vols. Volumes (as in Vols. 1-4)
No. Number
Pt. Part
Tech. Rep. Technical Report
Suppl. Supplement
Order of References
The basic rule to alphabetize seems simple, but questions and complications inevitably arise. Below are some rules for the order of Reference entries.
69
1. Nothing precedes something: Gold is listed before Golding; Villavicencio is listed before Villa-Zorro; Muros is listed before Muros de Allende.
2. Several works by the same author: If it is a one-author entry, arrange them by year of publication, with the earliest date first.
Peterkin, J. (1927). Black April. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 48.

Peterkin, J. (1928). Scarlet sister Mary. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 92.
If the dates are the same, arrange them alphabetically by title and attach suffixes to each year (a, b, c...).
Smith, S., Wesson, P., & Winchester, T. (1988a). Title alpha.
New York: Macmillan, 324.
Smith, S., Wesson, P., & Winchester, T. (1988b). Title beta.
New York: Macmillan, 76.
Smith, S., Wesson, P., & Winchester, T. (1988c). Title zeta.
New York: Macmillan, 101-103.
3. List one-author works before co-authored works with the same first author. Do this even if the publication date for the co-authored work is earlier.
Shor, I. (1986). Culture wars: School and society in the
conservative restoration, 1969-1982. Boston: Routledge
and K. Paul, 55.
Shor, I. & Friere, P. (1987). A pedagogy of liberation:
Dialogues on transforming education. New York:
Bergin and Garvey, 112-115.
If there are different co-authors, entries are listed alphabetically by the second author. If the second authors are the same, then alphabetize by the third author, etc.
70
Smith, M., Brown, N., & Black, L. (1993). Title one. New York: Macmillan, 57.
Smith, M., White, Q., & Toggle, V. (1989). Title two. Boston: Bedford, 32-36.
4. If you have two different authors with the same last name, alphabetize by their first initial.
Duke, K. (1998).
Duke, N. (2003).
Sample Documents
A sample title page, abstract and first page, and References list are located in the Related Resources in the menu to the right. To return to the guide after viewing the
samples, select the back arrow button on your browser.
Displaying Data
Results and data can be presented in a paper in two ways. Authors can explain the results of an experiment or inquiry through text, or they can display the results in a
table or figure. When the results are in the form of data, it is often more efficient to display them in a table or figure. The advantage of a table or figure is that a large
amount of information can be displayed in a format that is easier to comprehend.
Do not do both. Do not explain the results in text and display a table or figure. If you use a table or figure, refer to it, discuss the highlights, but do not repeat all of the
information again.
A table is used for numerical values or textual information, and is arranged in rows and columns. A figure can be anything from a chart or graph to a photograph or
drawing.
When using tables or figures in a paper, there are guidelines on how to label, number, and format them. The information presented here is an overview, and for a more
specific and detailed guide refer to the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual, chapter 5.
General Guidelines
Data can be presented for a variety of reasons, such as explanation, communication, calculation, storage, or visual enhancement. The most common reason, however, is
communication because a researcher usually wants to communicate the meaning of the data. Here are some general rules to keep in mind:
1. Number all tables and figures in the same order in which they are mentioned in text and refer to them by their number, not "the table above" or "the table on
page two". Use Arabic numerals, not letters. If you have one table and one figure, they should be labeled Table 1 and Figure 1. If you include additional tables or
figure in an appendix, they should be labeled with the letter of the appendix and an Arabic numeral: Figure B3 is the third figure in Appendix B.
2. Labels should be placed next to the element that they are labeling.
3. Use fonts that are large enough to read easily.
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4. All of the information needed to understand the table or figure should be included in the table or figure. Use labels and table notes to accomplish this.
5. Avoid unusual or non-standard abbreviations.
6. Avoid decorative elements (such as shading, unusual font styles, colors, borders, etc.) if they do not add necessary content or meaning.
7. Do not reproduce a table or figure from another source without written permission. If you do reproduce a table or figure, give credit in the caption to the author
or copyright holder. For more information on permission to reproduce data displays, see section 5.06 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual.
Tables
Most tables are created using the table feature of the word processing program in which the text is written. When putting a table together, consider what data is
necessary for readers to understand the discussion, and what data is needed to provide a sufficient understanding of the analyses conducted. For more information on
data and what a "sufficient understanding" is, see section 4.44 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual. Finally, every table needs a title, and it should be
clear and explanatory.
Tables have several basic components: the table number, table title, table body, cells, column heads, stub head, stub column, and table notes.
Table Number X
Table Title________________________________________
Stub Head Column Head Column Head
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
x x x
______________________________________________
Table Note: Use this space for general notes on a table
The column to the farthest left in a table is the stub column. The stub column lists the major independent or predictor variables. A cell is the point of intersection
between a row and a column, represented in the example table by an x. The rows of cells, which contain data, comprise the table body.
Table 1
Temperature Ranges and Averages for Narnia, January through June____________________

Month Low Temperature High Temperature Average______________
January 2 34 16
February 4 26 14
March 12 41 28
April 19 52 43
May 34 68 54
June______________ 47 __________________75_____________61_______________
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Totals______________19.6__________________49.3____________ 36_______________
Note: All temperatures are in degrees Fahrenheit.
Additional table elements are the column spanner, table spanner, decked heads, or different types of table notes. A column spanner is a heading that identifies more than
one column, vs. a column heading, which can only identify one column. A table spanner is a heading that covers the entire table body. Decked heads are stacked
headings, done to avoid word repetition. In Table 2, the column spanner and the column headings are decked, allowing the column headings to use less words and have
less space in-between the columns than in Table 1. The column headings Low and High are better than Low Temperature and High Temperature, as in Table 1. It is
better to have briefly worded column headings. Try not to have more than two levels of decked heads.
Table X
______________________________________ Table Title___________________________
Column spanner _Column spanner__
Stub head Column head Column head Column head Column head
Table spanner
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x
__________________________________________________________________________
>Table Note. Use this space for general notes on a table
>a Specific notes are denoted with a, b, c ... in superscript. A specific note explains something about a cell or piece
> of data and should go below any general table notes.
> * Probability notes (p value) are denoted with a * symbol, below any specific notes.

Table 2
Temperature Ranges and Averages for Narnia, January Through June, Years One and Two___

Temperature range__
Month Low High Average_______________________________
Year one
January 2 34 16
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February 4 26 14
March 12 41 28
April 19 52 43
May 34 68 54
June______________ 47 _____75________ 61________________________________
Totals______________19.6_____49.3_________36________________________________
Year two
January 2 4 3a
February 3 25 10
March 8 41 18
April 18 52 33
May 29 68 48
June______________ 45* ____72_____ ___57_______________________________
Totals______________17.5______47.3_______29.6______________________________
Note: All temperatures are in degrees Fahrenheit.
a
The White Witch is believed to have lowered temperatures for the month of January in Year two.
*
Probability notes (p value) are denoted with a * symbol, below any specific notes.
Headings always identify the information below them. In the stub column, if there is subordinate information, indent within the column rather than creating a new
column.
With all headings, only the first letter of the first word should be capitalized. Unless they are referring to a group, stub heads, column heads, and column spanners
should be singular. Table spanners, however, can be plural.
With cells, if there is no information you should either leave the cell empty or insert a dash. Leave the cell empty if there is no information because the data are not
applicable. Insert a dash if there is no information because data were not gathered or reported. Explain the dash in a general note underneath the table.
Table notes
Tables can have three kinds of table notes. General notes, specific notes, or probability notes. A general note qualifies, explains, or gives information about the table as a
whole. A specific note refers to a column, row, or cell within the table. A probability note refers to p values. For more information about p values and probability notes,
see section 5.16 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual.
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For examples of different types of tables and their specific uses, refer to the examples in section 5.18 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual. In section 5.19
there is a checklist for using tables. It reminds authors to consider whether or not the table is necessary, if every column has a column head, if the table is referred to in
text, etc.
Figures
Figures can be a graph, chart, map, drawing, or photograph. A chart displays non-quantitative information whereas a graph usually shows the relationship between two
quantitative indices. A chart may show the flow of something through a process, for example, and a graph may show the relationship between temperatures during the
summer and the number of homicides.
Figures need to be easy to read, clear, and free from unnecessary detail. Figures should add to the information in the text, not duplicate it, and they should not have
unnecessary information. They should use an easy to read font that is not too small.
When deciding on whether or not use a figure, keep the information value in mind. What information does the figure convey? Is there a better way to convey that
information, or is a figure the best way? As with tables, figures should be understandable on their own. Because of this, label figures clearly and concisely. If necessary,
use a legend to explain the figure.
A caption is used to explain a figure, whereas a legend is used to explain symbols that are used within the figure. Captions should be positioned below a figure, but
legends should be placed within the figure. Use the caption as a title for the figure, keeping it brief and concise. If necessary, add information after the caption (usually a
short phrase punctuated with a period) to explain the figure. Do not explain the figure in the text of the paper. Readers should be able to understand the figure fully
based on the figure alone.
For more information on figures and how to present them, including examples of figures, refer to sections 5.20 through 5.25 of the sixth edition of the APA Publication
Manual.
In-Text Citations
In APA an in-text citation must include the author's last name and the year of publication. Below are some of the more common ways to cite information in-text. For
more information refer to the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual, chapter 6.
Basic Format for a Source Named in Your Text
Place the publication year in parentheses directly after the author’s last name. Include the page number (with “p.” for “page”) in parentheses after a direct quotation.
Example(s):
Jennings(2012) pointed out that humans are poor students of probability, meaning that we’re prone to “develop paranoid nightmare-inducing phobias about the
unlikeliest things (plane crashes, strangers kidnapping our kids) while ignoring far more pressing risks (heart disease, car accidents)” (p. xiv).
According to Jennings (2012), humans have a tendency to fear the most unlikely phenomena, while brushing off more apparent dangers.
Note that APA style requires using the past tense or present perfect tense to introduce the material you are citing: Jennings argued or Jennings has argued.
Basic Format for a Source Not Named in Your Text
Insert a parenthetical note that gives the author’s last name and the year of publication, separated by a comma. For a quotation, include the page or paragraph number
of the source.
Example(s):
75
Psychoneuroimmunology, a new field of medicine, “studies the ways that the psyche – the mind and its content of emotions – profoundly interacts with the body’s
nervous system and how both of them, in turn, form an essential link with our immune defense” (Mate, 2011, p. 5).
Psychoneuroimmunology is a new field of medicine that examines the link between human emotion and physiology and how that unity affects health and immunity
over the course of a life (Mate, 2011).
Basic Format for Two Authors
List the last names of both authors in every mention in the text. If you mention the authors’ names in a sentence, use the word “and” to separate the last names, as
shown in the first example. If you place the authors’ names in the parenthetical citation, use an ampersand (&) to separate the last names, as shown in the second
example.
Example(s):
Tannenbaum and Marks (2012) indicated that “many of [MTV’s] most important founders came from radio backgrounds, which freed them from abiding by the
existing rules of the television industry” (p. 14)
MTV was largely founded by individuals with radio expertise, which allowed the network to operate outside the constraints of the television industry (Tannenbaum
& Marks, 2012).

Basic Format for Three, Four or Five Authors
In parentheses, name all the authors the first time you cite the source, using an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name. In subsequent references to the source, use
the last name of the first author followed by the abbreviation “et al.” (Latin for “and others”).
Example(s):
Those who suffer from body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) are preoccupied with one or more areas of the body they feel are imperfect or deformed (Wilhelm,
Phillips, & Steketee, 2013). As a result, they tend to engage in compulsive rituals to improve or conceal the perceived flaw (Wilhelm et al., 2013).
Basic Format for Six or More Authors
In all references to the source, give the first author’s last name followed by the abbreviation “et al” (Latin for “and others”).
Example(s):
While their study suggests that female Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqui Freedom soldiers are just as resilient to combat-related stress as are
male soldiers, Vogt et al. (2011) submitted that further research is needed to evaluate gender differences in the long-term effects of stress postdeployment.
Basic Format for a Corporate, Group or Government Author
In general, cite the full name of the corporation, group, or government agency the first time it is mentioned in your text. If you add an abbreviation for the name in
square brackets the first time you cite the source, you can use the abbreviation in subsequent citations.
Example(s):
A new international treaty has been signed to help combat the illicit trade of tobacco products (World Health Organization [WHO], 2013). This protocol not only
will establish a global tracing system to reduce and eliminate illicit tobacco trade but also will play an important role in protecting people around the world from a
serious health risk (WHO, 2013).
Basic Format for an Unknown Author
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Sources with unknown authors are listed by title in the list of refrences. In your in-text citation, shorten the title as much as possible without introducing confusion. Add
quotation marks to article titles, and italicize book titles.
Example(s):
While life expectancy in general has improved for those living in developed countries, the improvement has been far more drastic for form – a phenomenon that is
closing the gender gap in longevity (“Catching Up,” 2013).
Basic Format for Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year
After organizing the works alphabetically by title, insert a lowercase letter after the publication year (“2013a” or “2013b”).
Example(s):
Garfield (2016b) noted that our evolution as a society is consistently reflected in how we map our world: from the origins of triangulation and the fixing of
longitude to aerial photography and, now, GPS and satellite navigation.
Basic Format for Two or More Authors with the Same Last Name
Use the authors’ initials in each citation.
Example(s):
While both R. Cohen (2012) and L. Cohen (2012) have presented stark and sincere biographies free of bias, L. Cohen has introduced a new concept to the genre by
chronicling three worthy subjects at once.
Basic Format for Two or More Works Cited Together
List the sources in alphabetical order, and separate them with semicolons. If you are referring to two or more sources by the same author, order those sources
chronologically and separate them with commas; give the author’s last name only once (“Gharab, 2010, 2012”).
Example(s):
Rather than encourage exploration into more difficult and inaccessible energy stores, our new awareness of the finite nature of the earth’s resources should incite a
change in lifestyle that no longer strains the limits of our environment (Dietz & O’Neill, 2013; Klare, 2012).
Basic Format for a Source Cited in Another Source
Ideally, you should track down the original source of the information. If you cannot find the original, mention its author and indicate where it was cited.
Example(s):
Slater posited that the rise in online dating services has led to a decrease in commitment, as this technology fosters the notion that one can always find a more
compatible mate (as cited in Weissmann, 2013).

Basic Format for a Source with No Page Numbers
Many visual documents, such as brochures and digital sources, such as websites and full-text articles from databases, lack page numbers. If the source has numbered
paragraphs, indicate the paragraph number using the abbreviation “para.” If the paragraphs are not numbered, include the section heading and indicate which
paragraph in that section contains the cited material.
Example(s):
Doig (2012) examined the rise in tactical urbanism, a kind of city planning newly employed by big government to take small bits of unusable public space and re-
create them as parks, gardens, and other areas designed for public use (para. 3).
77

Basic Format for E-mail, Letters, and Other Personal Communication
Give the first initial(s) and last name of the person with whom you corresponded, the words “personal communication,” and the date. Don’t include personal
communication in your references list.
Example(s):
(C.Soto, personal communication, May 13, 2016)

Basic Format for a Website
For an entire website, give the URL in parentheses in your text, and don’t include it in your references list. To cite a quotation from a website, give the paragraph
number or section heading and include the source in your references list.
Example(s):
The Library of Congress (http://loc.gov) offers extensive online collections of manuscripts, correspondence, sound recordings, photographs, prints, and audiovisual
materials spanning decades of American history.
The Environmental Protection Agency (2016) combats climate change by evaluating policy options that “range from comprehensive market-based legislation to
targeted regulations to reduce emissions and improve the efficiency of vehicles, power plants and large industrial sources” (para. 2).
References- Print Books
Basic Format for a Book with One Author

List the author’s last name followed by a comma and the first initial. Insert the date in parentheses and italicize the title. Follow with the place of publication and the
publisher, separated by a colon.
Example(s):
Orenstein, P. (2016). Girls and sex: Navigating the complicated new landscape. New York, NY: HarperCollins.
Cite the online version only if a print version is not available or is hard to find. Insert “n.d.” if no publication date is given.
Example(s):
Robinson, K. (n.d.). Beyond the wilderness. Retrieved from http://onlineoriginals.com/showitem.asp?itemID=113
If you consulted an e-reader, list the format in square brackets. The URL stands in place of information about the publisher. If you accessed the online version from a
paid site, such as Amazon.com, use the phrase “Available from” rather than “Retrieved from.”
Example(s):
Inoue, A.B. (2015). Antiracist writiing assessment ecologies: Teaching and assessing writing for a socially just future [ePub]. Retrieved from
http://wac.colostate.edu/books/inoue/ecologies.epub
Basic Format for a Book with Two or More Authors
78
List the authors in the same order that they title page does, each with the last name first. Use commas to separate authors and use an ampersand (&) before the final
author’s name. List every author up to and including seven; for a work with eight or more authors, give the first six names followed by three ellipsis dots and the last
author’s name (Do not use an ampersand in such cases).
Example(s):
Watkins, D., & Brook, Y. (2016). Equal is unfair: America’s misguided fight against income inequality. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
Grant, A., & Sandberg, S. (2016). Originals: How non-conformists move the world [Kindle]. Available from http://amazon.com

Basic Format for a Book with a Corporate or Group Author
Write the full name of the corporate or group author. If the corporation is also the publisher, use “Author” for the publisher’s name.
Example(s):
Linguistic Society of America. (2016). Annual report: The state of linguistics in higher education. Washington, DC: Author.

Basic Format for a Book with an Unknown Author
When no author is listed on the title or copyright page, begin the entry with the title of the work. Alphabetize the entry by the first significant word of the title (not
including A, An, or The).
Example(s):
The book of Aquarius: Alchemy and the philosopher’s stone. (2011). Charleston, SC: Forgotten Books.

Basic Format for Citing Two or More Books by the Same Author
Give the author’s name in each entry and the list of titles in chronological order.
Example(s):
Duhigg, C. (2012). The power of habit: Why we do what we do in life and business. New York, NY: Random House.
Duhigg, C. (2016). Smarter, faster, better: The secrets of being productive in life and business. New York, NY: Random House.

Basic Format for a Translated Book
List the author first, followed by the year of publication, the title, and the translator (in parentheses, identified by the abbreviation “Trans.”). Place the original date of
the work’s publication at the end of the entry.
Example(s):
Mauriac, F. (2015). What I believe (W. Fowlie, Trans.). Londong, England: Forgotten Books. (Original work published 1963).

Basic Format for an Edition Other Than the First
Note the edition (“2nd ed., “ “Rev.ed.”) after the title.
Example(s):
Spatt, B. (2016). Writing from sources (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
79

Basic Format for a Book with an Author with an Editor
Include the editor’s name and the abbreviation “Ed.” in parentheses after the title.
Example(s):
Newport, M.T. (2011). Alzheimer’s disease: What if there was a cure? (P. Hirsch, Ed.). Laguna Beach, CA: Basic Health Publications.

Basic Format for a Work in an Edited Collection or Anthology, Including a Foreword, Introduction, Preface, or Afterword
Begin with the author, publication date, and title of the selection (not italicized). Follow with the word “In,” the names of the editors (initials first), the abbreviation
“Ed.” or “Eds.” in parentheses, the title of the anthology or collection (italicized), inclusive page numbers for the selection (in parentheses, with the abbreviation “pp.”),
and the place and publisher.
Example(s):
Sargeant, S. (2016). Psychology and models of health. In A. Tom & P. Greasley (Eds.), Psychology for nursing (pp. 21-34). London, England: Polity Press.
Joli, F. (2016). Foreword. In J. Arena, Legends of disco: Forty stars discuss their careers (pp. 1-2). Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Basic Format for a Sacred Text
Treat as you would a book.
Example(s):
Holy Bible: King James version. (2011). New York, NY: American Bible Society.

Basic Format for a Dissertation or Thesis
Give the author, date, and title before identifying the type of work (doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis). End with the name of the database and the identifying
number, or the URL.
Example(s):
West, R. (2012). Hostility toward the unattractive: Challenging current “sexual harassment” law (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses. (AAI 3545458).

Basic Format for a Book with Two or More Sources By the Same Author in the Same Year
List the works alphabetically, and include lowercase letters (a, b, and so on) after the dates.
Example(s):
Roach, M. (2013a). Gulp: Adventures on the alimentary canal. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
Roach, M. (2013b). My Planet: Finding humor in the oddest places. White Plains, NY: Reader’s Digest..
References- Print Periodicals
Citing Sources in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers.

80
Basic Format for Citing an Article in a Journal
Most journals continue page numbers throughout an entire annual volume, beginning again at page 1 only in the first volume of the next year. After the author and
publication year, provide the article title, the journal title, the volume number (italicized), and the inclusive page numbers.
Example(s):
Thonus, T. (2016. Time to say goodbye: Writing center consultation closings. Linguistics and Education, 33, 40-55.
If every issue of the journal begins at page 1, include the issue number in parentheses, not italicized, directly after the volume number.
Example(s):
Garicano, L., & Rayo, L. (2016). Why organizations fail: Models and cases. Journal of Economic Literature, 54(1), 137-192.
Many online journal articles now have DOIs (digital object identifiers), unique numbers assigned to specific content. If an article has a DOI, list it at the end of the
entry; you do not need to list the database you used to access the article or the date you accessed the database.
Example(s):
Logan, J. R. (2016, March 29). As long as there are neighborhoods. City and Community 159(1), 23-28. doi:10.1111/cico.12149.
If no DOI is available for an article accessed on the Web or in a database, give the URL for the journal’s home page instead.
Example(s):
West, M. R. (2016). Schools of choice. Education Next 16(2). Retrieved from http://educationnext.org/.

Basic Format for Citing an Article in a Magazine
Give the publication date as year and month for monthly magazines; year, month and date for weekly or biweekly magazines. Place the issue number, if any, in
parentheses directly after the volume number. Include all page numbers. For articles accessed on the Web, end with the URL of the magazine’s home page.
Example(s):
Fecht, S. (2012, December). Reef in a box. Popular Science, 281(6), 16.
Galea, S. (2016, April 5). Your healthy lifestyle won’t necessarily make you healthier. Wired. Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/.

Basic Format for Citing an Article in a Newspaper
Give the publication date as year, month, and date. Next give the article title followed by the name of the newspaper (italicized). Include all page numbers, preceded by
“p.” or “pp.”
Example(s):
Levenson, M. (2016, April 11). School closings bring pain, and not always savings. Boston Globe, p. A1.

Basic Format for Citing an Unsigned Article
Begin with the article title, and alphabetize in the references list by the first word in the title other than A, An, or The. Use “p.” or “pp.” before page numbers.
Example(s):
RNA-only genes: The origin of the species? (2012, April 28). The Economist, 388(8592), p. 40.

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Basic Format for Citing an Editorial
Include the word “Editorial” in square brackets after the title.
Example(s):
Affirm gays’ right to marriage [Editorial]. (2012, December 14). The Dallas Morning News, p. B12.

Basic Format for Citing a Letter To the Editor
Include the words “Letter to the editor” in square brackets after the title of the letter or, if the letter is untitled, in place of the title.
Example(s):
Gonzalez Hernandez, L. (2012, November 23). Stores should close on holidays [Letter to the editor]. Newsday, p. A24.

Basic Format for Citing a Review
After the title of the review, include the words “Review of the book ...” or “Review of the film ...” and so on in square brackets, followed by the title of the work reviewed.
If the reviewed work is a book, include the author’s name after a comma; if it is a film or other media, include the year of release. If the review is untitled, give the
bracketed information in place of the title.
Example(s):
Lane, A. (2014, December 15). Swinging Seventies [Review of the film Inherent Vice, 2014]. The New Yorker, p. 76.
Green, J. (2016, March 10). Theater review: Michelle Williams and Jeff Daniels in a superb Blackbird [Review of the play Blackbird, 2016]. Retrieved from
http://www.vulture.com/.
References- Print Other
Basic Format for Citing a Dissertation or Thesis

Give the author, date, and title before identifying the type of work (doctoral dissertation or master’s thesis). End with the name of the database and the identifying
number, or the URL
Example(s):
West, R. (2012). Hostility toward the unattractive: Challenging current “sexual harassment” law (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and
Theses. (AAI 3545458).
● If a Doctoral dissertation or a Master's Thesis is unpublished, that fact should be stated in parentheses after the title.
Basic Format for Citing a Government Publication

Give the name of the department, office, agency, or committee that issued the report as the author. If the document has a report or special file number, place that in
parentheses after the title. If the publication was found online, provide the DOI or URL.
Example(s):
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United States Congress. (2015). Economic indicators, October 2015. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Basic Format for Citing a Legal Document
Legal publications have their own unique format depending on the type and source of the document. They should be treated the same way as reference entries with no
author; alphabetize them by the first significant word entry other than A, An, or The.
Example(s):
Court Decisions
Name v. Name, Volume Source Page (Court Location and Date).
Meyer v. State of Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390 (S.Ct. 625 1923)
Statues
Name of Act, Volume Source § section number (year).
Farm Credit Act, 42 U.S.C.A. sec. § 410 (1959).
Legislative Materials (enacted Federal bills and resolutions)
xx. Res. xxx, xxx Cong., Volume Source page (year) (enacted)
S. Res. 223, 103d Cong., 2nd Sess., 140 Cong. Rec. 6871 (1993) (enacted).
Administrative and Executive Materials
Exec. Order No. xxxx, 3 C.F.R. Page (year).
Exec. Order No. 12149, 3 C.F.R. 420-22 (1979).
References- Digital and Media
Media Sources
Basic Format for a Citing a Film or Video Recording
List the director and producer (if available), the date of release, the title, the medium in square brackets (“Motion picture,” “DVD,” or “Blu-Ray disc”), the country
where the film was made, and the studio or distributor.
Example(s):
Nichols, J. (Director). (2016). Loving [Motion picture]. United States: Focus Features.

Basic Format for a Citing a Television or Radio Program
List the director, writer, producer, host, or reporter (if available); the broadcast date; the title, followed by “Television” or “Radio” and “broadcast” or “series episode”
in square brackets; the name of the series; and the city and name of the broadcaster.
Example(s):
Bee, S. (Host). 2016, February 15). Episode 2 [Television series episode]. In Full Frontal with Samantha Bee. Atlanta, GA TBS.

Basic Format for a Citing a Sound Recording
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List the author of the song; the date; the song title, followed by “On” and the recording title in italics; the medium in square brackets; and the production data. If the
song was recorded by an artist other than the author, add “Recorded by” plus the artist’s name in square brackets after the song title and the recording year in
parentheses after the production data.
Example(s):
Clapton, E. (2016). Catch the blues. On I still do [CD]. Encinitas, CA: Bushbranch/Surfdog Records.

Digital Sources
Basic Format for Citing a Web Document
For a stand-alone Web source such as a report, or a section within a larger website, cite as much of the following information as possible: author, publication date,
document title, and URL. If the content is likely to be changed or updated, include your retrieval date.
Example(s):
Matz, M. (2016, March 24). Five reasons to protect the Cherokee National Forest. Retrieved from http://www.pewtrusts.org/.

Basic Format for Citing an E-mail Message or Real-Time Communication
Because e-mail messages and real-time communications, such as text messages, are difficult or impossible for you readers to retrieve, APA does not recommend
including them in your references list. You should treat them as personal communication and cite them parenthetically in your text.
Basic Format for Citing a Message Posted to a Newsgroup, Electronic Mailing List, or Online Discussion Forum
List the author, posting date, and the title of the post or message subject line. Include a description of the message or post in square brackets. End with the URL where
the archived message can be retrieved. Include the name of the group, list, or forum if it is not part of the URL.
Example(s):
Nelms, J. (2016, January 14). Re: Evaluating writing faculty [Online discussion list post]. Retrieved from https://lists.asu.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A1=ind1601&L=WPA-
L#50
Basic Format for Citing a Blog Post or Comment
To cite an entry on a blog, give the author (or screen name, if available), the date the material was posted, and the title of the entry. Include the description “Blog post”
or “Blog comment” in square brackets and provide the URL.
Example(s):
Wade, L. (2016, March 10). Does your vote affect public policy? [Blog post]. Retrieved from https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2016/03/10/does-your-vote-affect-
public-policy/.

Basic Format for Citing a Facebook Post
Start with the author’s name exactly as it appears and the date of the post. Give the first few words of the post in place of the title, and include the label “Facebook post”
in square brackets. Include the retrieval date and the URL. If the Facebook page is private and will not be accessible to readers, cite it as you would cite personal
communication within the body of your text, not in the reference list.
Example(s):
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Macmillan Learning. (2016, April 28). College readiness and remediation go hand in hand [Facebook post]. Retrieved from
https://www.facebook.com/MacmillanLearn/
Basic Format for Citing a Twitter Post
Use the author’s real name, if possible, followed by the screen name in brackets. Include the entire tweet in place of the title, followed by the label “Tweet” in square
brackets. End with the URL.
Example(s):
Applebaum, Y. (2016, March 29). I can say as a historian, with a fair amount of confidence, that scholars will certainly mine social media in the future – they
already are [Tweet]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/YApplebaum/status/714822912172285952

Basic Format for Citing a Podcast
Give the name of the producer, the date of the podcast, and the title. Include a description in square brackets and the URL.
Example(s):
Blumberg, A. (Host). (2015, November 15). The Secret Formula. StartUp [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from https://gimletmedia.com/episode/16-the-secret-formula/

Basic Format for Citing an Online Video
Give the name of the creator, the date it was posted, and the title. Include a description in square brackets and the URL.
Example(s):
Neistat, C. (2012, November 3). Staten Island hurricane destruction [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?
feature=player_embedded&v=Wr9594oKZNQ#

Basic Format for Citing Computer Software or Game
Sometimes a person is named as having rights to the software or game: in that case, list that person as the author, followed by the date in parentheses. Identify the
source in square brackets as “Computer software” or “Computer game.” End with the place of publication and the publisher, or list the URL if the software is available
online. If the creator is unknown, begin with the name of the software or game, followed by the label in square brackets and the date in parentheses. End with the locatin
and publisher or URL. If you are referring to a specific version that isn’t included in the name, put this information last.
Example(s):
Rosetta Stone Spanish (Latin America) Level 1 [Computer software]. (2010) Arlington, VA: Rosetta Stone.
References- Other Sources
Note: Whenever anything is retrieved online or electronically, the reference entry should end with "Retrieved from" and the location information, i.e. "http://xxx", or a
DOI. For more information see References- electronic/online .
Basic Format for Citing a Cartoon or Comic Strip
Cartoons or comic strips can appear in newspapers, magazines, or in book format. If the cartoon appears in a book, use the standard book format. If it appears in a
newspaper or magazine, use the format for a newspaper or magazine.
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Newspaper
Artist, A. A. (date). Title of cartoon/comic strip. Title of Newspaper, pp. xx.
Morin, J. (2008, November 5). "Golly, Dick". The Denver Post, p. 23B.
● If the item is published in a magazine, include the issue and volume number.
● If there is no caption or title for the cartoon, include the first few words of dialogue.
Basic Format for Citing Conferences and Meetings

Information from conferences and meetings can be published, either in book form or as a regular occurring periodical. When this is the case, the reference should follow
the format for a book or periodical. If retrieved electronically, the reference should include "Retrieved from...." with the DOI or "http://xxx.xxx" as the final piece of the
reference entry. If, however, the information is not formally published, follow the templates below.
Contributor B. B., & Contributor C. C. (date). Title of contribution. In D. D. Chairperson (Chair), Title of conference/symposium. Conference/Symposium
conducted at the meeting of Organization Name, Location.
Anderson, J. R., & Powell, M. (2011, November 20). The history of the American Indian caucus. In S. Parks (Chair), NCTE centennial writing and working for
change founders panel, part 2: 1980's and 1990's. Meeting conducted at 101st Annual Convention of NCTE, Chicago, IL.
Paper presentation or Poster Session:
Presenter E. E. (date). Title of paper or poster. Paper or poster session presented at the meeting of Organization Name, Location.
Goff, B. F., & Goodrich, D. C. (1998, June). Integrated observations of semi-arid land-surface-atmosphere interactions. Poster session presented at a special
symposium of the American Meteorological Society, San Diego, CA.
Basic Format for Citing Data Sets, Software, Measurement Instruments, and Apparatus
It is unnecessary to create a reference entry for standard software and programming languages (Microsoft Word or Excel, Java, Adobe Photoshop, SAS or SPSS).
Simply give the name and the version number of the software in text. Reference entries are needed, however, for specialized software or computer programs with only
limited distribution.
Software
Rightsholder, F. F. (year). Title of program (Version number) [Description of form]. Location: Name of producer.
REA Testware (2011). Praxis II English subject assessments (2nd edition) [CD]. Piscataway, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
● If retrieved online, substitute the online retrieval information (Retrieved from http://xxx.xxx) for the location and name of producer
Data set
Author, G. G. or Organization. (year). Title of data set [Data set]. Retrieved from http://xxx.xxx
Pew Hispanic Center. (2008). 2008 Post-election national survey of Latinos [Data set]. Retrieved from http://www.pewhispanic.org/category/datasets/

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● Italicize data set titles, but not software, programs or languages.
● Unless there is an individual with proprietary rights to the software, the reference should be displayed as an un-authored work.
● Identify the version number in parentheses immediately after the title, unless there isn't one.
● After the title/version number put the description of form in brackets [ ], i.e. [Computer program], [Data set].
● In the publisher position give the location and name of the organization that produced the work. Or, if it can be downloaded or ordered online, provide that
information instead in the same position.
● The legal reference format should be used for an apparatus patent
● For more information, particularly on measurements and apparatus, see the sixth edition of the APA Publication Manual, section 7.08.
Basic Format for Citing an Entry in a Dictionary or an Encyclopedia [Including a Wiki]

Begin your citation with the name of the author or, if the entry is unsigned, the title of the entry. Proceed with the date, the entry title (if not already given), the title of
the reference work, the edition number, and the pages. If the contents of the reference work are arranged alphabetically, omit the volume and page numbers. If the entry
was found online, provide the DOI or URL. Because the material on a wiki is likely to change, include the retrieval date as well.
Example(s):
Ray, S. & Schwartz, H. (2016). Globalization. In Encyclopedia of post-colonial studies. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
House music. (2015). Wikipedia. Retrieved November 16, 2015, from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_music
Basic Format for Citing an Entry in a Dictionary or an Encyclopedia [Including a Wiki]
Begin your citation with the name of the author or, if the entry is unsigned, the title of the entry. Proceed with the date, the entry title (if not already given), the title of
the reference work, the edition number, and the pages. If the contents of the reference work are arranged alphabetically, omit the volume and page numbers. If the entry
was found online, provide the DOI or URL. Because the material on a wiki is likely to change, include the retrieval date as well.
Example(s):
Ray, S. & Schwartz, H. (2016). Globalization. In Encyclopedia of post-colonial studies. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Basic Format for Citing a Brochure or Pamphlet
Format the entry as you would a book. Insert “n.d.” if there is no publication date.
Example(s):
UNESCO. (n.d). The world heritage brochure. Paris: Author Press.
Interviews
How interviews are cited and listed in the references depends on the original format of the interview. If the interview is a 3rd party interview (not conducted by you),
and is recoverable (it is published or recorded and archived and can be retrieved by someone else), then use the appropriate reference format, i.e. video, sound
recording, article, etc.
If the interview was conducted by you for information purposes and that person agrees to be identified as a source, then it falls under personal communication and is
cited in-text only. A reference entry is not required for it because it cannot be retrieved.
If the interview involved a research participant no citation is necessary. Do not cite in-text or list as a reference entry as this would constitute a breach in confidentiality.
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Basic Format for Citing Unpublished Survey Data
Give the title of the survey first, followed by the date the survey was distributed, and the words “Unpublished raw data.”
Example(s):
The University of Iowa graduation exit survey. (2012, April 22). Unpublished raw data.

Basic Format for Citing an Unpublished Letter
Treat unpublished letters as personal communications, and include them in your text only. Do not cite unpublished letters in your references list.
Basic Format for Citing a Lecture or Public Address
Provide the name of the speaker, followed by the full date of the presentation and the title of the speech if there is one. End the entry with a brief description of the event
and its location.
Example(s):
Wolin, P. (2016, May 3). Descendants of light: American photographers of Jewish ancestry. 92nd Street Y, New York, NY.
Map or Chart
Organization producing item (Cartographer). (year). Title of map [Type of map]. Location: Publisher.
American Automobile Association (Cartographer). (1992). Chicago and vicinity [Road map]. Heathrow, FL: AAA.
If retrieved online
Organization producing item (Cartographer). (year). Title of map [Type of map]. Retrieved from http://xxx.xxx
National Geographic (Cartographer). (1968). Atlantic Ocean Floor Map 1968 [Topographic map]. Retrieved from http://www.maps.com/map.aspx?
nav=MS&cid=22,1529,1541&pid=15757
Work of Visual Art
Artist, U. (year). Title of piece [Identify type of art: sculpture, photograph, etc]. Location viewed.
Van Gogh, V. (1889). Sunflowers [Oil on canvas]. Retrieved from http://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/vgm/index.jsp?page=3503&lang=en
● For location, give the geographical location (City, State) along with the name of the museum or building where the work was viewed. If viewed online, include
that information in the location position as "Retrieved from http://xxx.xxx".
● For the type of art, give as much information as you have: watercolor, print, bronze sculpture, oil painting, photograph, etc.
Additional Resources
Print Resources
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, sixth edition. (2008).
Online Resources
APA style website:
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http://www.apastyle.org/index.aspx
Purdue Owl website:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/10/
Citation Information
Will Allen, Mike Palmquist, Karen A. Buntinas, Carol Busch, Beth Etter, Laurel Nesbitt, Nick Carbone, Heidi Scott, Jill Salahub, and Peter Connor. (1994-2022).
Citation Guide: American Psychological Association (APA) . The WAC Clearinghouse. Colorado State University. Available at
https://wac.colostate.edu/resources/writing/guides/.
Copyright Information
Copyright © 1994-2022 Colorado State University and/or this site's authors, developers, and contributors. Some material displayed on this site is used with permission.
Paraphrasing techniques
When you write a paraphrase, you restate other’s ideas in your own words. That is, you write the meaning of the author’s ideas. You use some of the author’s
key terms, but you use many of your own words and sentence structures. You include in-text citation, including the author’s last name and (for APA style) the year of
publication.
An effective paraphrase includes more than one of the following techniques. If you use only one of these techniques when paraphrasing, you have not paraphrased
effectively.

1. Change a word from one part of speech to another

Original: Medical professor John Swanson says that global changes are influencing the spread of disease.
Paraphrase: According to John Swanson, a professor of medicine, changes across the globe are causing diseases to spread (James, 2004).
1. Use synonyms
Original: The U.S. government declared that the AIDS crisis poses a national security threat. The announcement followed an intelligence report that found high
rates of HIV infection could lead to widespread political destabilization.
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Paraphrase: The government of the United States announced that AIDS could harm the nation's security. The government warned the population after an
important governmental study concluded that political problems could result from large numbers of people infected with HIV (Snell, 2005).
1. Change numbers and percentages to different forms

Original: Minority groups in the United States have been hit hardest by the epidemic. African Americans, who make up 13 percent of the U.S. population,
accounted for 46 percent of the AIDS cases diagnosed in 1998.
Paraphrase: The AIDS epidemic has mostly affected minorities in the United States. For example, in 1998, less than 15 percent of the total population was African,
but almost half of the people diagnosed with AIDS in the United States that year were African America (Jenson, 2000).
1. Change word order: this might include changing from active to passive voice or moving modifiers to different positions.
Original: Angier (2001) reported that malaria kills more than one million people annually, the overwhelming majority of them children in sub-Saharan Africa.
Paraphrase: Every year, more than a million people are killed by malaria, and most of the victims are children who live in sub-Saharan Africa (Angier, 2001).
5. Use different definition structures

Original: Lyme disease is an inflammatory disease caused by a bacterium transmitted by ticks (small bloodsucking arachnids that attach themselves to larger
animals). The disease is usually characterized by a rash followed by flu-like symptoms, including fever, joint pain, and headache.
Paraphrase: Lyme disease-a disease that causes swelling and redness-is caused by a bacterium carried by a small arachnid known as a tick. The ticks attach to and
suck the blood of animals and humans, transferring some of the Lyme disease bacteria into their hosts and causing symptoms similar to the flu (Wald, 2005).
6. Use different attribution signals

Original: “That’s because there are so many different ways the diseases could have arrived,” veterinarian Mark Walters declared in his recent book, Six Modern
Plagues.
Paraphrase: According to Mark Walters, a veterinarian who wrote Six Modern Plagues, the disease could have arrived in numerous ways (Peterson, 2004).
7. Change the sentence structure and use different connecting words
Original: Although only about one-tenth of the world’s population lives there, sub-Saharan Africa remains the hardest hit region, accounting for 72 percent of the
people infected with HIV during 2000.
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Paraphrase: Approximately 10 percent of the world’s population resides in sub-Saharan Africa. However, this area of the world has the highest percentage of
AIDS-related illnesses. In fact, in 2000, almost three-fourths of the population had the HIV virus (Bunting, 2004).
Caution: When paraphrasing, do not change key terms or proper nouns.

Original: In the northeastern United States, people are building homes on the edge of woods, where ticks that carry Lyme disease hitch rides on deer. In addition,
in Africa, hunters bring back the meat of animals that scientists think may transmit Ebola, a usually fatal disease that causes massive hemorrhaging in its victims.
Paraphrase: In the United States, residential areas are being built near wooded areas in the northeast. These areas are also the homes of ticks carrying Lyme
disease. Also, according to scientists, hunters in Africa kill animals that may carry the Ebola virus (an often fatal virus that causes massive hemorrhaging) (Yaya,
2004).
Guidelines in writing review of related literature
Choosing a Topic
The first task to tackle, often the most difficult, in writing a review of literature is choosing a topic. Often the task is especially difficult because of a lack of knowledge in
the content area. Below are some hints for facilitating your selection of a topic. First, skim through your textbook and identify broad topics in the discipline that interest
you. Second, read the chapters associated with the topics you pick to develop familiarity with the vocabulary (key words), primary investigators, and issues or
controversies in the area. Other exercise physiology books and the list of Possible Topics for In-Class Discussion may also be used to identify topics. Third, narrow the
focus of your interest to a fairly narrow (manageable) topic. For example, if you are interested in the anaerobic threshold you need to narrow your field of investigation
to some aspect of this topic (e.g., measurement indices or AnT and performance) The next step, after choosing a topic, is to go to the library and search for journal
articles published in the area. Use the education, physical education, sports, and medical on-line indices to facilitate the search. Use key words to find article titles for
specific topics; sometimes abstracts are provided for the reader's reference. Abstracts can be useful, time saving devices because they aid in weeding good, associated
literature from unrelated, peripheral articles.
Selecting Appropriate Articles
The type of articles that are selected for a good review of literature are theoretical presentations, review articles, and empirical research articles. Choosing the work of a
single researcher may be one method for starting a literature review. Your presentation will be more powerful if conflicting theoretical positions and findings are
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presented along with the position or prediction that you support in your paper. You should choose several researchers' works that have added to the knowledge base in a
specific area. Strive to eliminate (or explain away) articles that have faulty methods or that use faulty reasoning to support their findings.
Reviewing the Articles
It is best if you read the article and then summarize the method, results, and discussion. In this way you do not risk quoting an author out of context or plagiarizing.
Additionally you are forced to understand the article more thoroughly than if you copy quotations. Expect to have read the research articles more than once in order to
completely understand the material. A common method for reviewing research articles is to write notes about the article while reading it. This may be a mistake. A
review of this type often leads the investigator to copying quotations from the article and then using the quotes in the review, or plagiarizing the work of others. Often
quotes are taken out of context and are misleading. Using a 5" by 7" index card for note taking has many advantages. The top wide margin of the card can be used to
write the bibliographic information (always include all needed information) and the remaining front and back of the card is large enough for your written summary
information. Be sure to use a new card for each study reviewed. At the end of your literature search these separate cards will enable you to group similar studies under
headings. Also when you type your reference list you can alphabetize the cards and type the list directly from them. This method is a great time saver.
Format
You should become familiar with the format of the American Psychological Association (APA). This format is the one most used in exercise physiology writing. A brief
APA style guide will be provided, however, it is recommended that you purchase or refer to the APA Publication Manual for detailed information.
● Double space and use 1-inch margins around the perimeter of each page.
● Keep print style and size reasonable (e.g., 12-point Times or similar size)
● Print dark enough for readability.
● Staple paper together and submit them in a file folder (not a binder or notebook).
● Proof read paper and correct all mistakes before turning it in.
Other Considerations
A good review of literature is one in which the topic is narrowly defined. When writing the review the discussion of articles should be integrated and critical. Take
changes when you critique the nature of the experimentation and discussions. You will become more proficient at this task as time passes. This is your paper! It is your
chance to analyze and interpret literature and expound on ideas. Treat the paper as a forum for expressing important ideas. You are expected to write a paper that is
insightful and analytical.
Final Recommendations
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Begin to choose your topic today. Think about your interests and look through the textbook. Feel free to discuss your topic or potential topics with me. This may be
useful since I can help to focus your attention on specific, narrow topics and articles in the literature.
Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that
explains why the research problem under study exists. Abend, Gabriel.
The theoretical framework defines the key concepts in your research, proposes relations between them, and discusses relevant theories based on a literature review.
A strong theoretical framework gives your research direction, allowing you to convincingly interpret, explain and generalize from your findings.
Sample problem statement and research questions

Your problem statement, research questions and literature review will serve as the basis for preparing your theoretical framework.
Company X is struggling with the problem that many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases. Management wants to increase customer loyalty
and believes that improved customer satisfaction will play a major role in achieving this goal.
To investigate this problem, you have identified the following problem statement, objective, and research questions:
Problem: Many online customers do not return to make subsequent purchases.
Objective: To increase customer loyalty and thereby generate more revenue.
Research question: ‘How can the satisfaction of company X’s online customers be improved in order to increase customer loyalty?’
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Sub-Questions:
1. ‘What is the relationship between customer loyalty and customer satisfaction?’

2. ‘How satisfied and loyal are company X’s online customers currently?’
3. ‘What factors affect the satisfaction and loyalty of company X’s online customers?’
As the concepts of “loyalty” and “customer satisfaction” play a major role in the investigation and will later be measured, they are essential concepts to define within
the theoretical framework.
Sample theoretical framework

Below is a (simplified) example of how you can describe and compare definitions and theories. In this example, we focus on the concept of ‘customer satisfaction.’
2.1 Customer satisfaction

Thomassen (2003, p. 69) defines customer satisfaction as “the perception of the customer as a result of consciously or unconsciously comparing their experiences with
their expectations.” Kotler & Keller (2008, p. 80) build on this definition, stating that customer satisfaction is determined by “the degree to which someone is happy or
disappointed with the observed performance of a product in relation to his or her expectations.” Performance that is below expectations leads to a dissatisfied customer,
while performance that satisfies expectations produces satisfied customers. Expectations being exceeded leads to a “very satisfied or even pleasantly surprised customer”
(Kotler & Keller, 2003, p. 80).
The definition of Zeithaml and Bitner (2003, p. 86) is slightly different from that of Thomassen: “Satisfaction is the consumer fulfillment response. It is a judgement that
a product or service feature, or the product of service itself, provides a pleasurable level of consumption-related fulfillment.” Zeithaml and Bitner’s emphasis is thus on
obtaining a certain satisfaction in relation to purchasing.
Thomassen’s definition is the most relevant to the aims of this study, given the emphasis it places on unconscious perception. Although Zeithaml and Bitner, like
Thomassen, say that customer satisfaction is a reaction to the experience gained, there is no distinction between conscious and unconscious comparisons in their
definition. Company X claims in its mission statement that it wants to sell not only a product, but also a feeling; as a result, unconscious comparison will play an
important role in the satisfaction of its customers. Thomassen’s definition is therefore more relevant to the current study.
Thomassen’s Customer Satisfaction Model
According to Thomassen, both the so-called value proposition and other influences have an impact on final customer satisfaction. In his satisfaction model (Fig. 1),
Thomassen shows that word-of-mouth, personal needs, past experiences, and marketing and public relations determine customers’ needs and expectations. These factors
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are compared to their experiences, and this comparison between expectations and experiences determines a customer’s satisfaction level. Thomassen’s model is
important for this study: it allows us to determine both the extent to which company X’s customers are satisfied and where improvements can be made.
Fig. 1: Customer satisfaction creation (Thomassen, 2007, p.30).

Of course, you could analyze the concepts more thoroughly and compare additional definitions to each other. You could also discuss the theories and ideas of key
authors in greater detail and provide several models to illustrate different concepts.
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Conceptual framework
What is Conceptual Framework in research?
There are two kinds of framework used when writing the background of a study, theoretical and conceptual.

A theoretical framework is a broad and established set of rules, truths, or principles on which the study is founded. Examples include Newton’s laws of motion in
physical sciences and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in social sciences. Thus, for instance, a physicist could use Newton’s laws of motion, or one of the laws, to study the
appearance of comets, the speed of asteroids, or the gravitational pull of a black hole. Similarly, a sociologist could use Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to study the life cycle
of social media platforms. Note that you can use multiple theoretical frameworks as needed for your study.
The theoretical framework leads into the conceptual framework, which is a specific exploration of an aspect of the theoretical framework. In other words, the conceptual
framework is used to arrive at a hypothesis. Let’s look at a couple of classical examples. Archimedes used theories about gravity and buoyancy (theoretical frameworks)
to understand the behavior of different objects when immersed (conceptual framework), which led him to a method to accurately identify a gold object under immersion
(hypothesis). Similarly, Pavlov used stimuli and response (theoretical frameworks) to study conditioning in animal subjects (conceptual framework), which led him to
predict that upon being conditioned to one set of stimuli, the animal would later respond in the same way to the presentation of any one of the stimuli (hypothesis).
How to make an effective theoretical and conceptual framework of a research study?
This is an interesting question; however, it requires the expertise of a subject-area expert. Additionally, since you will be conducting the research, you yourself would be
the best judge of which theoretical framework would be most appropriate for the research questions you have in mind. To justify your investigation, you need to have a
clear understanding of the relationship between what is being done on the topic currently with the thread of knowledge that led to the current investigation.
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To understand this, you will need to review the literature and information already published to understand the gaps in current knowledge in your field and also to
identify the accepted methodologies and study design to address the questions at hand. A good place to start is by reading recent articles in related journals to
understand how to go about this task.
Guidelines in completing Chapter 1 of the research proposal (theoretical/conceptual framework, scope and delimitation of the study, significance of the study, and
definition of terms)
What is scope and delimitation of the study?

The scope details how in-depth your study is to explore the research question and the parameters in which it will operate in relation to the population and
timeframe. The delimitations of a study are the factors and variables not to be included in the investigation.
Scope and delimitations are two elements of a research paper or thesis. The scope of a study explains the extent to which the research area will be explored in the work
and specifies the parameters within which the study will be operating. For example, let's say a researcher wants to study the impact of mobile phones on behavior
patterns of elementary school children. However, it is not possible for the researcher to cover every aspect of the topic.
So the scope will have to be narrowed down to a certain section of the target population. In this case, the scope might be narrowed down to a group of 50 children in
grades 3-5 of one specific school. Their behavior patterns in school may have been observed for a duration of 6 months. These would form the delimitations of the study.
Thus, delimitations are the characteristics that limit the scope and describe the boundaries of the study, such as the sample size, geographical location or setting in which
the study takes place, population traits, etc. Additionally, the researcher might also choose to use some research tools and methodologies to collect data but not others.
These delimitations might be imposed for practical reasons, such as lack of time or financial resources to carry out a more thorough investigation. The delimitation
section of the study should explain why specific choices were made while others were excluded and how this might affect the outcome of the research.
In the example mentioned above, the researcher might state why he/she chose to study a sample population of 50 students, why he/she selected students from Grades 3-5
and not grades 1-2, and why he/she chose students of Billabong Elementary Public School over other schools.
Delimitation is the process of drawing boundaries for or fixing the limits of something. Researchers identify and articulate delimitations to explain what their studies will
and won’t cover while also defining the methodologies and approaches they’ll use to carry out their studies.
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Delimitations help inform the overall scope, which is how deeply a paper, dissertation or study delves into a research question. A scope is the extent of the area or subject
matter that something deals with. Often, a well-defined scope addresses the following standard questions.
Delimitations involve a researcher establishing boundaries, whereas limitations are about identifying weaknesses in or barriers to carrying out the study as the
researcher originally intended. Limitations disclose what a researcher cannot do (factors outside their control), and delimitations disclose what a researcher won’t do
(factors that they chose not to focus on within the scope of the study).
For example, in a study about the impact of arts integration on proficiency levels within an elementary school classroom of 30 students, a limitation may be that the
researcher only received parental consent for 25 students to participate. Additional examples of limitations are a lack of previous research on the subject to analyze and
work from, a lack of access to the right tools and technology to collect data, and a lack of financial resources to sustain the research. Unlike researcher-defined
delimitations, these limitations are initially unforeseen and outside of the researcher’s control.
An example of a delimitation, on the other hand, would be if the researcher opted to focus on third graders and exclude students without special needs from the study. A
delimitation tells readers whom the study will cover. In this example, that’s third graders who utilize special education accommodations. The delimitations can also
explain how a study is done, which might be through conducting student interviews and an analysis of test results before and after the integration of the arts into the
special needs curriculum. Lastly, delimitations provide a picture of where a researcher conducts the study. In the case of this example, the delimitations could include
the state, school district and specific school participating in the study.
Examples of Delimitations in Research

Research delimitations can shape and inform a study’s research objectives, methodology, variables and target populations. They can potentially prevent certain
outcomes by focusing on sample sizes or population demographics, or they can help in achieving statistical significance. Setting these boundaries helps narrow a
researcher’s focus area while increasing the relevance and specificity of the study.
A. The Preliminaries
1. The title shows the variables.
2. The title tells that it is quantitative or qualitative research.
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3. The title reflects the purpose.
4. The title includes the participants.
5. The abstract accurately synthesize the content of the study.
B. Chapter 1: The Problem and Review of Related Literature
1. The study demonstrates a clear description of the problem and addresses the research gap.
2. The rationale and purposes of the study are clearly stated.
3. The study provided a concise yet comprehensive, well-organized, and integrated review of related conceptual and research literature.
4. The literature review provided ideas/findings about the writings of authorities and researches that are related to the variables under
investigation.
5. The author(s) or source(s) are properly cited and included in the references.
6. The literature review flows logically according to the variables and all are relevant to the study.
7. Long paragraphs are paraphrased or simplified and important passages are quoted that have bearing to the study.
8. Relevant, classical, and updated theories are used as the scientific basis of the study.
9. The theoretical/conceptual framework is the basis in the formulation of the research problems/ hypotheses which are clearly
articulated.
10. The ideas in the study are developed with coherence and are presented in a logical order.
C. Chapter 2: Research Methodology
1. Research design is appropriate to address the problems and hypotheses of the study.
2. The sample of respondents/participants represents the population of the study.
3. The research instrument/s is/are appropriate, reliable, and valid to address the problems of the study.
4. The data gathering procedure is appropriate and clearly articulated.
5. The statistical treatment of data is based on the problems. It is appropriate based on the type of data collected.
D. Chapter 3: Results, Analysis, and Discussion
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1. The findings are answers to the problems presented in the appropriate tables that are well titled.
2. The data results are well analyzed and discussed according to problems and the hypotheses are correctly affirmed or denied.
3. The findings are backed up by appropriate statistical results according to the nature of the problem.
4. The findings are supported and substantiated by conceptual and research literature.
5. There is a clear presentation of the results, analysis, and discussion with an in-depth interpretation,
E. Chapter 4: Summary of Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations
1. There is a clear specific finding per problem.
2. There is a clear specific conclusion per problem.
3. There is a clear specific recommendation per problem.
4. The findings, conclusions, and recommendations according to problems are presented in a logical order.
5. There are recommendations in the directions for future researchers or other avenues to promote resolutions to the issues.
F. Over-all Content
1. The organization and format of the study are with reference to institutional format (including paging, indenting, margins, font style,
and font size).
2. The research study has been carefully proofread, accurate in spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
3. The research study is generally written in clear and concise; the ideas and concepts were arranged logically.
4. The logic is clearly observed from the title up to the end of the whole study.
5. All the cited conceptual and research literature in the text are found in the bibliography/reference section.
Concepts of research method, approach, and design
What is the difference between Research Design and Research Method?
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Research design is a plan to answer your research question. A research method is a strategy used to implement that plan. Research design and methods are different
but closely related, because good research design ensures that the data you obtain will help you answer your research question more effectively.
Which research method should I choose?
It depends on your research goal. It depends on what subjects (and who) you want to study. Let's say you are interested in studying what makes people happy, or
why some students are more conscious about recycling on campus. To answer these questions, you need to make a decision about how to collect your data. Most
frequently used methods include:
1. Observation / Participant Observation

2. Surveys
3. Interviews
4. Focus Groups
5. Experiments
6. Secondary Data Analysis / Archival Study
7. Mixed Methods (combination of some of the above)
One particular method could be better suited to your research goal than others, because the data you collect from different methods will be different in quality
and quantity. For instance, surveys are usually designed to produce relatively short answers, rather than the extensive responses expected in qualitative
interviews.
What other factors should I consider when choosing one method over another?
Time for data collection and analysis is something you want to consider. An observation or interview method, so-called qualitative approach, helps you collect
richer information, but it takes time. Using a survey helps you collect more data quickly, yet it may lack details. So, you will need to consider the time you have for
research and the balance between strengths and weaknesses associated with each method (e.g., qualitative vs. quantitative).
Research Approach. Research approaches are plans and the procedures for research. that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data
collection, analysis, and interpretation.
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Types of research approaches
In a broad, interdisciplinary field such as Planning, research may be conducted in a number of ways. Five possible research approaches are suggested below. They are
by no means mutually exclusive: a research project may include two or more of these approaches, or approaches other than those described.
The descriptive study
This approach attempts to identify the characteristics of a problem through description. Because the subject cannot be described in all its detail, careful selection of facts
must occur. Facts should be gathered according to pre-determined criteria and for the purpose of demonstrating relationships of interest. To the extent that the
descriptive study of a particular problem provides one with a generalized understanding of a phenomenon that, in turn, can be employed to understand other specific
problems, this approach is useful and acceptable. An example of this approach would be a description of an unusual planning program in operation in one Municipality,
with the objective being to illustrate how the program differs from similar programs found in other Municipalities.
The explanatory study
For example, why has an urban area acquired its particular shape, or why has a city council refrained from allowing mobile home parks in the community? The
explanatory studies are designed to investigate origin - cause-effect relationships. The typical study includes the collection of empirical data for the formulation of
hypotheses or less pretentious hunches and the subsequent test of these hypotheses by any one of a number of ways available to the researcher.
The remedial study
The remedial study seeks to formulate plans to correct or improve undesirable social, economic, political, and environmental conditions. These undesirable conditions,
causes and processes associated with them are analyzed. Plans, strategies, and policies are formulated to remedy the undesirable conditions. Implementation methods
may be suggested. A remedial study may be directed to the solution of pollution of a lake ringed by cottages or to pedestrian and vehicular conflicts in the central
business district.
The methodological study
The methodological study attempts to devise, test or improve new research methods in Planning. The study may deal with the development of a specific technique for the
discipline or may take a technique developed by another discipline and attempt to apply it to a Planning context. Possible examples of this approach are innumerable;
for example, the application of new forecasting techniques developed in Management Science to a planning problem, or an attempt to develop methods for breaking
down cross census information into smaller temporal or areal units.
The historical study
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If it is designed to facilitate a deeper understanding of historical processes and is not merely an attempt to fill gaps in our factual knowledge, the historical approach can
be very useful. Studies detailing the transference of the modern town Planning movement from Europe to North America or the evolution of company towns in Ontario
would be appropriate uses of the historical approach.
Research design definition

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are
suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.
The design of a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey research, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its sub-type (experimental
design, research problem, descriptive case-study).
There are three main types of designs for research: Data collection, measurement, and analysis.
The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the research design and not vice-versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use
and how they are used.
An impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the least margin of error in
experimental research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential elements are:
1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
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Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that
meets all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics:
Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research should be free
from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the derived
results.
Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar results every time. Your design should indicate how to form
research questions to ensure the standard of results. You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your design is reliable.
Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the
objective of the research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a restricted sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be
conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy.
The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and so all the above characteristics should be balanced in a good design.
A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select which model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of
your study can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative: Qualitative research determines relationships between collected data and observations based on mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally
existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using statistical methods. Researchers rely on qualitative research methods that conclude “why” a particular theory
exists along with “what” respondents have to say about it.
Quantitative: Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better perspective to make
critical business decisions. Quantitative research methods are necessary for the growth of any organization. Insights drawn from hard numerical data and analysis
prove to be highly effective when making decisions related to the future of the business.
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You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:
1. Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based
design method which is created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research.
Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research. If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research.
2. Experimental research design: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes
the impact caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a
dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is a highly practical research method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand.
The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by
analyzing two groups. Researchers can have participants change their actions and study how the people around them react to gain a better understanding of social
psychology.
3. Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research technique that helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely
connected variables. This type of research requires two different groups. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship between two different variables, and
statistical analysis techniques calculate the relationship between them.
A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables, whose value ranges between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates
a positive relationship between the variables and -1 means a negative relationship between the two variables.
4. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one
learn more about the factors that create troublesome situations.
This design has three parts of the research:
Inception of the issue
· Diagnosis of the issue
· Solution for the issue

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5. Explanatory research design: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories. The research explains
unexplored aspects of a subject and details about what, how, and why of research questions.
Functions of a research design
● To develop an operational plan to undertake various steps of the research.

● To ensure validity, reliability, and authenticity in each step of the research.
Research method. Research methods refers to the tools that one uses to do research. These can either be qualitative or quantitative or mixed. Quantitative methods
examines numerical data and often requires the use of statistical tools to analyze data collected.
Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When
planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
● Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
● Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
● Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?
Second, decide how you will analyze the data.
● For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
● For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.
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Methods for collecting data
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question. The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data.
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing, collect quantitative data.
Pros Cons
Qualitative ● Flexible – you can often adjust your methods as you go ● Can’t be analyzed statistically or generalized to broader
to develop new knowledge. populations.
● Can be conducted with small samples ● Difficult to standardize research.
Quantitative ● Can be used to systematically describe large collections ● Requires statistical training to analyze data.
of things. ● Requires larger samples.
● Generates reproducible knowledge.
You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
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Primary vs. secondary data
Primary data is any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys, observations
and experiments). Secondary data is information that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data. But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends,
or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Pros Cons
Primary ● Can be collected to answer your specific research ● More expensive and time-consuming to collect.
question. ● Requires training in data collection methods.
● You have control over the sampling and measurement
methods.
Secondary ● Easier and faster to access. ● No control over how data was generated.
● You can collect data that spans longer timescales and ● Requires extra processing to make sure it works for your analysis.
broader geographical locations.
Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research, you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method.
In experimental research, you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design.
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To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable, precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables. If
it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Pros Cons
Descriptive ● Allows you to describe your research subject without influencing it. ● No control over confounding variables.
● Accessible – you can gather more data on a larger scale. ● Can’t establish cause and effect relationships.
Experimental ● More control over confounding variables. ● You might influence your research subject in
● Can establish cause and effect relationships. unexpected ways.
● Usually requires more expertise and resources to
collect data.
Research methods for collecting data
Research method Primary or Qualitative or When to use

secondary? quantitative?
Experiment Primary Quantitative To test cause-and-effect relationships.
Survey Primary Quantitative To understand general characteristics of a population.
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Research methods for collecting data
Research method Primary or Qualitative or When to use

secondary? quantitative?
Interview/focus Primary Qualitative To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic.

group
Observation Primary Either To understand how something occurs in its natural

setting.
Literature review Secondary Either To situate your research in an existing body of work,
or to evaluate trends within a research topic.
Case study Either Either To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group

or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a
large study.
Methods for analyzing data
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Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.
Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses
or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:
● From open-ended survey and interview questions, literature reviews, case studies, and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
● Using non-probability sampling methods.
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions.
Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in
experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:
● During an experiment.
● Using probability sampling methods.
Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
Research methods for analyzing data

Research method. Qualitative or quantitative? When to use Statistical analysis – Quantitative. To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from
experiments, surveys, and observations). Meta-analysis Quantitative. To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies.
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Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner.
Thematic analysis Qualitative. To analyze data collected from interviews, focus groups or textual sources.
To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated.
Content analysis Either To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources.
Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words).
What is the difference between methods and methodology?
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project. It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles
behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys, and statistical tests).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section.
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation, you will probably include a methodology section, where you explain your approach to
answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
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Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses. Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more
detail.
Here are some example of quantitative data:

● A jug of milk holds one gallon.
● The painting is 14 inches wide and 12 inches long.
● The new baby weighs six pounds and five ounces.
● A bag of broccoli crowns weighs four pounds.
● A coffee mug holds 10 ounces.
● John is six feet tall.
● A tablet weighs 1.5 pounds.
Qualitative method
What is the meaning of quantitative method?

Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and
surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques.
The hair colors of players on a football team, the color of cars in a parking lot, the letter grades of students in a classroom, the types of coins in a jar,
and the shape of candies in a variety pack are all examples of qualitative data so long as a particular number is not assigned to any of these descriptions
Guidelines in writing research design

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:
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● Your overall aims and approach
● The type of research design you’ll use
● Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
● Your data collection methods
● The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
● Your data analysis methods
A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.
You might have to write up a research design as a standalone assignment, or it might be part of a larger research proposal or other project. In either case, you should
carefully consider which methods are most appropriate and feasible for answering your question.
Step 1: Consider your aims and approach

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.
Research question example: How can teachers adapt their lessons for effective remote learning?
There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by
thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.
The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.
Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach

● Understand subjective experiences, beliefs, and concepts ● Measure variables and describe frequencies, averages, and correlations
● Gain in-depth knowledge of a specific context or culture ● Test hypotheses about relationships between variables
● Explore under-researched problems and generate new ideas ● Test the effectiveness of a new treatment, program or product
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Qualitative approach Quantitative approach
● Understand subjective experiences, beliefs, and ● Measure variables and describe frequencies,
concepts averages, and correlations
● Gain in-depth knowledge of a specific context or ● Test hypotheses about relationships between
culture variables
● Explore under-researched problems and ● Test the effectiveness of a new treatment,
generate new ideas program or product
Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive, allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.
Qualitative research example: If you want to generate new ideas for online teaching strategies, a qualitative approach would make the most sense. You can use this type
of research to explore exactly what teachers and students struggle with in remote classes.
Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive, with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.
Quantitative research example: If you want to test the effectiveness of an online teaching method, a quantitative approach is most suitable. You can use this type of
research to measure learning outcomes like grades and test scores.
It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more
complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.
Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to
consider research ethics.
● How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
● Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g. by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
● Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g. statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
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● Will you need ethical approval?
At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.
Step 2: Choose a type of research design

Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of
your research.
Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships,
while descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.
Type of design Purpose and characteristic

Experimental ● Used to test causal relationships
● Involves manipulating an independent variable and measuring its effect on a dependent variable
● Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
● Usually conducted in a controlled environment (e.g. a lab)
Quasi-experimental ● Used to test causal relationships

● Similar to experimental design, but without random assignment
● Often involves comparing the outcomes of pre-existing groups
● Often conducted in a natural environment
Correlational ● Used to test whether (and how strongly) variables are related
● Variables are measured without influencing them
Descriptive ● Used to describe characteristics, averages, trends, etc.
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● Variables are measured without influencing them
With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t
draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation).
Correlational design example: You could use a correlational design to find out if the rise in online teaching in the past year correlates with any change in test scores.
But this design can’t confirm a causal relationship between the two variables. Any change in test scores could have been influenced by many other variables, such as
increased stress and health issues among students and teachers.
Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions
may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.
Experimental design example: In an experimental design, you could gather a sample of students and then randomly assign half of them to be taught online and the other
half to be taught in person, while controlling all other relevant variables.
By comparing their outcomes in test scores, you can be more confident that it was the method of teaching (and not other variables) that caused any change in scores.
Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be
more creative and flexible in designing your research.
The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when
analyzing the data.
Type of Design Purpose and Characteristics

Case Study ● Detailed study of a specific subject (e.g. a place, event, organization, etc).
● Data can be collected using a variety of sources and methods.
● Focuses on gaining a holistic understanding of the case.
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Ethnography ● Detailed study of the culture of a specific community or group.
● Data is collected by extended immersion and close observation.
● Focuses on describing and interpreting beliefs, conventions, social dynamics, etc.
Grounded Theory ● Aims to develop a theory inductively by systematically analyzing qualitative data.
Phenomenology ● Aims to understand a phenomenon or event by describing participants’ lived experiences.
Step 3: Identify your population and sampling method

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.
In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.
Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of
people.
For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users
of a particular product?
The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.
Population example. If you’re studying the effectiveness of online teaching in the US, it would be very difficult to get a sample that’s representative of all high school
students in the country.
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To make the research more manageable, and to draw more precise conclusions, you could focus on a narrower population—for example, 9th-grade students in low-
income areas of New York.
Sampling methods
Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.
To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can
generalize your results to the population as a whole.
Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

● Sample is selected using random methods ● Sample selected in a non-random way
● Mainly used in quantitative research ● Used in both qualitative and quantitative research
● Allows you to make strong statistical inferences about the population ● Easier to achieve, but more risk of bias
Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.
For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should
always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.
Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.
For example, in an ethnography or a case study, your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may
simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.
In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable
for answering your research question.
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For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very
different cases in order to compare them.
Step 4: Choose your data collection methods

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your
research problem.
You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.
Survey methods
Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose
from: questionnaires and interviews.
Questionnaires Interviews
● More common in quantitative research ● More common in qualitative research
● May be distributed online, by phone, by mail or in person ● Conducted by researcher in person, by phone or online
● Usually offer closed questions with limited options ● Usually allow participants to answer in their own words
● Consistent data can be collected from many people ● Ideas can be explored in-depth with a smaller group
Observation methods
Observations allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.
Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or
quantitative.
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Quantitative Observation Qualitative Observation
● Systematically counting or measuring ● Taking detailed notes and writing rich descriptions
● Categories and criteria determined in advance ● All relevant observations can be recorded
Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.
Field Examples of data collection method

Media and Communication Collecting a sample of texts (e.g. speeches, articles, or social media posts) for data on cultural norms and narratives
Psychology Using technologies like neuroimaging, eye-tracking, or computer-based tasks to collect data on things like attention, emotional
response, or reaction time
Education Using tests or assignments to collect data on knowledge and skills
Physical Science Using scientific instruments to collect data on things like weight, blood pressure, or chemical composition
If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.
Secondary data
If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already
collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.
With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.
Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.
However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.
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Step 5: Plan your data collection procedures
As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.
Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are
reliable and valid.
Operationalization
Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or
competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.
If you’re using observations, which events or actions will you count?
Example: To measure student participation in an online course, you could record the number of times students ask and answer questions.
If you’re using surveys, which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?
Example: To measure teachers’ satisfaction with online learning tools, you could create a questionnaire with a 5-point rating scale.
You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories
whose reliability and validity has already been established.
Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.
Reliability Validity
● Does your measure capture the same concept consistently over time? ● Do your measurement materials test all aspects of the concept?
● Does it produce the same results in different contexts? ● Does it correlate with different measures of the same concept?
● Do all questions measure the exact same concept?
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For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out
the same steps in the same way for each participant.
If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in
advance.
Sampling procedures
As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method, you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.
That means making decisions about things like:
● How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?

● What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
● How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?
If you’re using a probability sampling method, it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high
response rate?
If you’re using a non-probability method, how will you avoid bias and ensure a representative sample?
Data management
It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.
Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up
regularly.
Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings.
Step 6: Decide on your data analysis strategies

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.
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Quantitative data analysis
In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis. With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test
hypotheses.
Using descriptive statistics, you can summarize your sample data in terms of:
● The distribution of the data (e.g. the frequency of each score on a test)

● The central tendency of the data (e.g. the mean to describe the average score)
● The variability of the data (e.g. the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)
The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.
Using inferential statistics, you can:
● Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.

● Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.
Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t-tests and ANOVAs) look for differences in the
outcomes of different groups.
Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.
Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in
detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.
Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis.
Approach Characteristics
Thematic Analysis ● Focuses on the content of the data
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● Involves coding and organizing the data to identify key themes
Discourse Analysis ● Focuses on putting the data in context

● Involves analyzing different levels of communication (language, structure, tone, etc)
There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative
research papers in your field.
Sample
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example,
if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
Sampling is a technique of selecting individual members or a subset of the population to make statistical inferences from them and estimate characteristics of the whole
population. Different sampling methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need to research the entire population to collect
actionable insights.
It is also a time-convenient and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design. Sampling techniques can be used in a research survey software
for optimum derivation.
For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on the country’s population, it is almost impossible to conduct a research
study that involves everyone. In this case, the researcher decides a sample of people from each demographic and then researches them, giving him/her indicative
feedback on the drug’s behavior.
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Types of sampling: sampling methods
Sampling in market research is of two types – probability sampling and non-probability sampling. Let’s take a closer look at these two methods of sampling.
1. Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria and chooses members of a population
randomly. All the members have an equal opportunity to be a part of the sample with this selection parameter.
2. Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher chooses members for research at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or
predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.
In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling methods that you can implement in any market research study.
Types of probability sampling with examples:

Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which researchers choose samples from a larger population using a method based on the theory of probability. This
sampling method considers every member of the population and forms samples based on a fixed process.
For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to be a part of a sample. Probability sampling eliminates bias
in the population and gives all members a fair chance to be included in the sample.
There are four types of probability sampling techniques:
● Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in saving time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It
is a reliable method of obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly, merely by chance. Each individual has the same
probability of being chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer
picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
● Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into sections or clusters that represent a population.
Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to
derive effective inference from the feedback.
For example, if the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters based on
states such as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This way of conducting a survey will be more effective as the results will be
organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.
● Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample members of a population at regular intervals. It requires the
selection of a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range, and
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hence this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-
5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
● Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but
represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then draw a sample from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according
to the annual family income. Eg – less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. By doing this, the researcher concludes the
characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to create a
roadmap that would bear fruitful results.
Uses of probability sampling
There are multiple uses of probability sampling:
● Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of
the sample mainly depicts the understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the sample
appropriately represents the population.
● Diverse Population: When the population is vast and diverse, it is essential to have adequate representation so that the data is not skewed towards
one demographic. For example, if Square would like to understand the people that could make their point-of-sale devices, a survey conducted from a sample
of people across the US from different industries and socio-economic backgrounds helps.
● Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create an accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.
Types of non-probability sampling with examples
The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback based on a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a
fixed selection process. In most situations, the output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to skewed results, which may not represent the desired
target population. But, there are situations such as the preliminary stages of research or cost constraints for conducting research, where non-probability sampling will
be much more useful than the other type.
Four types of non-probability sampling explain the purpose of this sampling method in a better manner:
● Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is
usually termed as convenience sampling, because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no
authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done based on proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used
when there are time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource limitations such as the initial stages of research,
convenience sampling is used.
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For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do
that by standing at the mall entrance and giving out pamphlets randomly.
● Judgmental or purposive sampling: Judgemental or purposive samples are formed by the discretion of the researcher. Researchers purely consider the
purpose of the study, along with the understanding of the target audience. For instance, when researchers want to understand the thought process of people
interested in studying for their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in doing your masters in …?” and those who respond with a
“No” are excluded from the sample.
● Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that researchers apply when the subjects are difficult to trace. For example, it will be extremely
challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few categories to interview and
derive results. Researchers also implement this sampling method in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly discussed—for example,
surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many victims will readily respond to the questions. Still, researchers can contact people they might know
or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and collect information.
● Quota sampling: In Quota sampling, the selection of members in this sampling technique happens based on a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is
formed based on specific attributes, the created sample will have the same qualities found in the total population. It is a rapid method of collecting samples.
Uses of non-probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is used for the following:
● Create a hypothesis: Researchers use the non-probability sampling method to create an assumption when limited to no prior information is available. This
method helps with the immediate return of data and builds a base for further research.
● Exploratory research: Researchers use this sampling technique widely when conducting qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
● Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and time constraints, and some preliminary data must be collected. Since
the survey design is not rigid, it is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take the survey or questionnaire.
How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?
For any research, it is essential to choose a sampling method accurately to meet the goals of your study. The effectiveness of your sampling relies on various factors. Here
are some steps expert researchers follow to decide the best sampling method.
● Jot down the research goals. Generally, it must be a combination of cost, precision, or accuracy.
● Identify the effective sampling techniques that might potentially achieve the research goals.
● Test each of these methods and examine whether they help in achieving your goal.
● Select the method that works best for the research.
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Difference between probability sampling and non-probability sampling methods
We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To encapsulate the whole discussion, though, the significant differences between
probability sampling methods and non-probability sampling methods are as below:
Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods
Definition Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which samples Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the
from a larger population are chosen using a method based on the researcher selects samples based on the researcher’s subjective
theory of probability. judgment rather than random selection.
Alternatively Known as Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method
Population selection The population is selected randomly. The population is selected arbitrarily.
Nature The research is conclusive. The research is exploratory.
Sample Since there is a method for deciding the sample, the population Since the sampling method is arbitrary, the population
demographics are conclusively represented. demographics representation is almost always skewed.
Time Taken Takes longer to conduct since the research design defines the This type of sampling method is quick since neither the sample or
selection parameters before the market research study begins. selection criteria of the sample are undefined.
Results This type of sampling is entirely unbiased and hence the results This type of sampling is entirely biased and hence the results are
are unbiased too and conclusive. biased too, rendering the research speculative.
Hypothesis In probability sampling, there is an underlying hypothesis before In non-probability sampling, the hypothesis is derived after
the study begins and the objective of this method is to prove the
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hypothesis. conducting the research study.
Sampling size
Sample size refers to the number of participants or observations included in a study. ... The size of a sample influences two statistical properties: 1) the
precision of our estimates and 2) the power of the study to draw conclusions. Sample size is a research term used for defining the number of individuals included
in a research study to represent a population. The sample size references the total number of respondents included in a study, and the number is often broken down into
sub-groups by demographics such as age, gender, and location so that the total sample achieves represents the entire population. Determining the appropriate sample
size is one of the most important factors in statistical analysis. If the sample size is too small, it will not yield valid results or adequately represent the realities of the
population being studied. On the other hand, while larger sample sizes yield smaller margins of error and are more representative, a sample size that is too large may
significantly increase the cost and time taken to conduct the research.
How do you calculate sample size?

How to Find a Sample Size Given a Confidence Level and Width (unknown population standard deviation)
1. za/2: Divide the confidence level by two, and look that area up in the z-table: .95 / 2 = 0.475. ...
2. E (margin of error): Divide the given width by 2. 6% / 2. ...
3. : use the given percentage. 41% = 0.41. ...
4. : subtract. from 1.
Sample Size in Statistics (How to Find it): Excel, Cochran's Formula ...
https://www.statisticshowto.com › probability-and-statistics
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How does sample size affect the validity of a study?
The answer to this is that an appropriate sample size is required for validity. If the sample size it too small, it will not yield valid results. An appropriate sample size can
produce accuracy of results. ... A sample size that is too large will result in wasting money and time.
Guidelines in writing sampling design

The size of sample depends on number of factors. Some important among them are:
1. Homogeneity or Heterogeneity of the universe: Selection of sample depends on the nature of the universe. It says that if the nature of universe is homogeneous
then a small sample will represent the behavior of entire universe. This will lead to selection of small sample size rather than a large one. On the other hand, if
the universe is heterogeneous in nature then samples are to be chosen as from each heterogeneous unit.
2. Number of classes proposed: If a large number of class intervals to be made then the size of sample should be more because it has to represent the entire
universe. In case of small samples there is the possibility that some samples may not be included.
3. Nature of study: The size of sample also depends on the nature of study. For an intensive study which may be for a long time, large samples are to be chosen.
Similarly, in case of general studies large number of respondents may be appropriate one but if the study is of technical in nature then the selection of large
number of respondents may cause difficulty while gathering information.
Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining the characteristics of the whole population. In
other words, the process of selecting a sample from a population using special sampling techniques called sampling. It should be ensured in the sampling process itself
that the sample selected is representative of the population.
● Population OR Universe: The entire aggregation of items from which samples can be drawn is known as a population. In sampling, the population may refer to
the units, from which the sample is drawn. Population or populations of interest are interchangeable terms. The term “unit” is used, as in a business research
process, samples are not necessarily people all the time. A population of interest may be the universe of nations or cities. This is one of the first things the analyst
needs to define properly while conducting a business research. Therefore, population, contrary to its general notion as a nation’s entire population has a much
broader meaning in sampling. “N” represents the size of the population.
● Census: A complete study of all the elements present in the population is known as a census. It is a time consuming and costly process and is, therefore, seldom a
popular with researchers. The general notion that a census generates more accurate data than sampling is not always true. Limitations include failure in
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generating a complete and accurate list of all the members of the population and refusal of the elements to provide information. The national population census
is an example of census survey.
● Precision: Precision is a measure of how close an estimate is expected to be, to the true value of a parameter. Precision is a measure of similarity. Precision is
usually expressed in terms of imprecision and related to the standard error of the estimate. Less precision is reflected by a larger standard error.
● Bias: Bias is the term refers to how far the average statistic lies from the parameter it is estimating, that is, the error, which arises when estimating a quantity.
Errors from chance will cancel each other out in the long run, those from bias will not. Bias can take different forms.
Steps in Sampling Process

1. Defining the Target Population:
Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element, sampling unit,
extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the objectives of the research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to conduct a survey to
ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the population as ‘all women above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few men cook)’. However this
definition is too broad and will include every household in the country, in the population that is to be covered by the survey. Therefore the definition can be further
refined and defined at the sampling unit level, that, all women above the age 20, who cook and whose monthly household income exceeds Rs.20,000. This reduces the
target population size and makes the research more focused. The population definition can be refined further by specifying the area from where the researcher has to
draw his sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.
A well defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents who do not fit the research objective of the company. For ex, if the population is defined
as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the opinions of a large number of women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven.
2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:
Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample may be
drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame would be a database that contains all the households that have a monthly income above Rs.20,000.
However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive sampling frame that exactly fits the requirements of a particular research. In general, researchers use easily
available sampling frames like telephone directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users. Various private players provide databases developed along various
demographic and economic variables. Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling frames. Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame is one
that entire population and lists the names of its elements only once.
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A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately represent the total population or when some elements of the population are missing
another drawback in the sampling frame is over —representation. A telephone directory can be over represented by names/household that have two or more
connections.
3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:
A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of elements of the population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a sampling unit
and all women above the age of 20 years living in that particular house become the sampling elements. If it is possible to identify the exact target audience of the business
research, every individual element would be a sampling unit. This would present a case of primary sampling unit. However, a convenient and better means of sampling
would be to select households as the sampling unit and interview all females above 20 years, who cook. This would present a case of secondary sampling unit.
The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be selected. The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of the business
research, availability of financial resources, time constraints, and the nature of the problem to be investigated. All sampling methods can be grouped under two distinct
heads, that is, probability and non-probability sampling.
5. Determination of Sample Size:
The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various ways of classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple those
hold primary importance and are worth mentioning are whether the technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based on traditional or
Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling procedures, the allocation of budget, thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed, importance of the decision,
number of variables, nature of analysis, incidence rates, and completion rates play a major role in sample size determination. In the case of probability sampling,
however, formulas are used to calculate the sample size after the levels of acceptable error and level of confidence are specified. The details of the various techniques
used to determine the sample size will be explained at the end of the chapter.
6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:
In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of the research process are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling units and the
households are the sampling elements. This step outlines the modus operandi of the sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified characteristics. It includes
issues like how is the interviewer going to take a systematic sample of the houses. What should the interviewer do when a house is vacant? What is the recontact
procedure for respondents who were unavailable? All these and many other questions need to be answered for the smooth functioning of the research process. These are
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guide lines that would help the researcher in every step of the process. As the interviewers and their co-workers will be on field duty of most of the time, a proper
specification of the sampling plans would make their work easy and they would not have to revert to their seniors when faced with operational problems.
7. Selecting the Sample:
This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the sample elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the interviewers stick to
the rules outlined for the smooth implementation of the business research. This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select the sampling plan to select a
sample required for the survey.
Different tools and techniques used in data gathering
#1) Case Studies

A case study is a thorough description of a process, structure, or experience at one organization. Case studies use surveys, statistics about usage, and qualitative data
collection techniques. While performing research quantitative data is gathered first and then the qualitative strategies are used.
Below are some of the tools for case studies.
Encyclopedia:
It is the website which has a huge collection of information about many topics. The information can be useful for writing a case study. Website: Encyclopedia
Grammarly:
It is the tool which will help you while writing the case study. It can correct spelling and grammatical mistakes. It has both free as well as paid
options. Website: Grammarly
Quetext:
It is a tool to check for the plagiarized content. It can be used to check our own content for plagiarism. It is free for use. Website: Quetext
#2) Usage Data
Already collected data can be useful for making decisions.
Example: Computer usage data and the data about the gates and headcount of the existing building etc.
Below are some of the tools for Usage Data.
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Suma:
It is an open-source and mobile space assessment tool. This tool will be useful for collecting, aggregating, and analyzing the data. It will help you in interactively
analyzing the real-time data of the physical space and service usage. Website: Suma
NCSU Group Study Room Usage Report:
It is an example of the report. Website: NCSU Group Study Room Usage Report
#3) Checklists
The checklist is a list structure of points that needs to be observed or evaluated. Using this technique, you can mark the presence or absence of criteria or can note down
short comments about a topic.
Below are some of the tools for Checklists:

Canva.com:
It is an online tool for creating checklists. It will allow you to customize the design for checklists. The created checklists template will be accessible from desktop, laptop,
iPhone, iPad, and Android devices. Website: Canva.com
Checkli:
It is a free checklist maker. It provides templates for creating checklists. It has free as well as a business plan. The business plan has many features like creating
checklists, assigning & scheduling, and tracking everything. Website: Checkli
Forgett:
Forgett is a simple and easy to use checklist tool. It has features like markdown & syntax highlighting, animated gifs, edit mode & action mode, sharing of checklists, and
mobile checklists. It is free for creating three checklists. Website: Forgett
#4) Observation
Observation is a data collection technique that is performed by monitoring or viewing the subject.
Sometimes observations are performed continuously or in a set of time periods. There can be different types of observations like structured, unstructured, and semi-
structured.
The limitation of observations is that it consumes time and it affects the behavior of the participants.
#5) Interviews
An interview is another data collection technique.
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For collecting the data through this technique, interviews are performed in groups or on a one-on-one basis. During interviews, the data can be collected using
stenography, video recordings, audio recordings, or written notes.
Sony ICD ux560:

It is an audio recording tool. It performs the recording in the LPCM format. Website: Sony ICD
#6) Focus Groups
This data collection technique is used for understanding the work habits of participants, assignment types and much more.
Learning Space Tool Kit:
This website will tell you about the points to be considered if you want to plan for the focus group. Website: Learning Space Tool Kit
#7) Surveys
Surveys are performed through questionnaires. A standard set of questions are used for performing the survey of any specific topic.
Google Forms:
It is a tool for creating survey forms. It is a free tool for google account holders. You can use the themes provided. The tool will allow you to create a new form and has
collaboration features as well. Website: Google Forms
Zoho Survey:
It is an online tool for creating surveys and questionnaires. It is available for free as well. It is accessible from any device and will give you real-time
results. Website: Zoho Survey
#8) Documents and Records
It includes checking the existing data from the databases, reports, minutes of a meeting, financial records, and newsletters etc. It is a cost-effective technique for data
collection. However, sometimes it may not be the complete data source.
Data Collection Tools in Healthcare:

In the Healthcare industry, the most common data collection methods include manual data collection, administrative data from the electronic patient management
system, and reviewing the medical record of a patient.
Instant Data Entry Application (IDEA):

It is the tool for creating and deploying web applications for data collection. You will be able to manage all the created applications in a central place. This application
will provide you with a central location to set up mapping and lookup lists.
Data Collection Tools in Qualitative Research:

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Some of the well-known data collection methods for qualitative research include observations, textual or visual analysis, and interviews.
Further reading =>> Qualitative vs Quantitative Data Analysis and Research

For healthcare research, interviews and focus groups are the common methods that are used. Using the interviews data collection method, views, experiences, beliefs &
motivations are explored. Qualitative methods will give you a deeper understanding than quantitative methods.
Conclusion
We have explored a list of the data collection tools from different categories in this tutorial. By understanding the individual beliefs, experiences, and motivations,
qualitative data collection methods will provide a deeper knowledge.
Data collection methods for the Healthcare industry include manual entry, medical reports, and the data collected from an electronic patient management system.
Guidelines in writing research instruments, validation, and data gathering procedure

1. Select a Topic.
2. Formulate a Thesis Statement...
3. Choose the Types of Analyses.
4. Research & Write a Literature Review. & Refine the Thesis.
5. Formulate the Research Objectives & Questions.
6. Conceptualize a topic.
7. Choose Research Method / the Research Instrument.
8. Operationalize concepts / construct the instrument.
9. What should be written in research instrument?
10. They include the purpose/variable measured, sample population, methodology, other instruments, items and questions and the source
for the instrument."
What should be written in research instrument?
They include the purpose/variable measured, sample population, methodology, other instruments, items and questions and the source for the instrument."
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Examples of Research Instruments
There are numerous types of research instruments available to a researcher.
The choice of the instrument(s) to use depends on a number of factors, including:
i. Research objective
ii. Nature of data
iii. Statistical significance
iv. Sample size
v. Timing

The combination of the above considerations should help you determine the most appropriate instrument to use.
That noted, common examples of research instruments utilized in collecting data include:
i. Questionnaires
ii. Observations
iii. Interviews
iv. Focus group discussions
v. Experiment

Questionnaires
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Questionnaires are considered the most common types of research instruments particularly in normative surveys.
As common examples of research instruments, they encompass numerous questions that seek responses from respective respondents as the source of research data.
Questions are systematically compiled and are in an organized series in order to enhance proper understanding of the issue under study.

When to Use Questionnaires as Research Instruments for Data Collection
i. When you need data from numerous people and resources are restrictive: dissemination of questionnaires is convenient and cost friendly.
This is considering that questionnaires can be administered via mail, email, and over the telephone.

ii. When discretion is of paramount importance: questionnaire answers can be made confidential or anonymous therefore concealing the identity of the respondent.

iii. When you want to collect data about beliefs, knowledge, behaviors, and attitudes: when using questionnaires, it is possible to collect information unique to
individuals.

Types of Questionnaires
i. Structured questionnaires: these entail questions with some control. The questions are short and limit the respondent to specific options.
They require a specific answer from the respondent, usually “yes” or “no” or selecting and answer among provided options.

ii. Unstructured questionnaires: these questionnaires encompass open-ended questions without any form of restrictions.
The respondents have the freedom to provide answers in their words and can even express their opinions from different options provided in the questionnaire.

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Observations
Observations are also good examples of research instruments.
They entail data collection methods where the researcher is part of the experience within which the phenomenon under study is being observed.
In using them as research instruments for data collection, the researcher is required to have minimal interference to avoid incidences of modified respondent behavior
and enhance the collection of accurate information.

When to Use Observation as Research Instruments for Data Collection
i. When the topic under study is quite sensitive: when dealing with sensitive topics, people shy off from answering the research questions.
Observation is a suitable option in such incidences.

ii. When there is need to observe the phenomena: this applies in cases where it is important to observe such phenomena as behavior in order to arrive at certain
conclusions.

iii. When you are not sure what you are looking for: observations can be used to provide an idea on what to study about certain phenomenon.
By observing, you can decide on what approach or theories to adopt in a study.

Types of Observation Methods
i. Participant observer: in this, the researchers conceal their identity as a researcher.
They live with the study subjects as they collect data about a particular phenomenon. The researcher enjoys first-hand experience in data collection.

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ii. Non-participant observer: this involves the researcher watching the study subjects from a distance.
The researcher does not directly interact with the phenomenon under study. The subjects are usually not aware that they are under study.

Interviews
Interviews are equally common examples of research instruments.
They require the researcher to talk directly with the respondent to gather information on an issue of mutual interest.
The researcher orally asks the respondent a question and then proceeds to record the oral answer provided.

When to Use Interviews as Research Instruments for Data Collection
i. When you need to explore the experiences, views, and beliefs of the respondents: interviews make it possible to qualitatively examine factors that influence human
behavior in a particular way.

ii. When little is known about a phenomenon: interviews are quite effective in collecting detailed data about an issue that has not been effectively explored and as such
offer a better platform for further study.

iii. When dealing with sensitive issues: interviews provide for confidentiality and respondents are able to discuss sensitive issues that could not be discussed in focus
groups.

iv. When you want to explain statistical data or expound on an issue: through interviews you can collect adequate data that can be used to explain results produced in
statistical analysis.
This is important in helping add a human dimension to the statistical data.
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Types of Interviews
i. Structured interviews: these are founded on interview questionnaire where questions presented to the respondent and answers provided are recorded in a
standardized manner.
A set pattern and question sequence is adhered to.

ii. Unstructured interviews: such interviews are quite informal and the researcher has the freedom to modify the sequence and wording of interview questions.
It is more casual and allows for more freedom and flexibility.

iii. Focus interviews: these rely on the subjective experiences and responses of the respondents in gathering information on the issue under study.
The interviewer participates in the process by stimulating the respondents to provide for more information.

iv. Non-directive interviews: these accord the interviewee more freedom to express their ideas subjectively and spontaneously based on their ability to or choice.

Focus Group Discussions
These are equally widely used examples of research instruments.
As examples of research instruments, focus groups entails the process through which a researcher acquires data from a large sample/ group of people concurrently.
The recommended number of individuals in a focus group is less than 10.
Note that it is one of the common types of research instruments in fields such as behavioral science, archival science, and library and information science.
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When to Use Focus Discussion Groups as Research Instruments for Data Collection
i. When there is need to understand an issue in in-depth: Focus discussion groups are instrumental in gathering expansive data that cannot be accessed using a survey.

ii. When you intend to add meaningful or understand existing knowledge: They are effective when evaluating the “how” and “why” of a topic.

iii. When you need a dynamic setting: Focus groups can allow changes during group discussion to facilitate better results.

iv. When you need to gather information from non-verbal communication: Focus discussion groups can be used to gather further insights from gestures and stimulated
activities.

Types of Focus Group Discussions
i. Dual-moderator: Entails the use of two moderators, with one charged with the responsibility of group smooth progression and the other coverage of all topics.

ii. Two-way: One group listens to another group that is answering questions put forward by the moderator. The listening groups facilitates more discussion.

iii. Respondent moderator:Participants (one or two) in the group discussion act as moderators. It helps change group dynamics and produce different responses.

iv. Duelling-moderator: This entails two moderators in opposition of each other. The duelling is supposed to provoke new perspectives.

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v. Online focus group: This entails a discussion where information is shared through online platforms. It is effective when targeting a broader participants range.

vi. Mini focus groups: It is focus group with a small participants number (four or five) and is intended to create a more cohesive group.

Experiment
Experiments are also among the key examples of research instruments.
They require conducting experiments within a laboratory setting to test potential reactions in the object the research is being carried out on.
Experiments are primarily used as research instruments for data collection in pure and applied sciences.

When to Use Experiments as Research Instruments for Data Collection
i. When you need to control a variable: It is suitable when you want remove unwanted or extraneous variables.

ii. When you want to determine the cause and effect relationship: It is effective in manipulating variables to help determine the cause and effect relationship.

iii. When you need error free results: The strict conditions and specific control set ups put in place ensures accurate results.

Types of Experiments
i. Laboratory experiment: These may include laboratory scale model, independently developed procedures, or standard testing methods.

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ii. Field experiments:In this, control of natural conditions is more challenging due to the changing parameters in the field.

iii. Computer numerical model: This entails the use of computer codes to create relevant models.

Documents Analysis
Documents are also one of the key examples of research instruments. This method entails relying on published literature to gather information about a research subject.

Documents examined include recordings of meetings, newspapers, biographies, letters, and diaries.

When to Use Documents as Research Instruments for Data Collection Data Collection
i. When you want to secure background information: this is with the intention of helping understand the philosophy and history of a certain phenomenon.

ii. When you want to develop other evaluation data collection tools: existing documents can provide important information on how to come up with better
questionnaires, interview questions, observation guide, or focus groups for effective data collection.

iii. When you want to determine whether the research implementation follows research plan: documents can be used to reveal any difference between the way the
research is being implemented and the conventional research process.
What is validation of instrument?
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When a test or measurement is "validated," it simply means that the researcher has come to the opinion that the instrument measures what it was designed to
measure. ... Repeated use of the instrument is a strong indication that the instrument was designed to measure what it set out to measure.
Validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and performs as it is designed to perform. It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an
instrument be 100% valid, so validity is generally measured in degrees. As a process, validation involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an
instrument. There are numerous statistical tests and measures to assess the validity of quantitative instruments, which generally involves pilot testing. The remainder of
this discussion focuses on external validity and content validity.
External validity is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from a sample to a population. Establishing eternal validity for an instrument, then,
follows directly from sampling. Recall that a sample should be an accurate representation of a population, because the total population may not be available. An
instrument that is externally valid helps obtain population generalizability, or the degree to which a sample represents the population.
Content validity refers to the appropriateness of the content of an instrument. In other words, do the measures (questions, observation logs, etc.) accurately assess what
you want to know? This is particularly important with achievement tests. Consider that a test developer wants to maximize the validity of a unit test for 7th grade
mathematics. This would involve taking representative questions from each of the sections of the unit and evaluating them against the desired outcomes.
Reliability can be thought of as consistency. Does the instrument consistently measure what it is intended to measure? It is not possible to calculate reliability; however,
there are four general estimators that you may encounter in reading research:
1. Inter-Rater/Observer Reliability: The degree to which different raters/observers give consistent answers or estimates.
2. Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency of a measure evaluated over time.
3. Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability of two tests constructed the same way, from the same content.
4. Internal Consistency Reliability: The consistency of results across items, often measured with Cronbach’s Alpha.

Relating Reliability and Validity
Reliability is directly related to the validity of the measure. There are several important principles. First, a test can be considered reliable, but not valid. Consider the
SAT, used as a predictor of success in college. It is a reliable test (high scores relate to high GPA), though only a moderately valid indicator of success (due to the lack of
structured environment – class attendance, parent-regulated study, and sleeping habits – each holistically related to success).
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Second, validity is more important than reliability. Using the above example, college admissions may consider the SAT a reliable test, but not necessarily a valid measure
of other quantities colleges seek, such as leadership capability, altruism, and civic involvement. The combination of these aspects, alongside the SAT, is a more valid
measure of the applicant’s potential for graduation, later social involvement, and generosity (alumni giving) toward the alma mater.
Finally, the most useful instrument is both valid and reliable. Proponents of the SAT argue that it is both. It is a moderately reliable predictor of future success and a
moderately valid measure of a student’s knowledge in Mathematics, Critical Reading, and Writing.
Part IV: Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research
Thus far, we have discussed Instrumentation as related to mostly quantitative measurement. Establishing validity and reliability in qualitative research can be less
precise, though participant/member checks, peer evaluation (another researcher checks the researcher’s inferences based on the instrument (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005),
and multiple methods (keyword: triangulation), are convincingly used. Some qualitative researchers reject the concept of validity due to the constructivist viewpoint that
reality is unique to the individual, and cannot be generalized. These researchers argue for a different standard for judging research quality. For a more complete
discussion of trustworthiness, see Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) chapter.
What are the data gathering procedures

This process consists of the following five steps.
● Determine What Information You Want to Collect. ...
● Set a Timeframe for Data Collection. ...
● Determine Your Data Collection Method. ...
● Collect the Data. ...
● Analyze the Data and Implement Your Findings. ...
● Surveys. ...
● Online Tracking. ...
● Transactional Data Tracking.
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What is Quantitative data analysis
Quantitative data is defined as the value of data in the form of counts or numbers where each data-set has an unique numerical value associated with it. This data is any
quantifiable information that can be used for mathematical calculations and statistical analysis, such that real-life decisions can be made based on these mathematical
derivations. Quantitative data is used to answer questions such as “How many?”, “How often?”, “How much?”. This data can be verified and can also be conveniently
evaluated using mathematical techniques.
For example, there are quantities corresponding to various parameters, for instance, “How much did that laptop cost?” is a question which will collect quantitative data.
There are values associated with most measuring parameters such as pounds or kilograms for weight, dollars for cost etc.
Quantitative data makes measuring various parameters controllable due to the ease of mathematical derivations they come with. Quantitative data is usually collected
for statistical analysis using surveys, polls or questionnaires sent across to a specific section of a population. The retrieved results can be established across a population.
Types of Quantitative Data with Examples

The most common types of quantitative data are as below:
● Counter: Count equated with entities. For example, the number of people who download a particular application from the App Store.
● Measurement of physical objects: Calculating measurement of any physical thing. For example, the HR executive carefully measures the size of each cubicle
assigned to the newly joined employees.
● Sensory calculation: Mechanism to naturally “sense” the measured parameters to create a constant source of information. For example, a digital camera
converts electromagnetic information to a string of numerical data.
● Projection of data: Future projection of data can be done using algorithms and other mathematical analysis tools. For example, a marketer will predict an
increase in the sales after launching a new product with thorough analysis.
● Quantification of qualitative entities: Identify numbers to qualitative information. For example, asking respondents of an online survey to share the likelihood
of recommendation on a scale of 0-10.
Quantitative Data: Collection Methods
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As quantitative data is in the form of numbers, mathematical and statistical analysis of these numbers can lead to establishing some conclusive results.
There are two main Quantitative Data Collection Methods:
Surveys: Traditionally, surveys were conducted using paper-based methods and have gradually evolved into online mediums. Closed-ended questions form a major part
of these surveys as they are more effective in collecting quantitative data. The survey makes include answer options which they think are the most appropriate for a
particular question. Surveys are integral in collecting feedback from an audience which is larger than the conventional size. A critical factor about surveys is that the
responses collected should be such that they can be generalized to the entire population without significant discrepancies. On the basis of the time involved in completing
surveys, they are classified into the following –
● Longitudinal Studies: A type of observational research in which the market researcher conducts surveys from a specific time period to another, i.e., over a
considerable course of time, is called longitudinal survey. This survey is often implemented for trend analysis or studies where the primary objective is to
collect and analyze a pattern in data.
● Cross-sectional Studies: A type of observational research in which the market research conducts surveys at a particular time period across the target sample is
known as cross-sectional survey. This survey type implements a questionnaire to understand a specific subject from the sample at a definite time period.
Learn more: Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal Survey
To administer a survey to collect quantitative data, the below principles are to be followed.
● Fundamental Levels of Measurement – Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio Scales: There are four measurement scales which are fundamental to creating
a multiple-choice question in a survey in collecting quantitative data. They are, nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio measurement scales without the
fundamentals of which, no multiple choice questions can be created.
● Use of Different Question Types: To collect quantitative data, close-ended questions have to be used in a survey. They can be a mix of multiple question
types including multiple-choice questions like semantic differential scale questions, rating scale questions etc. that can help collect data that can be analyzed
and made sense of.
● Survey Distribution and Survey Data Collection: In the above, we have seen the process of building a survey along with the survey design to collect
quantitative data. Survey distribution to collect data is the other important aspect of the survey process. There are different ways of survey distribution. Some
of the most commonly used methods are:
●
● Email: Sending a survey via email is the most commonly used and most effective methods of survey distribution. You can use the QuestionPro email
management feature to send out and collect survey responses.
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● Buy respondents: Another effective way to distribute a survey and collect quantitative data is to use a sample. Since the respondents are
knowledgeable and also are open to participating in research studies, the responses are much higher.
● Embed survey in a website: Embedding a survey in a website increases a high number of responses as the respondent is already in close proximity to
the brand when the survey pops up.
● Social distribution: Using social media to distribute the survey aids in collecting higher number of responses from the people that are aware of the
brand.
● QR code: QuestionPro QR codes store the URL for the survey. You can print/publish this code in magazines, on signs, business cards, or on just
about any object/medium.
● SMS survey: A quick and time effective way of conducting a survey to collect a high number of responses is the SMS survey.
● QuestionPro app: The QuestionPro App allows to quickly circulate surveys and the responses can be collected both online and offline.
● API integration: You can use the API integration of the QuestionPro platform for potential respondents to take your survey.

One-on-one Interviews: This quantitative data collection method was also traditionally conducted face-to-face but has shifted to telephonic and online
platforms. Interviews offer a marketer the opportunity to gather extensive data from the participants. Quantitative interviews are immensely structured and play a key
role in collecting information. There are three major sections of these online interviews:
● Face-to-Face Interviews: An interviewer can prepare a list of important interview questions in addition to the already asked survey questions. This way,
interviewees provide exhaustive details about the topic under discussion. An interviewer can manage to bond with the interviewee on a personal level which
will help him/her to collect more details about the topic due to which the responses also improve. Interviewers can also ask for an explanation from the
interviewees about unclear answers.
●
● Online/Telephonic Interviews: Telephone-based interviews are no more a novelty but these quantitative interviews have also moved to online mediums such as
Skype or Zoom. Irrespective of the distance between the interviewer and the interviewee and their corresponding time zones, communication becomes one-
click away with online interviews. In case of telephone interviews, the interview is merely a phone call away.
●
● Computer Assisted Personal Interview: This is a one-on-one interview technique where the interviewer enters all the collected data directly into a laptop or
any other similar device. The processing time is reduced and also the interviewers don’t have to carry physical questionnaires and merely enter the answers in
the laptop.
All of the above quantitative data collection methods can be achieved by using surveys, questionnaires and online polls.
Learn about: Quantitative Research

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Quantitative Data: Analysis Methods
Data collection forms a major part of the research process. This data however has to be analyzed to make sense of. There are multiple methods of analyzing quantitative
data collected in surveys. They are:
● Cross-tabulation: Cross-tabulation is the most widely used quantitative data analysis methods. It is a preferred method since it uses a basic tabular form to
draw inferences between different data-sets in the research study. It contains data that is mutually exclusive or have some connection with each other.
● Trend analysis: Trend analysis is a statistical analysis method that provides the ability to look at quantitative data that has been collected over a long period of
time. This data analysis method helps collect feedback about data changes over time and if aims to understand the change in variables considering one
variable remains unchanged.
● MaxDiff analysis: The MaxDiff analysis is a quantitative data analysis method that is used to gauge customer preferences for a purchase and what parameters
rank higher than the others in this process. In a simplistic form, this method is also called the “best-worst” method. This method is very similar to conjoint
analysis but is much easier to implement and can be interchangeably used.
● Conjoint analysis: Like in the above method, conjoint analysis is a similar quantitative data analysis method that analyzes parameters behind a purchasing
decision. This method possesses the ability to collect and analyze advanced metrics which provide an in-depth insight into purchasing decisions as well as the
parameters that rank the most important.
● TURF analysis: TURF analysis or Total Unduplicated Reach and Frequency Analysis, is a quantitative data analysis methodology that assesses the total
market reach of a product or service or a mix of both. This method is used by organizations to understand the frequency and the avenues at which their
messaging reaches customers and prospective customers which helps them tweak their go-to-market strategies.
● Gap analysis: Gap analysis uses a side-by-side matrix to depict quantitative data that helps measure the difference between expected performance and actual
performance. This data analysis helps measure gaps in performance and the things that are required to be done to bridge this gap.
● SWOT analysis: SWOT analysis, is a quantitative data analysis methods that assigns numerical values to indicate strength, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats of an organization or product or service which in turn provides a holistic picture about competition. This method helps to create effective business
strategies.
● Text analysis: Text analysis is an advanced statistical method where intelligent tools make sense of and quantify or fashion qualitative and open-ended
data into easily understandable data. This method is used when the raw survey data is unstructured but has to be brought into a structure that makes sense.
Learn More: MaxDiff Analysis vs Conjoint Analysis
Steps to conduct Quantitative Data Analysis
For Quantitative Data, raw information has to presented in a meaningful manner using data analysis methods. Quantitative data should be analyzed in order to find
evidential data that would help in the research process.
● Relate measurement scales with variables: Associate measurement scales such as Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio with the variables. This step is
important to arrange the data in proper order. Data can be entered into an excel sheet to organize it in a specific format.
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● Connect descriptive statistics with data: Link descriptive statistics to encapsulate available data. It can be difficult to establish a pattern in the raw data. Some
widely used descriptive statistics are:
1.
1. Mean- An average of values for a specific variable
2. Median- A midpoint of the value scale for a variable
3. Mode- For a variable, the most common value
4. Frequency- Number of times a particular value is observed in the scale
5. Minimum and Maximum Values- Lowest and highest values for a scale
6. Percentages- Format to express scores and set of values for variables
● Decide a measurement scale: It is important to decide the measurement scale to conclude descriptive statistics for the variable. For instance, a nominal
variable score will never have a mean or median and so the descriptive statistics will correspondingly vary. Descriptive statistics suffice in situations where the
results are not to be generalized to the population.
● Select appropriate tables to represent data and analyze collected data: After deciding on a suitable measurement scale, researchers can use a tabular format to
represent data. This data can be analyzed using various techniques such as Cross-tabulation or TURF.
Learn More: Data analysis in research
Quantitative Data Examples
Listed below are some examples of quantitative data that can help understand exactly what this pertains:
● I updated my phone 6 times in a quarter.

● My teenager grew by 3 inches last year.
● 83 people downloaded the latest mobile application.
● My aunt lost 18 pounds last year.
● 150 respondents were of the opinion that the new product feature will not be successful.
● There will be 30% increase in revenue with the inclusion of a new product.
● 500 people attended the seminar.
● 54% people prefer shopping online instead of going to the mall.
● She has 10 holidays in this year.
● Product X costs $1000.
As you can see in the above 10 examples, there is a numerical value assigned to each parameter and this is known as, quantitative data.
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Advantages of Quantitative Data
Some of advantages of quantitative data, are:
● Conduct in-depth research: Since quantitative data can be statistically analyzed, it is highly likely that the research will be detailed.
● Minimum bias: There are instances in research, where personal bias is involved which leads to incorrect results. Due to the numerical nature of quantitative
data, the personal bias is reduced to a great extent.
● Accurate results: As the results obtained are objective in nature, they are extremely accurate.
Learn more: Margin of Error
Disadvantages of Quantitative Data

Some of disadvantages of quantitative data, are:
● Restricted information: Because quantitative data is not descriptive, it becomes difficult for researchers to make decisions based solely on the collected
information.
● Depends on question types: Bias in results is dependent on the question types included to collect quantitative data. The researcher’s knowledge of questions
and the objective of research are exceedingly important while collecting quantitative data.
Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Data

There are some stark differences between quantitative data and qualitative data. They are:
Quantitative Data Qualitative Data
Associated with numbers Associated with details
Implemented when data is numerical Implemented when data can be segregated into well-defined
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groups
Collected data can be statistically analyzed Collected data can just be observed and not evaluated
Examples: Height, Weight, Time, Price, Temperature,

Examples: Scents, Appearance, Beauty, Colors, Flavors, etc.
etc.
What is Qualitative data analysis
Qualitative data can be observed and recorded. This data type is non-numerical in nature. This type of data is collected through methods of observations, one-to-one
interviews, conducting focus groups, and similar methods. Qualitative data in statistics is also known as categorical data – data that can be arranged categorically based
on the attributes and properties of a thing or a phenomenon.
Qualitative Data Examples

Qualitative data is also called categorical data since this data can be grouped according to categories.
For example, think of a student reading a paragraph from a book during one of the class sessions. A teacher who is listening to the reading gives feedback on how the
child read that paragraph. If the teacher gives feedback based on fluency, intonation, throw of words, clarity in pronunciation without giving a grade to the child, this is
considered as an example of qualitative data.
It’s pretty easy to understand the difference between qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative data does not include numbers in its definition of traits, whereas
quantitative data is all about numbers.
● The cake is orange, blue, and black in color (qualitative).

● Females have brown, black, blonde, and red hair (qualitative).
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Quantitative data is any quantifiable information that can be used for mathematical calculation or statistical analysis. This form of data helps in making real-life
decisions based on mathematical derivations. Quantitative data is used to answer questions like how many? How often? How much? This data can be validated and
verified.
To better understand the concept of qualitative and quantitative data, it’s best to observe examples of particular datasets and how they can be defined. The following are
examples of quantitative data.
● There are four cakes and three muffins kept in the basket (quantitative).
● One glass of fizzy drink has 97.5 calories (quantitative).
Importance of Qualitative Data
Qualitative data is important in determining the particular frequency of traits or characteristics. It allows the statistician or the researchers to form parameters through
which larger data sets can be observed. Qualitative data provides the means by which observers can quantify the world around them.
For a market researcher, collecting qualitative data helps in answering questions like, who their customers are, what issues or problems they are facing, and where do
they need to focus their attention, so problems or issues are resolved.
Qualitative data is about the emotions or perceptions of people, what they feel. In quantitative data, these perceptions and emotions are documented. It helps the market
researchers understand the language their consumers speak and deal with the problem effectively and efficiently.
Qualitative Data Collection Methods – Types of Qualitative Data

Qualitative data collection is exploratory; it involves in-depth analysis and research. Qualitative data collection methods are mainly focused on gaining insights,
reasoning, and motivations; hence they go deeper in terms of research. Since the qualitative data cannot be measured, researchers prefer methods or data
collection tools that are structured to a limited extent.
Here are the qualitative data collection methods:

1. One-to-One Interviews: It is one of the most commonly used data collection instruments for qualitative research, mainly because of its personal approach. The
interviewer or the researcher collects data directly from the interviewee on a one-to-one basis. The interview may be informal and unstructured – conversational. Mostly
the open-ended questions are asked spontaneously, with the interviewer letting the flow of the interview dictate the questions to be asked.
2. Focus groups: This is done in a group discussion setting. The group is limited to 6-10 people, and a moderator is assigned to moderate the ongoing discussion.
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Depending on the data which is sorted, the members of a group may have something in common. For example, a researcher conducting a study on track runners will
choose athletes who are track runners or were track runners and have sufficient knowledge of the subject matter.
3. Record keeping: This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as the data source. This data can be used in the
new research. It is similar to going to a library. There, one can go over books and other reference material to collect relevant data that can be used in the research.
4. Process of observation: In this qualitative data collection method, the researcher immerses himself/ herself in the setting where his respondents are, and keeps a keen
eye on the participants and takes down notes. This is known as the process of observation.
Besides taking notes, other documentation methods, such as video and audio recording, photography, and similar methods, can be used.
5. Longitudinal studies: This data collection method is performed on the same data source repeatedly over an extended period. It is an observational research method
that goes on for a few years and, in some cases, can go on for even decades. This data collection method aims to find correlations through an empirical study of subjects
with common traits.
6. Case studies: In this method, data is gathered by an in-depth analysis of case studies. The versatility of this method is demonstrated in how this method can be used to
analyze both simple and complex subjects. The strength of this method is how judiciously it uses a combination of one or more qualitative data collection methods to
draw inferences.
Learn more: Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative Data Analysis

Analyzing your data is vital, as you have spent time and money collecting it. It is an essential process because you don’t want to find yourself in the dark even after
putting in so much effort. However, there are no set ground rules for analyzing qualitative data; it all begins with understanding the two main approaches to qualitative
data.
Two Main Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis
1. Deductive Approach
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The deductive approach involves analyzing qualitative data based on a structure that is predetermined by the researcher. A researcher can use the questions as a guide
for analyzing the data. This approach is quick and easy and can be used when a researcher has a fair idea about the likely responses that he/she is going to receive from
the sample population.
0. Inductive Approach
The inductive approach, on the contrary, is not based on a predetermined structure or set ground rules/framework. It is a more time-consuming and thorough approach
to qualitative data analysis. An inductive approach is often used when a researcher has very little or no idea of the research phenomenon.
Learn more: Data analysis in research
5 Steps to Qualitative Data Analysis

Whether you are looking to analyze qualitative data collected through a one-to-one interview or qualitative data from a survey, these simple steps will ensure a
robust data analysis.
Step 1: Arrange your Data
Once you have collected all the data, it is largely unstructured and sometimes makes no sense when looked at a glance. Therefore, it is essential that as a researcher, you
first need to transcribe the data collected. The first step in analyzing your data is arranging it systematically. Arranging data means converting all the data into a text
format. You can either export the data into a spreadsheet or manually type in the data or choose from any of the computer-assisted qualitative data analysis tools.
Step 2: Organize all your Data
After transforming and arranging your data, the immediate next step is to organize your data. There are chances you most likely have a large amount of information
that still needs to be arranged in an orderly manner. One of the best ways to organize the data is by going back to your research objectives and then organizing the data
based on the questions asked. Arrange your research objective in a table, so it appears visually clear. At all costs, avoid the temptations of working with unorganized
data. You will end up wasting time, and there will be no conclusive results obtained.
Step 3: Set a Code to the Data Collected
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Setting up proper codes for the collected data takes you a step ahead. Coding is one of the best ways to compress a tremendous amount of information collected. The
coding of qualitative data simply means categorizing and assigning properties and patterns to the collected data.
Coding is an important step in qualitative data analysis, as you can derive theories from relevant research findings. After assigning codes to your data, you can then
begin to build on the patterns to gain in-depth insight into the data that will help make informed decisions.
Step 4: Validate your Data
Validating data is one of the crucial steps of qualitative data analysis for successful research. Since data is quintessential for research, it is imperative to ensure that the
data is not flawed. Please note that data validation is not just one step in qualitative data analysis; this is a recurring step that needs to be followed throughout the
research process. There are two sides to validating data:
1. Accuracy of your research design or methods.

2. Reliability, which is the extent to which the methods produce accurate data consistently.
Step 5: Concluding the Analysis Process
It is important to finally conclude your data, which means systematically presenting your data, a report that can be readily used. The report should state the method
that you, as a researcher, used to conduct the research studies, the positives, and negatives and study limitations. In the report, you should also state the
suggestions/inferences of your findings and any related areas for future research.
Advantages of Qualitative Data

1. It helps in-depth analysis: Qualitative data collected provide the researchers with a detailed analysis of subject matters. While collecting qualitative data, the
researchers tend to probe the participants and can gather ample information by asking the right kind of questions. From a series of questions and answers, the data that
is collected is used to conclude.
2. Understand what customers think: Qualitative data helps the market researchers to understand the mindset of their customers. The use of qualitative data gives
businesses an insight into why a customer purchased a product. Understanding customer language helps market research infer the data collected more systematically.
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3. Rich data: Collected data can be used to conduct research in the future as well. Since the questions asked to collect qualitative data are open-ended questions,
respondents are free to express their opinions, leading to more information.
Disadvantages of Qualitative Data

1. Time-consuming: As collecting qualitative data is more time-consuming, fewer people are studying in comparison to collecting quantitative data. Unless time and
budget allow, smaller sample size is included.
2. Not easy to generalize: Since fewer people are studied, it is difficult to generalize the results of that population.
3.Dependent on the researcher’s skills: This type of data is collected through one-to-one interviews, observations, focus groups, etc. it relies on the researcher’s skills and
experience to collect information from the sample.
Guidelines in completing Chapter 2 of the research proposal (research locale, respondents of the study, ethical considerations, and statistical treatment of the data)
What is research locale?

This discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes in brief the place where the study is conducted.
What is respondents of the study?

Respondents are those individuals who complete a survey or interview for the researcher, or who provide data to be analyzed for the research study. ... Respondents can
also be referred to as participants.
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What are the ethical considerations in research?
Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary participation, informed
consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.
Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code
of conduct when collecting data from people.
The goals of human research often include understanding real-life phenomena, studying effective treatments, investigating behaviors, and improving lives in other ways.
What you decide to research and how you conduct that research involve key ethical considerations.
These considerations work to
● protect the rights of research participants

● enhance research validity
● maintain scientific integrity
This article mainly focuses on research ethics in human research, but ethical considerations are also important in animal research.
Types of ethical issues

There are several ethical issues you should always pay attention to in your research design, and these issues can overlap with each other.
You’ll usually outline ways you’ll deal with each issue in your research proposal if you plan to collect data from participants.
Ethical issue Definition
Voluntary Your participants are free to opt in or out of the study at any point in time.
participation
Informed consent Participants know the purpose, benefits, risks, and funding behind the study before they agree or decline to join.
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Ethical issue Definition
Anonymity You don’t know the identities of the participants. Personally identifiable data is not collected.
Confidentiality You know who the participants are but you keep that information hidden from everyone else. You anonymize personally identifiable data so
that it can’t be linked to other data by anyone else.
Potential for harm Physical, social, psychological and all other types of harm are kept to an absolute minimum.
Results You ensure your work is free of plagiarism or research misconduct, and you accurately represent your results.
communication
Voluntary participation
Voluntary participation means that all research subjects are free to choose to participate without any pressure or coercion.
All participants are able to withdraw from, or leave, the study at any point without feeling an obligation to continue. Your participants don’t need to provide a reason
for leaving the study.
It’s important to make it clear to participants that there are no negative consequences or repercussions to their refusal to participate. After all, they’re taking the time to
help you in the research process, so you should respect their decisions without trying to change their minds.
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Example of voluntary participation. When recruiting participants for an experiment, you inform all potential participants that they are free to choose whether they want
to participate, and they can withdraw from the study anytime without any negative repercussions.
Voluntary participation is an ethical principle protected by international law and many scientific codes of conduct.
Take special care to ensure there’s no pressure on participants when you’re working with vulnerable groups of people who may find it hard to stop the study even when
they want to.
Informed consent
Informed consent refers to a situation in which all potential participants receive and understand all the information they need to decide whether they want to
participate. This includes information about the study’s benefits, risks, funding, and institutional approval.
Example of informed consentYou recruit participants outside a train station for a quick survey.
You make sure to provide all potential participants with all the relevant information about
● what the study is about

● the risks and benefits of taking part
● how long the study will take
● your supervisor’s contact information and the institution’s approval number
You also let them know that their data will be kept confidential, and they are free to stop filling in the survey at any point for any reason. They can also withdraw their
information by contacting you or your supervisor.
Usually, you’ll provide participants with a text for them to read and ask them if they have any questions. If they agree to participate, they can sign or initial the consent
form. Note that this may not be sufficient for informed consent when you work with particularly vulnerable groups of people.
If you’re collecting data from people with low literacy, make sure to verbally explain the consent form to them before they agree to participate.
For participants with very limited English proficiency, you should always translate the study materials or work with an interpreter so they have all the information in
their first language.
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In research with children, you’ll often need informed permission for their participation from their parents or guardians. Although children cannot give informed
consent, it’s best to also ask for their assent (agreement) to participate, depending on their age and maturity level.
Anonymity
Anonymity means that you don’t know who the participants are and you can’t link any individual participant to their data.
You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information—for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses,
physical characteristics, photos, and videos.
In many cases, it may be impossible to truly anonymize data collection. For example, data collected in person or by phone cannot be considered fully anonymous because
some personal identifiers (demographic information or phone numbers) are impossible to hide.
You’ll also need to collect some identifying information if you give your participants the option to withdraw their data at a later stage.
Data pseudonymization is an alternative method where you replace identifying information about participants with pseudonymous, or fake, identifiers. The data can still
be linked to participants but it’s harder to do so because you separate personal information from the study data.
Example of data pseudonymizationYou’re conducting a survey with college students. You ask participants to enter demographic information including their age,
gender, nationality, and ethnicity. With all this information, it may be possible for other people to identify individual participants, so you pseudonymize the data.
Each participant is given a random three-digit number. You separate their personally identifying information from their survey data and include the participant
numbers in both files. The survey data can only be linked to personally identifying data via the participant numbers.
Confidentiality
Confidentiality means that you know who the participants are, but you remove all identifying information from your report.
All participants have a right to privacy, so you should protect their personal data for as long as you store or use it. Even when you can’t collect data anonymously, you
should secure confidentiality whenever you can.
Example of confidentiality. To keep your data confidential, you take steps to safeguard it and prevent any threats to data privacy. You store all signed consent forms in a
locked file drawer, and you password-protect all files with survey data.
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Only other researchers approved by the IRB are allowed to access the study data, and you make sure that everyone knows and follows your institution’s data privacy
protocols.
Some research designs aren’t conducive to confidentiality, but it’s important to make all attempts and inform participants of the risks involved.
Example of focus group confidentiality. In a focus group study, you invite five people to give their opinions on a new student service in a group setting.
Before beginning the study, you ask everyone to agree to keep what’s discussed confidential and to respect each other’s privacy. You also note that you cannot
completely guarantee confidentiality or anonymity so that participants are aware of the risks involved.
Potential for harm

As a researcher, you have to consider all possible sources of harm to participants. Harm can come in many different forms.
● Psychological harm: Sensitive questions or tasks may trigger negative emotions such as shame or anxiety.
● Social harm: Participation can involve social risks, public embarrassment, or stigma.
● Physical harm: Pain or injury can result from the study procedures.
● Legal harm: Reporting sensitive data could lead to legal risks or a breach of privacy.
It’s best to consider every possible source of harm in your study as well as concrete ways to mitigate them. Involve your supervisor to discuss steps for harm reduction.
Make sure to disclose all possible risks of harm to participants before the study to get informed consent. If there is a risk of harm, prepare to provide participants with
resources or counseling or medical services if needed.
Example of potential for harm. In a study on stress, you survey college students on their alcohol consumption habits.
Some of these questions may bring up negative emotions, so you inform participants about the sensitive nature of the survey and assure them that their responses will be
confidential.
You also provide participants with information about student counseling services and information about managing alcohol use after the survey is complete.
Results communication
The way you communicate your research results can sometimes involve ethical issues. Good science communication is honest, reliable, and credible. It’s best to make
your results as transparent as possible.
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Take steps to actively avoid plagiarism and research misconduct wherever possible.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism means submitting others’ works as your own. Although it can be unintentional, copying someone else’s work without proper credit amounts to stealing. It’s
an ethical problem in research communication because you may benefit by harming other researchers.
Self-plagiarism is when you republish or re-submit parts of your own papers or reports without properly citing your original work.
This is problematic because you may benefit from presenting your ideas as new and original even though they’ve already been published elsewhere in the past. You may
also be infringing on your previous publisher’s copyright, violating an ethical code, or wasting time and resources by doing so.
In extreme cases of self-plagiarism, entire datasets or papers are sometimes duplicated. These are major ethical violations because they can skew research findings if
taken as original data.
Example of duplication. You’re conducting a meta-analysis on whether working from home is related to better stress management. You gather all studies on this topic
that meet your search criteria.
You notice that two published studies have similar characteristics even though they are from different years. Their sample sizes, locations, treatments, and results are
highly similar, and the studies share one author in common.
If you enter both data sets in your analyses, you get a different conclusion compared to when you only use one data set. Including both data sets would distort your
overall findings.
Research misconduct
Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data, manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of academic fraud.
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These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement about data
analyses.
Research misconduct is a serious ethical issue because it can undermine scientific integrity and institutional credibility. It leads to a waste of funding and resources that
could have been used for alternative research.
Example of misconduct (MMR vaccine misinformation). In 1998, Andrew Wakefield and others published a now-debunked paper claiming that the measles, mumps,
and rubella (MMR) vaccine causes autism in children.
Later investigations revealed that they fabricated and manipulated their data to show a nonexistent link between vaccines and autism. Wakefield also neglected to
disclose important conflicts of interest, and his medical license was taken away.
This fraudulent work sparked vaccine hesitancy among parents and caregivers. The rate of MMR vaccinations in children fell sharply, and measles outbreaks became
more common due to a lack of herd immunity.
In reality, there is no risk of children developing autism from the MMR or other vaccines, as shown by many large studies. Although the paper was retracted, it has
actually received thousands of citations.
Examples of ethical failures

Content warningThis section contains discussion of violence, racism, and ableism.
Research scandals with ethical failures are littered throughout history, but some took place not that long ago.
Some scientists in positions of power have historically mistreated or even abused research participants to investigate research problems at any cost. These participants
were prisoners, under their care, or otherwise trusted them to treat them with dignity.
To demonstrate the importance of research ethics, we’ll briefly review two research studies that violated human rights in modern history.
Nazi experimentsNazi doctors and researchers performed painful and horrific experiments on thousands of imprisoned people in concentration camps from 1942 to
1945.
These experiments were inhumane and resulted in trauma, permanent disabilities, or death in many cases.
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The participation of prisoners was always forced, as consent was never sought. Participants often belonged to marginalized communities, including Jewish people,
disabled people, and Roma people.
After some Nazi doctors were put on trial for their crimes, the Nuremberg Code of research ethics for human experimentation was developed in 1947 to establish a new
standard for human experimentation in medical research.
Tuskegee syphilis studyThe Tuskegee syphilis study was an American public health study that violated research ethics throughout its 40-year run from 1932 to 1972. In
this study, 600 young black men were deceived into participating with a promise of free healthcare that was never fulfilled.
In reality, the actual goal was to study the effects of the disease when left untreated, and the researchers never informed participants about their diagnoses or the
research aims.
Although participants experienced severe health problems, including blindness and other complications, the researchers only pretended to provide medical care.
When treatment became possible in 1943, 11 years after the study began, none of the participants were offered it, despite their health conditions and high risk of death.
By the end of the study, 128 participants had died of syphilis or related complications. The study ended only once its existence was made public and it was judged to be
“medically unjustified.”
Ethical failures like these resulted in severe harm to participants, wasted resources, and lower trust in science and scientists. This is why all research institutions have
strict ethical guidelines for performing research.
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Statistical treatment of the data
What is Statistical Treatment of Data?
Statistical treatment of data is when you apply some form of statistical method to a data set to transform it from a group of meaningless numbers into meaningful
output.
Statistical treatment of data involves the use of statistical methods such as:
● mean,
● mode,
● median,
● regression,
● conditional probability,
● sampling,
● standard deviation and
● distribution range.
These statistical methods allow us to investigate the statistical relationships between the data and identify possible errors in the study.
In addition to being able to identify trends, statistical treatment also allows us to organize and process our data in the first place. This is because when carrying
out statistical analysis of our data, it is generally more useful to draw several conclusions for each subgroup within our population than to draw a single, more
general conclusion for the whole population. However, to do this, we need to be able to classify the population into different subgroups so that we can later break down
our data in the same way before analyzing it.
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For a statistical treatment of data example, consider a medical study that is investigating the effect of a drug on the human population. As the drug can affect different
people in different ways based on parameters such as gender, age and race, the researchers would want to group the data into different subgroups based on these
parameters to determine how each one affects the effectiveness of the drug. Categorizing the data in this way is an example of performing basic statistical treatment.
Type of Errors
A fundamental part of statistical treatment is using statistical methods to identify possible outliers and errors. No matter how careful we are, all experiments are subject
to inaccuracies resulting from two types of errors: systematic errors and random errors.
Systematic errors are errors associated with either the equipment being used to collect the data or with the method in which they are used. Random errors are errors
that occur unknowingly or unpredictably in the experimental configuration, such as internal deformations within specimens or small voltage fluctuations in
measurement testing instruments.
These experimental errors, in turn, can lead to two types of conclusion errors: type I errors and type II errors. A type I error is a false positive which occurs when a
researcher rejects a true null hypothesis. On the other hand, a type II error is a false negative which occurs when a researcher fails to reject a false null hypothesis.
Research Writing techniques: forms and style
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As a writer of academic papers, every student must document any source of information which they use in their research papers, articles, presentations and any kind of
scientific project.
If you properly document the original works of other authors that you base your ideas on, it allows the readers to easily see and consult the resources used. Accurate and
proper quoting will help avoid plagiarism, which is considered a serious breach of academic conduct. So if you want to create an original writing and need to use
Turnitin for this, you can read how to beat Turnitin.
There are 3 methods of including other writer’s work into your paper. They are called citing or quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing.
Citation. The purpose of the citing/quoting is that it should repeat the original text word-for-word and include a reference to the original writer of the source document.
When you have to incorporate another author’s ideas into your text, you should first decide which approach to use. You should use direct quotation when the exact
wording of a passage is important so that you can be sure you have reproduced the original accurately. You might also use citations if the original statement is very well
formulated and you feel it will enrich your writing.
Paraphrasing is basically a retelling of a passage of the original text using your own words and sentence structures. The author of the original must also be referenced.
Paraphrasing is widely used in research papers and argumentative essays, showing your supervisors you understand a source text well and may reformulate it and find
and emphasize its main points. It also helps change the stylistic characteristics of your source, adapting it to the readers (for example, if you use it for a presentation of
some scientific topic before your class) and omitting unnecessary details.
Summarizing means reproducing only the most important ideas and main points of the source in your own words. It usually summarizes a larger statement in the form
of a shorter explanation. However, the original source must be referenced, too. The purpose of a summary is a bit similar to that of a paraphrasing, but it helps to make
a long text shorter, explaining a lengthy chapter, article or a book in a brief essay or even in a single paragraph.
List of Useful Resources on Citation and Writing:
Documentation Style Handouts in PDF – Writing Center at Armstrong Atlantic State University (AASU), Savannah, GA Annotated Bibliography, APA, Chicago-
Turabian, and MLA Documentation, plus Grammar-Mechanics Handouts and Exercises, Regents’ Handouts, Writing Process Handouts, all available in PDF.
KnightCite: A Project of the Hekman Library – Calvin College, Grand Rapids, MI Free Citation Generator for MLA, APA and Chicago styles. Site created by Justin
Searls, Student Intern, Teaching & Learning Digital Studio, Calvin Information Technology.
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Slate: Citation Machine
An online tool that creates MLA and APA citations instantly. This web tool was created by David Warlick of The Landmark Project on October 29, 2000, and is part of
the Landmarks for Schools website for teachers.
2. Citing Electronic Sources
Students often ask how to cite electronic primary sources. At present, people often access their sources using electronic means, because a large portion of information
has become available in the electronic format. Using electronic or online sources is convenient, but you have to know how to cite them properly.
Due to the fact that different disciplines and fields of knowledge require different writing formats, no universal example for citing electronic sources can be provided.
You should look for a particular style guideline used in your field (MLA, APA, Chicago Style, etc.). Each style guide addresses rules of citing electronic sources.
Citing Sources
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, APA Style, MLA Style, Chicago, Related Resources, Navigating EResearch.
How to Cite Electronic Sources

The Learning Page, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. MLA and Turabian citation examples for Films, Legal Documents and Government Publications, Maps,
Photographs, Recorded Sound, Special Presentations, and Texts. Includes links to Citation Guidelines.
3. APA Style (American Psychological Association)
Using a particular writing style can simplify the editors’ work because every author adheres to the same format, as well as it makes it easier for the audience to follow
the author’s ideas because they are organized according to a familiar structure. Demonstrating that you know and follow the style requirements of your field will also
make your work more credible and trusted.
APA Style is often used for citation and formatting in social sciences (Psychology, Sociology, Linguistics, Economics, Criminology, as well as the areas of Business and
Nursing). It also deals with the overall writing style, content organization and preparation of a paper for publication, if needed.
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Thus, we recommend having a look at their manual as well as other online sources.
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association – Get a quick orientation to APA, Create APA parenthetical citations, Create an APA reference list,
Format a paper using APA guidelines, Format APA headings for a paper, Review APA usage and style guidelines, and Locate other APA resources on the Web.
APA Style Guide 6th Edition – USM Libraries, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS. Examples of APA citations for books, journals, other media, and
electronic information.
The Basics of APA Style – From APA Online, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. A useful tutorial following the 6th Edition of APA’s Publication
Manual, 2009.
Understanding Electronic Sources from American Psychological Association (APA) – Excerpted from the new 6th edition of the APA Publication Manual.
What are Guidelines in writing and presenting the research proposal

In a research proposal, the author demonstrates how and why their research is relevant to their field. They demonstrate that the work is necessary to the following:
● Filling a gap in the existing body of research on their subject
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● Underscoring existing research on their subject, and/or
● Adding new, original knowledge to the academic community’s existing understanding of their subject
A research proposal also demonstrates that the author is capable of conducting this research and contributing to the current state of their field in a meaningful way. To do this, your
research proposal needs to discuss your academic background and credentials as well as demonstrate that your proposed ideas have academic merit.
But demonstrating your research’s validity and your personal capability to carry it out isn’t enough to get your research proposal approved. Your research proposal also has to cover
these things:
● The research methodology you plan to use
● The tools and procedures you will use to collect, analyze, and interpret the data you collect
● An explanation of how your research fits the budget and other constraints that come with conducting it through your institution, department, or academic program
If you’ve already read our post on literature reviews, you may be thinking that a research proposal sounds pretty similar. They’re more than just similar, though—a literature review is
part of a research proposal. It’s the section that covers which sources you’re using, how you’re using them, and why they’re relevant. Think of a literature review as a mini-research
proposal that fits into your larger, main proposal.
How long should a research proposal be?

Generally, research proposals for bachelor’s and master’s theses are a few pages long. Research proposals for meatier projects, like Ph.D. dissertations and funding requests, are often
longer and far more detailed. A research proposal’s goal is to clearly outline exactly what your research will entail and accomplish, so including the proposal’s word count or page count
isn’t nearly as important as it is to ensure that all the necessary elements and content are present.
Research proposal structure

A research proposal follows a fairly straightforward structure. In order to achieve the goals described in the previous section, nearly all research proposals include the following sections:
Introduction
Your introduction achieves a few goals:
● Introduces your topic
● States your problem statement and the questions your research aims to answer
● Provides context for your research
In a research proposal, an introduction can be a few paragraphs long. It should be concise, but don’t feel like you need to cram all of your information into one paragraph.
In some cases, you need to include an abstract and/or a table of contents in your research proposal. These are included just before the introduction.
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Background significance
This is where you explain why your research is necessary and how it relates to established research in your field. Your work might complement existing research, strengthen it, or even
challenge it—no matter how your work will “play with” other researchers’ work, you need to express it in detail in your research proposal.
This is also the section where you clearly define the existing problems your research will address. By doing this, you’re explaining why your work is necessary—in other words, this is
where you answer the reader’s “so what?”
In your background significance section, you’ll also outline how you’ll conduct your research. If necessary, note which related questions and issues you won’t be covering in your
research.
Literature review
In your literature review, you introduce all the sources you plan to use in your research. This includes landmark studies and their data, books, and scholarly articles. A literature review
isn’t merely a list of sources (that’s what your bibliography is for); a literature review delves into the collection of sources you chose and explains how you’re using them in your
research.
Research design, methods, and schedule

Following your research review, you’ll discuss your research plans. In this section, make sure you cover these aspects:
● The type of research you will do. Are you conducting qualitative or quantitative research? Are you collecting original data or working with data collected by other researchers?
● Whether you’re doing experimental, correlational, or descriptive research
● The data you’re working with. For example, if you’re conducting research in the social sciences, you’ll need to describe the population you’re studying. You’ll also need to cover
how you’ll select your subjects and how you’ll collect data from them.
● The tools you’ll use to collect data. Will you be running experiments? Conducting surveys? Observing phenomena? Note all data collection methods here along with why they’re
effective methods for your specific research.
Beyond a comprehensive look at your research itself, you’ll also need to include:
● Your research timeline
● Your research budget
● Any potential obstacles you foresee and your plan for handling them
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Suppositions and implications
Although you can’t know your research’s results until you’ve actually done the work, you should be going into the project with a clear idea of how your work will contribute to your
field. This section is perhaps the most critical to your research proposal’s argument because it expresses exactly why your research is necessary.
In this section, make sure you cover the following:
● Any ways your work can challenge existing theories and assumptions in your field
● How your work will create the foundation for future research
● The practical value your findings will provide to practitioners, educators, and other academics in your field
● The problems your work can potentially help to fix
● Policies that could be impacted by your findings
● How your findings can be implemented in academia or other settings and how this will improve or otherwise transform these settings
In other words, this section isn’t about stating the specific results you expect. Rather, it’s where you state how your findings will be valuable.
Conclusion
This is where you wrap it all up. Your conclusion section, just like your conclusion paragraph for an essay, briefly summarizes your research proposal and reinforces your research’s
stated purpose.
Bibliography
Yes, you need to write a bibliography in addition to your literature review. Unlike your literature review, where you explained the relevance of the sources you chose and in some cases,
challenged them, your bibliography simply lists your sources and their authors.
Sometimes, a full bibliography is not needed. When this is the case, you can include a references list, which is simply a scaled-down list of all the sources you cited in your work. If you’re
not sure which to write, ask your supervisor.
How to write a research proposal

Research proposals, like all other kinds of academic writing, are written in a formal, objective tone. Keep in mind that being concise is a key component of academic writing; formal does
not mean flowery.
Adhere to the structure outlined above. Your reader knows how a research proposal is supposed to read and expects it to fit this template. It’s crucial that you present your research
proposal in a clear, logical way. Every question the reader has while reading your proposal should be answered by the final section.
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Editing and proofreading a research proposal
When you’re writing a research proposal, follow the same six-step writing process you follow with every other kind of writing you do.
After you’ve got a first draft written, take some time to let it “cool off” before you edit it. By doing this, you’re making it easier for yourself to catch mistakes and gaps in your writing.
Common mistakes to avoid when writing a research proposal

When you’re writing a research proposal, avoid these common pitfalls:
Being too wordy

As we said earlier, formal does not mean flowery. In fact, you should aim to keep your writing as brief and to-the-point as possible. The more economically you can express your purpose
and goal, the better.
Failing to cite relevant sources

When you’re conducting research, you’re adding to the existing body of knowledge on the subject you’re covering. Your research proposal should reference one or more of the landmark
research pieces in your field and connect your work to these works in some way. This doesn’t just communicate your work’s relevance—it also demonstrates your familiarity with the
field.
Focusing too much on minor issues

There are probably a lot of great reasons why your research is necessary. These reasons don’t all need to be in your research proposal. In fact, including too many questions and issues in
your research proposal can detract from your central purpose, weakening the proposal. Save the minor issues for your research paper itself and cover only the major, key issues you aim
to tackle in your proposal.
Failing to make a strong argument for your research

This is perhaps the easiest way to undermine your proposal because it’s far more subjective than the others. A research proposal is, in essence, a piece of persuasive writing. That means
that although you’re presenting your proposal in an objective, academic way, the goal is to get the reader to say “yes” to your work.
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This is true in every case, whether your reader is your supervisor, your department head, a graduate school admissions board, a private or government-backed funding provider, or the
editor at a journal in which you’d like to publish your work.
Polish your writing into a stellar proposal
When you’re asking for approval to conduct research—especially when there’s funding involved—you need to be nothing less than 100 percent confident in your proposal. If your
research proposal has spelling or grammatical mistakes, an inconsistent or inappropriate tone, or even just awkward phrasing, those will undermine your credibility.
Make sure your research proposal shines by using Grammarly to catch all of those issues. Even if you think you caught all of them while you were editing, it’s critical to double-check
your work. Your research deserves the best proposal possible, and Grammarly can help you make that happen.
What is scientific research-
Research conducted for the purpose of contributing towards science by the systematic collection, interpretation and evaluation of data and that, too, in a planned
manner is called scientific research: a researcher is the one who conducts this research. The results obtained from a small group through scientific studies are socialised,
and new information is revealed with respect to diagnosis, treatment and reliability of applications. The purpose of this review is to provide information about the
definition, classification and methodology of scientific research.
Before beginning the scientific research, the researcher should determine the subject, do planning and specify the methodology. In the Declaration of Helsinki, it is
stated that ‘the primary purpose of medical researches on volunteers is to understand the reasons, development and effects of diseases and develop protective, diagnostic
and therapeutic interventions (method, operation and therapies). Even the best proven interventions should be evaluated continuously by investigations with regard to
reliability, effectiveness, efficiency, accessibility and quality’ (1).
The questions, methods of response to questions and difficulties in scientific research may vary, but the design and structure are generally the same (2).
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Classification of Scientific Research
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Scientific research can be classified in several ways. Classification can be made according to the data collection techniques based on causality, relationship with time and
the medium through which they are applied.
1. According to data collection techniques:
● Observational
● Experimental
2. According to causality relationships:
● Descriptive
● Analytical
3. According to relationships with time:
● Retrospective
● Prospective
● Cross-sectional
4. According to the medium through which they are applied:
● Clinical
● Laboratory
● Social descriptive research (3)
Another method is to classify the research according to its descriptive or analytical features. This review is written according to this classification method.
I. Descriptive research
a. Case series
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b. Surveillance studies
II. Analytical research
a. Observational studies: cohort, case control and cross- sectional research
b. Interventional research: quasi-experimental and clinical research
I. Descriptive Research: in this type of research, the participant examines the distribution of diseases according to their place and time in society. It includes case
reports, case series and surveillance studies.
a. Case Report: it is the most common type of descriptive study. It is the examination of a single case having a different quality in the society, e.g.
conducting general anaesthesia in a pregnant patient with mucopolysaccharidosis.
b. Case Series: it is the description of repetitive cases having common features. For instance; case series involving interscapular pain related to neuraxial
labour analgesia. Interestingly, malignant hyperthermia cases are not accepted as case series since they are rarely seen during historical development.
c. Surveillance Studies: these are the results obtained from the databases that follow and record a health problem for a certain time, e.g. the surveillance of
cross-infections during anaesthesia in the intensive care unit.
II. Analytical Scientific Research: the most important difference of this and the descriptive research is the presence of a comparison group. They are categorised as
observational and interventional research.
a. Observational Research: the participants are grouped and evaluated according to a research plan or protocol. Observational research is more attractive
than other studies: as necessary clinical data is available, coming to a conclusion is fast and they incur low costs (4). In observational studies, the factors
and events examined by the researcher are not under the researcher’s control. They cannot be changed when requested. All the variables, except for the
examined factor or event, cannot be kept constant. Randomisation can be restrictedly used in some cases. It might not be always possible to apparently
and completely detect a cause and effect relationship. The results are considerably similar to real-life situations since the events are examined as they are
and special conditions are not created. Since the repetition of the observed cases is impossible most of the times, it may not be possible to recreate the
same conditions (5).
Moreover, some studies may be experimental. After the researcher intervenes, the researcher waits for the result, observes and obtains data.
Experimental studies are, more often, in the form of clinical trials or laboratory animal trials (2).
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Analytical observational research can be classified as cohort, case-control and cross-sectional studies.
● Cohort Studies (Prospective, Retrospective and Ambidirectional): A cohort is a group formed by patients having common characteristics. A
cohort study is the one in which a group of patients is followed-up in time, e.g. comparison of academic performances of children (who underwent
anaesthesia in their neonatal period) in their adolescence.
Firstly, the participants are controlled with regard to the disease under investigation. Patients are excluded from the study. Healthy participants
are evaluated with regard to the exposure to the effect. Then, the group (cohort) is followed-up for a sufficient period of time with respect to the
occurrence of disease, and the progress of disease is studied. The risk of the healthy participants getting sick is considered an incident. In cohort
studies, the risk of disease between the groups exposed and not exposed to the effect is calculated and rated. This rate is called relative
risk. Relative risk indicates the strength of exposure to the effect on the disease.
Cohort research may be observational and experimental. The follow-up of patients prospectively is called a prospective cohort study. The results
are obtained after the research starts. The researcher’s following-up of cohort subjects from a certain point towards the past is called
a retrospective cohort study. Prospective cohort studies are more valuable than retrospective cohort studies: this is because in the former, the
researcher observes and records the data. The researcher plans the study before the research and determines what data will be used. On the
other hand, in retrospective studies, the research is made on recorded data: no new data can be added.
In fact, retrospective and prospective studies are not observational. They determine the relationship between the date on which the researcher has
begun the study and the disease development period. The most critical disadvantage of this type of research is that if the follow-up period is long,
participants may leave the study at their own behest or due to physical conditions. Cohort studies that begin after exposure and before disease
development are called ambidirectional studies. Public healthcare studies generally fall within this group, e.g. lung cancer development in
smokers.
● Case-Control Studies: these studies are retrospective cohort studies. They examine the cause and effect relationship from the effect to the cause.
The detection or determination of data depends on the information recorded in the past. The researcher has no control over the data (2).
● Cross-Sectional Studies: in cross- sectional studies, the patients or events are examined at a particular point in time. Prevalence studies (the
percentage of a population having a disease at a certain time) are the ones in which the diagnosis and disease mechanism are detected and the
cause and effect relationship is examined at the same level.
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Cross-sectional studies are advantageous since they can be concluded relatively quickly. It may be difficult to obtain a reliable result from such
studies for rare diseases (2).
Cross-sectional studies are characterised by timing. In such studies, the exposure and result are simultaneously evaluated. While cross-sectional
studies are restrictedly used in studies involving anaesthesia (since the process of exposure is limited), they can be used in studies conducted in
intensive care units.
b. Interventional Research (Experimental Studies): in this type of research, there is a control group aimed to be tested. The researcher decides upon which
effect the participant will be exposed to in this study. Post-intervention, the researcher waits for the result, observes and obtains the data. Interventional
studies are divided into two: quasi-experimental and clinical research.
● Quasi-Experimental Research: they are conducted in cases in which a quick result is requested and the participants or research areas cannot be
randomised, e.g. giving hand-wash training and comparing the frequency of nosocomial infections before and after hand wash.
● Clinical Research: they are prospective studies carried out with a control group for the purpose of comparing the effect and value of an
intervention in a clinical case. Clinical study and research have the same meaning. Drugs, invasive interventions, medical devices and operations,
diets, physical therapy and diagnostic tools are relevant in this context (6).
Clinical studies are conducted by a responsible researcher, generally a physician. In the research team, there may be other healthcare staff besides physicians. Clinical
studies may be financed by healthcare institutes, drug companies, academic medical centres, volunteer groups, physicians, healthcare service providers and other
individuals. They may be conducted in several places including hospitals, universities, physicians’ offices and community clinics based on the researcher’s requirements.
The participants are made aware of the duration of the study before their inclusion. Clinical studies should include the evaluation of recommendations (drug, device and
surgical) for the treatment of a disease, syndrome or a comparison of one or more applications; finding different ways for recognition of a disease or case and prevention
of their recurrence (7).
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Clinical Research
In this review, clinical research is explained in more detail since it is the most valuable study in scientific research.
Clinical research starts with forming a hypothesis. A hypothesis can be defined as a claim put forward about the value of a population parameter based on sampling.
There are two types of hypotheses in statistics.
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● H0 hypothesis is called a control or null hypothesis. It is the hypothesis put forward in research, which implies that there is no difference between the groups
under consideration. If this hypothesis is rejected at the end of the study, it indicates that a difference exists between the two treatments under consideration.
● H1 hypothesis is called an alternative hypothesis. It is hypothesised against a null hypothesis, which implies that a difference exists between the groups under
consideration. For example, consider the following hypothesis: drug A has an analgesic effect. Control or null hypothesis (H 0): there is no difference between
drug A and placebo with regard to the analgesic effect. The alternative hypothesis (H 1) is applicable if a difference exists between drug A and placebo with
regard to the analgesic effect.
The planning phase comes after the determination of a hypothesis. A clinical research plan is called a protocol. In a protocol, the reasons for research, number and
qualities of participants, tests to be applied, study duration and what information to be gathered from the participants should be found and conformity criteria should
be developed.
The selection of participant groups to be included in the study is important. Inclusion and exclusion criteria of the study for the participants should be determined.
Inclusion criteria should be defined in the form of demographic characteristics (age, gender, etc.) of the participant group and the exclusion criteria as the diseases that
may influence the study, age ranges, cases involving pregnancy and lactation, continuously used drugs and participants’ cooperation.
The next stage is methodology. Methodology can be grouped under subheadings, namely, the calculation of number of subjects, blinding (masking), randomisation,
selection of operation to be applied, use of placebo and criteria for stopping and changing the treatment.
I. Calculation of the Number of Subjects
The entire source from which the data are obtained is called a universe or population. A small group selected from a certain universe based on certain rules and which is
accepted to highly represent the universe from which it is selected is called a sample and the characteristics of the population from which the data are collected are
called variables. If data is collected from the entire population, such an instance is called a parameter. Conducting a study on the sample rather than the entire
population is easier and less costly. Many factors influence the determination of the sample size. Firstly, the type of variable should be determined. Variables are
classified as categorical (qualitative, non-numerical) or numerical (quantitative). Individuals in categorical variables are classified according to their characteristics.
Categorical variables are indicated as nominal and ordinal (ordered). In nominal variables, the application of a category depends on the researcher’s preference. For
instance, a female participant can be considered first and then the male participant, or vice versa. An ordinal (ordered) variable is ordered from small to large or vice
versa (e.g. ordering obese patients based on their weights-from the lightest to the heaviest or vice versa). A categorical variable may have more than one characteristic:
such variables are called binary or dichotomous (e.g. a participant may be both female and obese).
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If the variable has numerical (quantitative) characteristics and these characteristics cannot be categorised, then it is called a numerical variable. Numerical variables are
either discrete or continuous. For example, the number of operations with spinal anaesthesia represents a discrete variable. The haemoglobin value or height represents
a continuous variable.
Statistical analyses that need to be employed depend on the type of variable. The determination of variables is necessary for selecting the statistical method as well as
software in SPSS. While categorical variables are presented as numbers and percentages, numerical variables are represented using measures such as mean and
standard deviation. It may be necessary to use mean in categorising some cases such as the following: even though the variable is categorical (qualitative, non-numerical)
when Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) is used (since a numerical value is obtained), it is classified as a numerical variable: such variables are averaged.
Clinical research is carried out on the sample and generalised to the population. Accordingly, the number of samples should be correctly determined. Different sample
size formulas are used on the basis of the statistical method to be used. When the sample size increases, error probability decreases. The sample size is calculated based
on the primary hypothesis. The determination of a sample size before beginning the research specifies the power of the study. Power analysis enables the acquisition of
realistic results in the research, and it is used for comparing two or more clinical research methods.
Because of the difference in the formulas used in calculating power analysis and number of samples for clinical research, it facilitates the use of computer programs for
making calculations.
It is necessary to know certain parameters in order to calculate the number of samples by power analysis.
a. Type-I (α) and type-II (β) error levels
b. Difference between groups (d-difference) and effect size (ES)
c. Distribution ratio of groups
d. Direction of research hypothesis (H1)

a. Type-I (α) and Type-II (β) Error (β) Levels
Two types of errors can be made while accepting or rejecting H 0 hypothesis in a hypothesis test. Type-I error (α) level is the probability of finding a difference at the end
of the research when there is no difference between the two applications. In other words, it is the rejection of the hypothesis when H 0 is actually correct and it is known
as α error or p value. For instance, when the size is determined, type-I error level is accepted as 0.05 or 0.01.
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Another error that can be made during a hypothesis test is a type-II error. It is the acceptance of a wrongly hypothesised H 0 hypothesis. In fact, it is the probability of
failing to find a difference when there is a difference between the two applications. The power of a test is the ability of that test to find a difference that actually exists.
Therefore, it is related to the type-II error level.
Since the type-II error risk is expressed as β, the power of the test is defined as 1–β. When a type-II error is 0.20, the power of the test is 0.80. Type-I (α) and type-II (β)
errors can be intentional. The reason to intentionally make such an error is the necessity to look at the events from the opposite perspective.
b. Difference between Groups and ES
ES is defined as the state in which statistical difference also has clinically significance: ES≥0.5 is desirable. The difference between groups is the absolute difference
between the groups compared in clinical research.
c. Allocation Ratio of Groups
The allocation ratio of groups is effective in determining the number of samples. If the number of samples is desired to be determined at the lowest level, the rate should
be kept as 1/1.
d. Direction of Hypothesis (H1)
The direction of hypothesis in clinical research may be one-sided or two-sided. While one-sided hypotheses hypothesis test differences in the direction of size, two-sided
hypotheses hypothesis test differences without direction. The power of the test in two-sided hypotheses is lower than one-sided hypotheses.
After these four variables are determined, they are entered in the appropriate computer program and the number of samples is calculated. Statistical packaged software
programs such as Statistica, NCSS and G-Power may be used for power analysis and calculating the number of samples. When the samples size is calculated, if there is a
decrease in α, difference between groups, ES and number of samples, then the standard deviation increases and power decreases. The power in two-sided hypothesis is
lower. It is ethically appropriate to consider the determination of sample size, particularly in animal experiments, at the beginning of the study. The phase of the study is
also important in the determination of number of subjects to be included in drug studies. Usually, phase-I studies are used to determine the safety profile of a drug or
product, and they are generally conducted on a few healthy volunteers. If no unacceptable toxicity is detected during phase-I studies, phase-II studies may be carried
out. Phase-II studies are proof-of-concept studies conducted on a larger number (100–500) of volunteer patients. When the effectiveness of the drug or product is evident
in phase-II studies, phase-III studies can be initiated. These are randomised, double-blinded, placebo or standard treatment-controlled studies. Volunteer patients are
periodically followed-up with respect to the effectiveness and side effects of the drug. It can generally last 1–4 years and is valuable during licensing and releasing the
drug to the general market. Then, phase-IV studies begin in which long-term safety is investigated (indication, dose, mode of application, safety, effectiveness, etc.) on
thousands of volunteer patients.
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II. Blinding (Masking) and Randomisation Methods
When the methodology of clinical research is prepared, precautions should be taken to prevent taking sides. For this reason, techniques such as randomisation and
blinding (masking) are used. Comparative studies are the most ideal ones in clinical research.
Blinding Method
A case in which the treatments applied to participants of clinical research should be kept unknown is called the blinding method. If the participant does not know what it
receives, it is called a single-blind study; if even the researcher does not know, it is called a double-blind study. When there is a probability of knowing which drug is
given in the order of application, when uninformed staff administers the drug, it is called in-house blinding. In case the study drug is known in its pharmaceutical form,
a double-dummy blinding test is conducted. Intravenous drug is given to one group and a placebo tablet is given to the comparison group; then, the placebo tablet is
given to the group that received the intravenous drug and intravenous drug in addition to placebo tablet is given to the comparison group. In this manner, each group
receives both the intravenous and tablet forms of the drug. In case a third party interested in the study is involved and it also does not know about the drug (along with
the statistician), it is called third-party blinding.
Randomisation Method
The selection of patients for the study groups should be random. Randomisation methods are used for such selection, which prevent conscious or unconscious
manipulations in the selection of patients (8).
No factor pertaining to the patient should provide preference of one treatment to the other during randomisation. This characteristic is the most important difference
separating randomised clinical studies from prospective and synchronous studies with experimental groups. Randomisation strengthens the study design and enables the
determination of reliable scientific knowledge (2).
The easiest method is simple randomisation, e.g. determination of the type of anaesthesia to be administered to a patient by tossing a coin. In this method, when the
number of samples is kept high, a balanced distribution is created. When the number of samples is low, there will be an imbalance between the groups. In this case,
stratification and blocking have to be added to randomisation. Stratification is the classification of patients one or more times according to prognostic features
determined by the researcher and blocking is the selection of a certain number of patients for each stratification process. The number of stratification processes should
be determined at the beginning of the study.
As the number of stratification processes increases, performing the study and balancing the groups become difficult. For this reason, stratification characteristics and
limitations should be effectively determined at the beginning of the study. It is not mandatory for the stratifications to have equal intervals. Despite all the precautions,
an imbalance might occur between the groups before beginning the research. In such circumstances, post-stratification or restandardisation may be conducted
according to the prognostic factors.
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The main characteristic of applying blinding (masking) and randomisation is the prevention of bias. Therefore, it is worthwhile to comprehensively examine bias at this
stage.
Bias and Chicanery
While conducting clinical research, errors can be introduced voluntarily or involuntarily at a number of stages, such as design, population selection, calculating the
number of samples, non-compliance with study protocol, data entry and selection of statistical method. Bias is taking sides of individuals in line with their own decisions,
views and ideological preferences (9). In order for an error to lead to bias, it has to be a systematic error. Systematic errors in controlled studies generally cause the
results of one group to move in a different direction as compared to the other. It has to be understood that scientific research is generally prone to errors. However,
random errors (or, in other words, ‘the luck factor’-in which bias is unintended-do not lead to bias (10).
Another issue, which is different from bias, is chicanery. It is defined as voluntarily changing the interventions, results and data of patients in an unethical manner or
copying data from other studies. Comparatively, bias may not be done consciously.
In case unexpected results or outliers are found while the study is analysed, if possible, such data should be re-included into the study since the complete exclusion of
data from a study endangers its reliability. In such a case, evaluation needs to be made with and without outliers. It is insignificant if no difference is found. However, if
there is a difference, the results with outliers are re-evaluated. If there is no error, then the outlier is included in the study (as the outlier may be a result). It should be
noted that re-evaluation of data in anaesthesiology is not possible.
Statistical evaluation methods should be determined at the design stage so as not to encounter unexpected results in clinical research. The data should be evaluated
before the end of the study and without entering into details in research that are time-consuming and involve several samples. This is called an interim analysis. The date
of interim analysis should be determined at the beginning of the study. The purpose of making interim analysis is to prevent unnecessary cost and effort since it may be
necessary to conclude the research after the interim analysis, e.g. studies in which there is no possibility to validate the hypothesis at the end or the occurrence of
different side effects of the drug to be used. The accuracy of the hypothesis and number of samples are compared. Statistical significance levels in interim analysis are
very important. If the data level is significant, the hypothesis is validated even if the result turns out to be insignificant after the date of the analysis.
Another important point to be considered is the necessity to conclude the participants’ treatment within the period specified in the study protocol. When the result of the
study is achieved earlier and unexpected situations develop, the treatment is concluded earlier. Moreover, the participant may quit the study at its own behest, may die
or unpredictable situations (e.g. pregnancy) may develop. The participant can also quit the study whenever it wants, even if the study has not ended (7).
In case the results of a study are contrary to already known or expected results, the expected quality level of the study suggesting the contradiction may be higher than
the studies supporting what is known in that subject. This type of bias is called confirmation bias. The presence of well-known mechanisms and logical inference from
them may create problems in the evaluation of data. This is called plausibility bias.
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Another type of bias is expectation bias. If a result different from the known results has been achieved and it is against the editor’s will, it can be challenged. Bias may be
introduced during the publication of studies, such as publishing only positive results, selection of study results in a way to support a view or prevention of their
publication. Some editors may only publish research that extols only the positive results or results that they desire.
Bias may be introduced for advertisement or economic reasons. Economic pressure may be applied on the editor, particularly in the cases of studies involving drugs and
new medical devices. This is called commercial bias.
In recent years, before beginning a study, it has been recommended to record it on the Web site www.clinicaltrials.gov for the purpose of facilitating systematic
interpretation and analysis in scientific research, informing other researchers, preventing bias, provision of writing in a standard format, enhancing contribution of
research results to the general literature and enabling early intervention of an institution for support. This Web site is a service of the US National Institutes of Health.
The last stage in the methodology of clinical studies is the selection of intervention to be conducted. Placebo use assumes an important place in interventions. In Latin,
placebo means ‘I will be fine’. In medical literature, it refers to substances that are not curative, do not have active ingredients and have various pharmaceutical forms.
Although placebos do not have active drug characteristic, they have shown effective analgesic characteristics, particularly in algology applications; further, its use
prevents bias in comparative studies. If a placebo has a positive impact on a participant, it is called the placebo effect; on the contrary, if it has a negative impact, it is
called the nocebo effect. Another type of therapy that can be used in clinical research is sham application. Although a researcher does not cure the patient, the researcher
may compare those who receive therapy and undergo sham. It has been seen that sham therapies also exhibit a placebo effect. In particular, sham therapies are used in
acupuncture applications (11). While placebo is a substance, sham is a type of clinical application.
Ethically, the patient has to receive appropriate therapy. For this reason, if its use prevents effective treatment, it causes great problem with regard to patient health and
legalities.
Before medical research is conducted with human subjects, predictable risks, drawbacks and benefits must be evaluated for individuals or groups participating in the
study. Precautions must be taken for reducing the risk to a minimum level. The risks during the study should be followed, evaluated and recorded by the researcher (1).
After the methodology for a clinical study is determined, dealing with the ‘Ethics Committee’ forms the next stage. The purpose of the ethics committee is to protect the
rights, safety and well-being of volunteers taking part in the clinical research, considering the scientific method and concerns of society. The ethics committee examines
the studies presented in time, comprehensively and independently, with regard to ethics and science; in line with the Declaration of Helsinki and following national and
international standards concerning ‘Good Clinical Practice’. The method to be followed in the formation of the ethics committee should be developed without any kind
of prejudice and to examine the applications with regard to ethics and science within the framework of the ethics committee, Regulation on Clinical Trials and Good
Clinical Practice (www.iku.com). The necessary documents to be presented to the ethics committee are research protocol, volunteer consent form, budget contract,
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Declaration of Helsinki, curriculum vitae of researchers, similar or explanatory literature samples, supporting institution approval certificate and patient follow-up
form.
Only one sister/brother, mother, father, son/daughter and wife/husband can take charge in the same ethics committee. A rector, vice rector, dean, deputy dean,
provincial healthcare director and chief physician cannot be members of the ethics committee.
Members of the ethics committee can work as researchers or coordinators in clinical research. However, during research meetings in which members of the ethics
committee are researchers or coordinators, they must leave the session and they cannot sign-off on decisions. If the number of members in the ethics committee for a
particular research is so high that it is impossible to take a decision, the clinical research is presented to another ethics committee in the same province. If there is no
ethics committee in the same province, an ethics committee in the closest settlement is found.
Thereafter, researchers need to inform the participants using an informed consent form. This form should explain the content of clinical study, potential benefits of the
study, alternatives and risks (if any). It should be easy, comprehensible, conforming to spelling rules and written in plain language understandable by the participant.
This form assists the participants in taking a decision regarding participation in the study. It should aim to protect the participants. The participant should be included
in the study only after it signs the informed consent form; the participant can quit the study whenever required, even when the study has not ended (7).
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Footnotes
Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed.
Author Contributions: Concept - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Design - C.Ö.Ç.; Supervision - A.D.; Resource - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Materials - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Analysis and/or Interpretation -
C.Ö.Ç., A.D.; Literature Search - C.Ö.Ç.; Writing Manuscript - C.Ö.Ç.; Critical Review - A.D.; Other - C.Ö.Ç., A.D.
Conflict of Interest: No conflict of interest was declared by the authors.
Financial Disclosure: The authors declared that this study has received no financial support.
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References
1. Klinik araştırmalar Derneği. Helsinki Bildirgesi. 2016. The web site: http://www.klinikarastirmalar.org.tr/icerik.phpid=1304.
2. Bekiroğlu N. Biyoistatistik. The web site: http://docplayer.biz.tr/2029485-Biyoistatistik-nural-bekiroglu-ph-d-giris.html.
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3. Öcek Z. Epidemiyoloji. The web site: http://dent.ege.edu.tr/dosyalar/kaynak/116.
4. Sessler D, Imrey PB. Clinical Research Methodology 3: Randomized Controlled Trials. Anesth Analg. 2015;121:1052–
64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0000000000000862. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
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11. Healthwise Staff. Plasebo and sham treatment myhealth. The web site: https://myhealth.alberta.ca/Health/pages/conditions.aspx.
What is Research concepts –

What is a concept in a research study? Formally and logically developed ideas about classes of phenomena that a researcher seeks to study; the “building blocks” of
theory.
What is a Research Concept Paper?

A dissertation is a thorough, comprehensive research project that should be carefully planned out to capture the interest and attention of future committee members.
The Concept Paper provides an introductory form-of communication between students and committees by allowing them time for input before beginning their own
work on a topic or idea; it also allows those involved early feedback from those who will review drafts as well as setting guidelines in place so there are no surprises later
down the line when deadlines come around!
When is the Research Concept Paper Written?

The Research Concept Paper is a brief document that serves two important functions. First, it explains the importance and significance of your proposed dissertation
topic to those who will read or grade you on it (your committee).
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Second, this paper gives an overview about what exactly makes up each chapter in order to better organized yourself before writing any chapters themselves- ensuring
their quality as well! The length usually ranges anywhere from 2-10 pages depending upon how much information needs summarizing; but remember: less can often
mean more if done right.
The Concept Paper is the first step of a student’s final academic journey that leads to completion and marks their level as competent enough for doctoral work. It takes
on more than just an informative standpoint, but also functions as evidence – both orally through presentations or written pieces such as dissertations-to show how
much knowledge has been gained by synthesizing course material with original research in order create new insights within one’s field(or subjects)of study.
The Concept Paper, although highly abridged and comprised of many different items than those found in a dissertation or other degree-specific document, serves as an
outline for what you should include when writing your paper.
What are the Main Elements of a Research Concept Paper?

Title page
The title page for the dissertation is where you list all of your research topics and their potential titles. It should be a stand-alone statement that can fully describe each
project in detail, but it’s important not just to include words like “the” or “and,” because those will limit what other people may understand from reading about your
work when there might actually have been many more interesting connections present than we noticed at first glance! The APA recommends avoiding misleading
phrases too; make sure any keywords serve some useful purpose instead of being useless repetition (2010).
Statement of the Problem

The purpose of research is to answer questions about things in the world. The best way for readers who are trying this out may need convincing, so you must show them
why your project will help with an issue that concerns them or one they know someone else who has experienced personally- either because it’s similar on some level (e g
Alzheimer’s disease) , related through comparison across variables (“I have never felt worse than after being diagnosed”).
There needs be enough information given at first glance here without having any background knowledge required before reading further . It also gives us another outlet
besides writing academic papers where all aspects can finally come together into something meaningful!
As you begin to write the problem statement of your Concept Paper, take time in considering why this topic is important. Consider how it relates to previous work done
on similar topics as well as its implications for future research and practice (APA 2010). A good foundation will help provide clarity when completing other parts such as
design or methods section – two very necessary pieces if one hopes their Dissertation becomes an effective contribution towards solving these problems!
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Preliminary Literature Review
The literature review provides identification of major scholarship that supports and validates the topic. The student should analyze past research in order to synthesize
any new findings, while connecting it with a theoretical model reported by authors who have studied or conducted studies on similar topics previously.
The preliminary survey will allow me an opportunity to identify what has already been established about my particular subject matter through academic sources before
starting up fresh investigations myself—this is crucial when conducting original work!
Successful research projects are based on the work of predecessors. This passage provides enough information to seed thoughts in your head suggesting more reading is
needed, but it’s not much help when you want an answer right now! A strong concept paper should summarize key points from previous studies while condensing them
into a shorter summary that can still address all relevant issues or questions addressed by these sources (and maybe leave room for some interesting observations).
Goal Statement
A goal statement is a broad or abstract intention, including the research goals and objectives. This part of your concept paper should describe “who,” what,” when” as
well as why this project interests you enough to pursue it further in an academic setting.
The first step would be writing down every single thing that comes into mind about why someone else might want/need accesses these types materials.
Research Questions
Some research questions are more specific than others. These specific queries will direct the student’s inquiry into a particular area or topic of study, while asking open-
ended questions allow for exploration in any direction they choose – including new territory that goes beyond previously explored material completely unrelated to their
field of interest!
Understanding exactly what you want out your project can be difficult at times so it helps if we narrow down our goals early on during planning stages by only focusing
on key areas where there is sufficient knowledge available which has not yet been fully examined (i..e theory development).
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An Abridged Methodology
Abridged Methodology provides a simplified or summarized approach to the research methods that will be employed. The goals identified in previous sections of your
Concept Paper should relate back to this general outline, which outlines just one way for conducting an effective study and analyzing data accordingly
Timeline
The timeline is a great way to keep up with your project. It highlights important milestones and provides structure for managing sections within the completion time
frame, which can be especially useful if it’s hard or impossible (due lack of resources)to complete everything at once!
References
The references section provides citations for the material cited in this paper and elsewhere.
Conceptual Research Framework

The concept of conceptual research is important in understanding how one study can build on previous work and knowledge, which also helps explain the phenomenon
being studied. It will often help determine what questions need answers or responses from participants for a certain experiment to occur successfully.
A conceptual framework is a way to organize and present the findings from your research process. The following guide will help you create one step by step.
Choose the topic for research

For best results, it is important that you have decided on your topic before starting any research. A good selection will not only ensure the most interesting and relevant
information but also help ground yourself in what’s happening with current trends or events within this field of study!
Collect relevant literature

Narrowing down a topic is just the first step in completing research. Achieving success depends on collecting relevant information and literature, but it’s not always easy
when there are so many sources of data available! Luckily for you we compiled this list with some great books that will help get your brain turning available! Luckily for
you we compiled this list with some great books that will help get your brain turning over new ideas faster than ever before- keep them handy because they’re sure to
come in handy one day (or hour).
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The material that you should preferably use is scientific journals, research papers published by well-known scientist and similar materials. There’s a lot of information
available on the internet but it can be difficult to know what sites are worth following or if any particular article will help with your work– so before using these
resources make sure to verify their authenticity!
Identify specific variables
If you want your research study to have a new scope, identify the variables that are related. These can give it more of what we need and also help us figure out how
they’re connected so for example if hypothetically an occurrence might be cancer among married women then these two important characteristics would become our
focus: marrying ladies AND scarlet Letter Fever or something similar along those lines fromTV shows/movies-anything with “conspiracy theories”
You have just read an article that said there are more cases of cancer in married women who are beyond 40 years old. This is a Big revelation, coming from what seemed
like an authoritative source! But wait… it gets better because this third variable-age–can affect the end result or your research findings as well so you’ll want to take
note next time around when prepping for anything related with human biology.
Generate the framework In this step, you start building the required framework using the mix of variables from the scientific articles and other relevant materials. The
problem statement in your research becomes the research framework. Your attempt to start answering the question becomes the basis of your research study. The study
is carried out to reduce the knowledge gap and make available more relevant and correct information.
In this step, you start building your research framework using the mix of variables from scientific articles and other relevant materials. Your attempt to answer a
question becomes its basis – which can then be tested by carrying out experiments or observations in order reduce knowledge gaps so more correct information is
available for those who need it!
Research principles
Five principles for research ethics
● Discuss intellectual property frankly. ...
● Be conscious of multiple roles. ...
● Follow informed-consent rules. ...
● Respect confidentiality and privacy. ...
● Tap into ethics resources.
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Nature of research
What is the nature of research?
It identifies key characteristics and attributes of a product or service through individual interviews or group discussions (qualitative research) and it analyzes these
attributes by statistical analysis of answers given in a structured set of questions such as a survey or questionnaire (quantitative research).
How to choose research topic

Here are some tips:
1. Choose a topic that you are interested in! ...
2. Narrow your topic to something manageable. ...
3. Review the guidelines on topic selection outlined in your assignment. ...
4. Refer to lecture notes and required texts to refresh your knowledge of the course and assignment.
5. Talk about research ideas with a friend.
How to formulate a research topic

How To Create A Catchy Research Topic
1. Seek inspiration. Your research idea needs to be fresh, relevant, and interesting. ...
2. Be clear. There's nothing that turns off readers more than unclear, garbled language. ...
3. Avoid jargon. ...
4. Make it personal. ...
5. Consider your audience.
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What to present during research proposal defense
● Anticipate Questions. In your presentation, try to answer all of the questions you expect your committee to ask. ...
● Look for Weaknesses. ...
● Practice. ...
● Avoid Wordiness on PowerPoint Slides. ...
● Be Able to Pronounce the Words Correctly. ...
● Watch Recordings of Previous Defenses.
How to determine research gap

1. Look for inspiration in published literature. ...
2. Seek help from your research advisor. ...
3. Use digital tools to seek out popular topics or most cited research papers. ...
4. Check the websites of influential journals. ...
5. Make a note of your queries. ...
6. Research each question.
How to determine specific research problem

You can identify a research problem by reading recent research, theory and debates on your topic to find a gap in what is currently known about it. You might look for:
A phenomenon or context that has not been closely studied. A contradiction between two or more perspectives.
How to select research methodology
195
Overview: Choosing Your Methodology
1. Understanding the options
1. Qualitative research
2. Quantitative research
3. Mixed methods-based research

2. Choosing a research methodology
1. Nature of the research
2. Research area norms
3. Practicalities
1. Understanding the options
Before we jump into the question of how to choose a research methodology, it’s useful to take a step back to understand the three overarching types of research
– qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods-based research. Each of these options takes a different methodological approach.
Qualitative research utilises data that is not numbers-based. In other words, qualitative research focuses on words, descriptions, concepts or ideas – while quantitative
research makes use of numbers and statistics. Qualitative research investigates the “softer side” of things to explore and describe, while quantitative research focuses on
the “hard numbers”, to measure differences between variables and the relationships between them.
Importantly, qualitative research methods are typically used to explore and gain a deeper understanding of the complexity of a situation – to draw a rich picture. In
contrast to this, quantitative methods are usually used to confirm or test hypotheses. In other words, they have distinctly different purposes. The table below highlights a
few of the key differences between qualitative and quantitative research.
Qualitative Research
● Uses an inductive approach
● Is used to build theories
● Takes a subjective approach
● Adopts an open and flexible approach
● The researcher is close to the respondents
● Interviews and focus groups are oftentimes used to collect word-based data.
196
● Generally, draws on small sample sizes
● Uses qualitative data analysis techniques (e.g. content analysis, thematic analysis, etc)
Quantitative Research
● Uses a deductive approach

● Is used to test theories
● Takes an objective approach
● Adopts a closed, highly planned approach
● The research is disconnected from respondents
● Surveys or laboratory equipment are often used to collect number-based data.
● Generally, requires large sample sizes
● Uses statistical analysis techniques to make sense of data.
Mixed methods-based research, as you’d expect, attempts to bring these two types of research together, drawing on both qualitative and quantitative data. Quite often,
mixed methods-based studies will use qualitative research to explore a situation and develop a potential model of understanding (this is called a conceptual framework),
and then go on to use quantitative methods to test that model empirically.
In other words, while qualitative and quantitative methods (and the philosophies that underpin them) are completely different, they are not at odds with each other. It’s
not a competition of qualitative vs quantitative. On the contrary, they can be used together to develop a high-quality piece of research. Of course, this is easier said than
done, so we usually recommend that first-time researchers stick to a single approach, unless the nature of their study truly warrants a mixed-methods approach.
How to select data collection method

This process consists of the following five steps.
1. Determine What Information You Want to Collect. The first thing you need to do is choose what details you want to collect. ...
2. Set a Timeframe for Data Collection. ...
3. Determine Your Data Collection Method. ...
4. Collect the Data. ...
5. Analyze the Data and Implement Your Findings.
197
How to construct research instrument
1. Select a Topic.
2. Formulate a Thesis Statement...
3. Choose the Types of Analyses.
4. Research & Write a Literature Review. & Refine the Thesis.
5. Formulate the Research Objectives & Questions.
6. Conceptualize a topic.
7. Choose Research Method / the Research Instrument.
8. Operationalize concepts / construct the instrument.
What are the ethical standards to conduct research

Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public.
What are the institutional standards to conduct research – TBA
What is the research format of CDSGA - TBA
What is the research layout of CDSGA- TBA

198
Course Outcomes : At the end of the course, students should be able to:
CO1: Define and explain the meaning of scientific research, the nature and types, its concepts, principles, and ethical standards;
CO2: Identify a researchable natural or social phenomena in schools, community, and industry-based on previous studies and literature,
authorities, and current events;
CO3: Conceptualize research methodology appropriate to the research problem, purpose, setting, and available data; and
CO4: Present a scientific research proposal relevant to the program of discipline according to institutional standards.
199
CURRICULUM MAP:
Program Learning Outcomes (PLOs) of ______________ and Institutional Learning Outcomes (ILOs) of CDSGA
– Course Outcomes (COs) of Research 1
P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P I I I I I
L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CO1
CO2
CO3
CO4
Legends:
I: INTRODUCED (Remembering and Understanding Levels); E: ENHANCED (Applying and Analyzing Levels); D: DEMONSTRATED (Evaluating and Creating Levels)
200
LEARNING PLAN
Activities & Time

Learning Outcomes Topics Resources Assessment
Methodology Allotment
Class Orientation and Introduction of Course Overview 3 hours
CO1: Define and explain the meaning of scientific research, the nature and types, its concepts, principles, and ethical standards.
LO 1.1. Demonstrate knowledge ● Definition of research ● CARE-DLP ● OBE - Learning ● Conceptual 6 hours
on the basic concepts of ● Importance of research ● Individual Activity Sheet Assessment
research methods. ● Goals of research learning activity ● Textbooks/Online ● Research
● Purpose of research – (non- Resources Work
● Characteristics of research residential / ● PowerPoint
● The use of research homebased presentations
● Types of applied research learning) ● Video presentations
● Lecture and ● Media (films and
● Time dimensions in research interactive other media
LO 1.2. Enumerate the ● Classification of research discussion productions)
classification and types of according to design and (online/offline ● CDSGA Research
research. methodology based/face-to- Manual
● Types of quantitative face)
research ● Power point
● Types of qualitative presentation
research (online/offline
● Sources of research based)
● Phases in a qualitative study ● Online based-
● Purposes of mixed methods activities via
LO 1.3. Explain the ethical ● Basic rules for ethical messenger/
guidelines and zoom/google
201
considerations in research. research meet
● Ethical consideration
CO2: Identify a researchable natural or social phenomena in schools, community, and industry-based on previous studies and literature, authorities, and
current events.
LO 2.1. Conceptualize a research ● Three phases of the research ● CARE-DLP ● OBE - Learning ● Conceptual 18 hours
study and identify sources (conceptual phase, empirical ● Individual Activity Sheet Assessment
for research phase, interpretative phase) learning activity ● Textbooks/Online ● Research
understanding. ● Research topics – (non- Resources Work –
● Sources of research residential / ● PowerPoint Chapter 1 of
understanding homebased presentations the Research
● Guidelines in writing learning) ● Video presentations Proposal
research title, introduction, ● Lecture and ● Media (films and
statement of the problem, interactive other media
hypothesis discussion productions)
(online/offline ● CDSGA Research
LO 2.2. Review of related ● Steps in a literature review based/ face-to- Manual
literature. ● American Psychological face) ● Institutional and
Association (APA) formats ● Power point Program Research
for citation of print and presentation Agenda
electronic materials (online/offline
● Paraphrasing techniques based)
● Guidelines in writing review ● Online based-
of related literature activities via
LO 2.3. Formulate a ● Theoretical framework messenger/
theoretical/conceptual ● Conceptual framework zoom/google
framework. meet
202
● Guidelines in completing
Chapter 1 of the research
proposal
(theoretical/conceptual
framework, scope and
delimitation of the study,
significance of the study, and
definition of terms)
CO3: Conceptualize research methodology appropriate to the research problem, purpose, setting, and available data.
LO 3.1. Apply research methods ● Concepts of research ● CARE-DLP ● OBE - Learning ● Conceptual 15 hours
and designs. method, approach, and ● Individual Activity Sheet Assessment
design learning activity ● Textbooks/Online ● Research
● Meaning and functions of a – (non- Resources Work –
research design residential / ● PowerPoint Chapter 2 of
● Quantitative method homebased presentations the research
● Qualitative method learning) ● Video presentations proposal
● Guidelines in writing ● Lecture and ● Media (films and
research design interactive other media
discussion productions)
LO 3.2. Conduct sampling ● Types of sampling (online/offline ● CDSGA Research
techniques/strategies in ● Sample size based/ face-to- Manual
quantitative and ● Guidelines in writing face)
qualitative research sampling design ● Power point
methods. presentation
LO 3.3. Develop instrument/s for ● Different tools and (online/offline
data gathering tools and techniques used in data based)
techniques in quantitative
203
and qualitative methods. gathering ● Online based-
● Guidelines in writing activities via
research instruments, messenger/
validation, and data zoom/google
gathering procedure meet
LO 3.4. Discuss the different ● Quantitative data analysis

statistical tools for ● Qualitative data analysis
treatment of data. ● Guidelines in completing
Chapter 2 of the research
proposal (research locale,
respondents of the study,
ethical considerations, and
statistical treatment of the
data)
CO4: Present a scientific research proposal relevant to the program of discipline according to institutional standards.
LO 4.1. Write and present the ● Writing techniques: forms ● CARE-DLP ● OBE - Learning ● Conceptual 9 hours
research proposal to a and style ● Individual Activity Sheet Assessment
group of panel members. ● Guidelines in writing and learning activity ● Textbooks/Online ● Ethical
presenting the research – (non- Resources Evaluation
proposal residential / ● PowerPoint ● Technical
homebased presentations Evaluation
learning) ● Video presentations ● Research
● Lecture and ● Media (films and Work
interactive other media ● Research
discussion productions) Proposal
(online/offline
204
based/ face-to- ● CDSGA Research Presentation
face) Manual
● Power point
presentation
(online/offline
based)
● Online based-
activities via
messenger/
zoom/google
meet
Remedial Examination and Submission of Course Requirements 3 hours
REFERENCES :
A. Books
Uriarte, Gabriel G. (2015). Learning Research the Easy Way. Bulacan. San Gabriel Archangel Publishing House Inc.
Punsalan, Twila G. and Uriarte, Gabriel G. (1989). Statistics: A Simplified Approach. Rex Book Store. Manila
Almeida, A., Gaerlan, A. & Manly, N. (2016). Research Fundamentals. Q.C.: Adriana Publishing Co. Inc.
CDSGA Research Manual
COURSE REQUIREMENTS :
1. Learning Activity Sheets
2. Learning Diaries (4)
3. Authors’ Logic (4)
4. Major Examinations (4)
5. Project – Complete Research Proposal
205
GRADING SYSTEM :
Major Examinations 60%
Attendance/LAS/Other Activities 10%
Quizzes 10%
Project – Research Proposal 20%
Total 100%
RESIDENTIAL CLASS POLICIES :

1. Submit to the mandatory temperature check.
2. Wear a face mask at all times.
3. Bring alcohol or hand sanitizer.
4. Practice social distancing. A face-to-face class should only have 20-25 students.
5. Attend class according to the blended schedule.
6. Be at the classroom at least 30 minutes before the official time.
7. Bring and use only your personal things. Please avoid sharing.
8. Manifest Gabrielian identities at all times.
9. Maintain the cleanliness and orderliness of the classroom.
10. Consult the school clinic’s staff for any health inconvenience. Disclose health status honestly. CDSGA respects and preserves health records
with utmost privacy and confidentiality.
NON-RESIDENTIAL CLASS POLICIES :

1. Prepare and submit Learning Activity Sheets (LAS) according to the schedule, sequence, and instruction.
2. Keep LAS and other supplemental activities safe and neat in an individual portfolio.
3. Ask clarifications regarding the home-based activities and topics courteously via messenger group chat (online class support).
4. Respect instructor’s time by sending inquiries from 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M. only.
5. Practice honesty in doing home-based activities. Make sure that it is a personal effort and idea.
206
Prepared by and Recommending Approval (Curriculum / Syllabus Committee):
_____________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________

Faculty Industry Expert/Practitioner Alumni Representative Program Chairperson
Date : __________ Date : _______________________ Date : _______________________ Date : _______________________
Noted by: Approved by:
____________________________________ CHARLES BRYAN P. URIARTE, Ed.D.

Dean, __________________ VP for Academic Affairs
Date : ___________________ Date : ____________________
207
I have read the course syllabus and I understand that I have to comply with the requirements of the course and the expectations from me as a student of
Colegio de San Gabriel Arcangel, Inc. during the Second Semester, S.Y. 2021-2022. I am fully aware of the consequences of non-compliance with the
above-mentioned requirements and expectations.
___________________________________
Signature over printed name of the student
________________________
Date
I have read the course syllabus and I understand that I have to comply with the requirements of the course and the expectations from me as a student of
Colegio de San Gabriel Arcangel, Inc. during the Second Semester, S.Y. 2021-2022. I am fully aware of the consequences of non-compliance with the
above-mentioned requirements and expectations.
___________________________________
Signature over printed name of the student
________________________
Date
208
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Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) - LAS

Course Code : RESEARCH 1

10 Reasons Why Research is Important

1. Research expands your knowledge base

2. Research gives you the latest information

3. Research helps you know what you’re up against

5. Research helps you narrow your scope

6. Research teaches you better discernment

7. Research introduces you to new ideas

8. Research helps with problem-solving

9. Research helps you reach people

10. Research encourages curiosity

What is an example of a research goal?

What are the main purposes of research?

Characteristics of quantitative research

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

The use of research

Types of applied research

Research and Development. What is research and development?

Action research in the context of business and management

The Process of action research

Principles of action research

Time dimensions in research

Classification of research according to design and methodology

Types of quantitative research

Example: A Quasi-Experimental Research on the Educational Value of Performance Assessment

Example of an experimental research Title:

Types of qualitative research:

Example of grounded theory - Publication - Article

2. Karina Therese Galang Fernandez - Ateneo de Manila University

Characteristics of historical research:

What are disadvantages of historical research?

What is the main purpose of historical research?

Case Study method

Sources of research problems:

● Casual observation. ...

● Current social and economic issues .

● Personal interest and experience.

What Are the Advantages of Qualitative Research?

4. It can provide insights that are specific to an industry.

5. It allows creativity to be a driving force.

6. It is a process that is always open-ended.

7. It incorporates the human experience.

9. It offers predictive qualities.

12. It allows for detail-orientated data to be collected.

What Are the Disadvantages of Qualitative Research?

2. It relies upon the experience of the researcher.

4. It may require multiple sessions.

5. It can be difficult to replicate results.

6. It can create misleading conclusions.

7. It can be influenced by researcher bias.

8. It may not be accepted.

10. It creates data with questionable value.

11. It can be time consuming.

12. It has no rigidity.

13. It lessens the value of data mining.

Purpose of mixed methods

Basic rules for ethical research

1. Relations With and Responsibilities Towards Research Participants

IV. Relations With Own and Host Governments

Ethical considerations play an essential role, especially in research.

1. The validity of the research

● Purpose of the research project

5. The risk to the participant

1.　 Start broadly and then narrow down

4.　 Avoid giving too many citations for one point

7.　 Keep it short