Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

A review on fabrication and pool boiling enhancement of three-dimensional

complex structures
Yalong Sun a, Yong Tang a, b, *, Shiwei Zhang a, Wei Yuan a, Heng Tang b, **
a
Intelligent Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory of Functional Structure and Device in Guangdong, School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, South China
University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China
b
Shenzhen Key Laboratory of High Performance Nontraditional Manufacturing, College of Mechatronics and Control Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen,
518060, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Pool boiling with high energy conversion efficiency is critical to steam generation, electronics cooling, water
Pool boiling purification, and other energy applications. Great efforts have been taken to the design and fabrication of high-
Fabrication methods performance pool boiling systems to meet the requirements of high heat flux applications. Three-dimensional
Three-dimensional complex structure
complex structures (3D-CS) that can suppress wall superheat at the onset of nucleate boiling, enhance the
Heat transfer enhancement
heat transfer coefficient and critical heat flux are taken as an effective means to enhance the pool boiling per­
formances. Relatively recent advances in the fabrication of 3D-CS have led to exciting enhancements in pool
boiling performances and a better understanding of the underlying science. The superiority of 3D-CS in pool
boiling heat transfer is mainly attributed to the larger heat transfer area, more nucleation sites, better bubble
dynamics, and faster liquid rewetting rate, etc. In this review, the structural characteristics and pool boiling
enhancement of 3D-CS are reviewed from the perspective of fabrication methods. Traditional machining
methods, special machining methods, and other machining methods used for fabricating 3D-CS are introduced
and their advantages and disadvantages are summarized. Emphasis is on the influence of fabrication methods on
pool boiling enhancement of 3D-CS, which is beneficial to the application and commercialization of pool boiling
systems. Moreover, some challenges and research recommendations of 3D-CS are presented for future studies.

1. Introduction
As early as the 1980s, the heat flux inside high-performance elec­
tronic devices has already exceeded the 102 W/cm2 thresholds and now
it has increased to 104 W/cm2, which is well beyond the limits of single-
phase heat transfer technologies [1]. Therefore, phase change heat
transfer technology has been concerned with and widely applied. Using
the latent heat in the phase change process, the cooling efficiency of
phase change heat transfer technology can reach thousands of times that
of single-phase heat transfer technology [2]. Pool boiling is a typical
phase change process with an extremely high energy conversion effi­
ciency [3] and is applied to a variety of energy applications, including
electronics cooling, water harvesting, solar steam generation, and
chemical processing, etc [4,5]. The typical application scenarios of pool
boiling are shown in Fig. 1. As a passive phase change heat transfer
method, pool boiling only relies on buoyancy to keep the coolant mo­
tion. Therefore, aside from high heat transfer efficiency, pool boiling
also has the advantages of easy maintenance, absence of pump-induced
fluid pulsation [1], and simple sealing. The onset of nucleate boiling
(ONB), heat transfer coefficient (HTC), and critical heat flux (CHF) are
three important factors in evaluating the boiling process. ONB marks the
beginning of nucleate boiling and the transition from single-phase
convection heat transfer to two-phase nucleate boiling heat transfer.
By inducing ONB at lower wall superheats can reduce the temperature
difference and enhance the heat transfer efficiency [6]. HTC evaluates
the heat transfer capability of the boiling system and a higher HTC can
suppress energy consumption and system volume significantly [7]. CHF
is the heat transfer limit of the boiling system and a higher CHF ensures
the safe operation under high heat fluxes [8].
Optimizing the pool boiling system to enhance heat transfer has al­
ways been a hot topic. As early as 1931, Jakob [9] had conducted related

* Corresponding author. Intelligent Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory of Functional Structure and Device in Guangdong, School of Mechanical and Auto­
motive Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510640, PR China.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ytang@scut.edu.cn (Y. Tang), tangheng@szu.edu.cn (H. Tang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112437
Received 18 November 2021; Received in revised form 10 February 2022; Accepted 4 April 2022
Available online 12 April 2022
1364-0321/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

economy, safety, and reliability, passive enhancement techniques are

List of abbreviations: more widely used than active techniques [1,23]. Furthermore, 3D-CS are
the most commonly used techniques for pool boiling heat transfer
3D-CS three-dimensional complex structure augmentation, especially in the refrigeration and air-conditioning in­
ONB onset of nucleation boiling dustry [11,24,25].
HTC heat transfer coefficient The 3D-CS can increase the boiling heat transfer area, provide more
CHF critical heat flux nucleation sites, improve surface wettability, and provide capillary to
EDM electrical discharge machining accelerate the transport of the working medium [26]. Therefore, a va­
WEDM wire-electronde discharge machining riety of fabrication methods have been used to fabricate
WESM electrical discharge shaped machining micro/nano-structures on pool boiling surfaces. Traditional machining
CVD chemical vapor deposition methods such as milling, drilling, and grinding, special machining
CNC computer numerical control methods such as electro-discharge machining (EDM), electrodeposition,
SLM selective laser melting laser machining, and 3D printing, and other machining methods such as
sintering, spray coating, and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) have
been gradually applied to the fabrication of 3D-CS. The representative
3D-CS fabricated by the traditional machining method [27], electrode­
research on pool boiling and since then, a tremendous amount of work position [28], etching [29], sintering method [30], and the typical ap­
has been conducted to optimize the boiling system. The optimization for plications of pool boiling systems are shown in Fig. 1. The fabricated
the boiling system is mainly to reduce the wall superheat of ONB to microstructures on the pool boiling surfaces have evolved from
facilitate nucleate boiling, to delay CHF to further enhance the macro-scale to nanoscale, from single layer to hierarchically, from fixed
maximum heat transfer flux, and to enhance HTC to improve heat structures to adaptive structures, and from single scale to multi-scales,
dissipation efficiency [10]. Depending on whether external power is which are greatly influenced by fabrication methods. The CHF and
applied, pool boiling enhancement techniques can be divided into pas­ HTC of pool boiling systems are continuously enhanced with the
sive and active categories. Three-dimensional complex structures increasing variety of fabrication methods, which are realized by fabri­
(3D-CS) [11], nanofluids [12], displaced inserts [13,14], and swirl flow cating more efficient 3D-CS.
devices [15,16] are commonly used passive pool boiling intensification Pool boiling has always been a hot research topic, the enhanced pool
methods, and ultrasound [17], mechanical vibration [18,19], electro­ boiling heat transfer structures have been reviewed from the perspective
hydrodynamic [20], and magnetic field [21] are active pool boiling of the scale of microstructure [1], whether the microstructure has
intensification methods. Besides, active and passive enhancement adaptive deformation during boiling [23], nano-modification tech­
techniques can be used in combination [22]. However, considering the niques [31], and its application in the thermal management of

Fig. 1. (a–d) SEM images of various 3D-CS and typical applications of pool boiling systems [27–30].

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Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

electronics [32], etc. The characteristics of 3D-CS and their enhance­ describing the CHF induced by the hydrodynamic behavior of the
ment effects on pool boiling have been well studied, while the fabrica­ vapor-liquid interface of a bubble at the heater surface is as follow:
tion methods of the 3D-CS are rarely mentioned. In this paper, the ( )[ ]0.5
enhanced pool boiling surfaces are reviewed from the perspective of 1 + cos θrec 2 π
q′′CHF,Kandlikar = + (1 + cos θrec )cos φ Z (4)
fabrication methods. Traditional machining methods, special machining 16 π 4
methods and other less popular machining methods used in the fabri­
where θrec is the receding contact angle and φ is the orientation angle of
cation of 3D-CS are introduced and the effects of fabrication methods on
the heater surface.
the structural characteristics and boiling enhancement are summarized.
Based on Kandlikar’s equation, Chu et al. [36] developed an
Besides, the advantages and disadvantages of various fabrication
analytical model considering the effects of superhydrophilicity, rough­
methods are summarized to better understand their influences on the
ness factor, and intrinsic wettability to predict CHF on superhydrophilic
formation of 3D-CS as well as guide their future applications. In the first
surfaces as:
part of this review, CHF models corresponding to different microstruc­
tures and the enhancement effects of microstructures on pool boiling ( )[
1 + cos α 2(1 + r cos θrec ) π
]0.5
heat transfer are introduced. The second part summarizes the fabrica­ q′′CHF,Chu = + (1 + cos α)cos φ Z (5)
16 π(1 + cos α) 4
tion methods of 3D-CS. 3D-CS fabricated by various fabrication methods
and their enhancement to heat transfer performance are reviewed in the where r is the roughness factor, α represents the contact angle.
third part. Finally, some challenges affecting the further enhancement of Aside from wettability and surface roughness, Kim et al. [37]
the pool boiling heat transfer performance are outlined, and recom­ demonstrated that dynamic wicking plays an integral role in supplying
mendations that may deserve investigating in the future are proposed. and propagating liquid through the interface, and governs the CHF. The
wickability-CHF model developed by Kim et al. [37] is as follow:
2. Theoretical analysis of CHF enhancement
Bhlv ρl (1 − τ)W 2
q′′CHF,Kim = + q′′CHF,Kandlikar (6)
Various fabrication methods have been used to fabricate micro­ λ2RT
structures on pool boiling surfaces, researchers have studied the pool
boiling augmentation effects of different microstructures and proposed where B is the compensating factor for wicking capacity, W is wicking
the corresponding CHF prediction models. The HTC and CHF of 3D-CS coefficient, τ is the solid fraction of liquid-solid interface, and λRT is the
are much higher than those of smooth surfaces, however, they are still critical Rayleigh-Taylor interfacial wavelength. Although the CHF
far from reaching the boiling heat transfer limit. According to the models are modified based on Zuber’s model for plain surface, the ex­
theoretical analysis developed by Gambill [33], the maximum boiling pressions of the CHF models are different due to their different emphases
heat flux with water under the atmospheric pressure can reach 223.2 [38–41]. Besides, porosity and thickness of porous layers are also
MW/m2 based on Eq. (1). considered in the CHF prediction models [42,43], which are suitable for
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ porous surfaces fabricated by sintering or electrodeposition. Further­
RTs more, auxiliary structures that can affect the boiling heat transfer by
qmax = ρv hlv (1)
2π M regulating the bubble growth process also need to be considered in the
CHF prediction model [44]. The detailed CHF prediction models for
where ρv , hlv , R, Ts, and M are the vapor density, the latent heat of
vaporization, the ideal vapor constant, the saturation temperature, and
the molecular mass, respectively. However, the CHFs currently achieved Table 1
are one or three orders of magnitude lower than the theoretical value, Summary of CHF prediction models for different 3D-CS.
which means that the performance of pool boiling heat transfer has Reference CHF prediction model Factors relating to
much room for enhancement. 3D-CS
The pool boiling heat transfer performance of smooth surface was the
Ramilison et al. (
q′′CHF = 0.0336 π −
π )3 0.125 ′′ Surface
earliest to be studied, and it was also the key to studying the trigger [38] 180
⋅α ⋅r ⋅qCHF,Zuber
roughness,
mechanism of CHF. Zuber [34] was a pioneer in the study of the rela­ wettability
tionship between boiling heat transfer and bubble dynamics, and it was Theofanous and Wettability
)
( sin α π/2 − α − 1/2
Dinh [39] q′′CHF = 1 − − ⋅Z
demonstrated that CHF occurs when the bubble columns started inter­ 2 2 cos α
Quan et al. [40] 1 + cos α Surface
fering with each other. The CHF model for plain surface based on the qCHF =
′′
×
16 roughness,
hydrodynamic instability proposed by Zuber is given: [
2 √̅̅̅ − 1/2 ( r + cos α ) 1/2
]
wettability
(1 − τ) ⋅ ⋅Z
1 + cos α
q′′CHF,Zuber = 0.131Z (2) π
(
Rahman et al. Wickability
q′′CHF = 1 +
[41]
[ ] ⎞
σ g(ρl − ρv ) 0.25 V ρl
Z = ρv hlv (3) ⎠⋅q′′
CHF,Zuber
ρ2v √̅̅̅̅̅
ρv [σg(ρl − ρv )] 1/4

Park et al. [42] { [

q′′CHF = rb cos θrec −
π Porosity,
where ρl represents the density of the liquid working medium, σ repre­ ] } 12
(3 cos θrec −
wettability
sents the surface tension, and g represents the gravity acceleration. cos 3 θrec ) + εδ ρl hlv /τd
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Polezhaev et al. q′′CHF = 0.52ε2.28 hlv σρl ρv /(ρl + ρv )rbr Porosity
Although the structural characteristics of 3D-CS fabricated by
[43]
different fabrication methods are quite different, they all affect the Lienhard et al. Nj The number of
q′′CHF = 1.14
surface wettability, roughness, and capillarity, etc. Therefore, CHF [44] AH /λ2RT
⋅q′′CHF,Zuber
escaping vapor
models suitable for 3D-CS were subsequently established based on jets
Zuber’s equation considering these factors. Kandlikar [35] proposed a Note. V is the maximum wicked volume flux and is defined as the ratio of the
CHF model considering the effects of wettability and heater orientation. initial (maximum) volume flow rate to the apparent wetted area. rb is the bubble
When the force parallel to the heater surface resulting from the evapo­ radius, τd is the time to dry out the microlayer liquid film, ε and δ are the porosity
ration of a bubble near the heater surface exceeds the retaining forces and thickness of the porous layer, respectively. rbr is the radius of the vapor jets
due to gravity and surface tension, the vapor in the bubble spreads along that break through the liquid. AH is the area of the heater, Nj is the number of
the heater surface, blankets it, and initiates CHF. The theoretical model escaping vapor jets.

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Y. Sun et al.
3D-CS with different structural characteristics obtained by different
fabrication methods are listed in Table 1:
It can be concluded that the CHF is mainly determined by the surface
characteristics including roughness, wettability, wickability, and addi­
tional structures on the boiling surfaces, etc. All these factors are mainly
determined by the fabrication methods of the boiling surfaces. With the
progress of fabrication methods, boiling surfaces with higher CHF are
obtained and the corresponding CHF models have been modified
accordingly. Therefore, it is necessary to review the fabrication methods
of 3D-CS to explore their influence on surface characteristics and pool
boiling enhancement.
3. Types of fabrication methods for 3D-CS
According to the characteristics of the fabrication methods, the
fabrication methods applied to the fabrication of 3D-CS can be divided
into three categories, i.e., traditional machining methods, special
machining methods, and other machining methods. Traditional
machining methods include drilling, milling, and grinding, etc., which
are the machining methods that use machinery. Special machining
methods use electric energy, thermal energy, sound energy, electro­
chemical energy, and other non-mechanical energies to fabricate 3D-CS,
including EDM, laser machining, and electrodeposition, etc. Other
machining methods refer to fabrication methods that cannot be classi­
fied in the above two categories, like sintering, spray coating, CVD, and
electrospinning, etc. To fabricate excellent boiling heat transfer surfaces,
several fabrication methods, even those belonging to different categories
can be used simultaneously.
3.1. Traditional machining methods
Traditional machining methods realize the machining purpose
through the high-speed rotation of the tool and the relative motion be­
tween the tool and workpiece. The machining system mainly consists of
a cutting tool, a worktable, and a spindle. As shown in Fig. 2, taken the
milling system as an example, the workpiece is fixed on the worktable,
the cutting tool is fixed to the spindle and rotates rapidly following the
spindle, and the tool moves relative to the worktable along a specific
path to complete the machining process. The motion of the tool is usu­
ally manually controlled by levers and cranks, but now the computer
numerical control (CNC) technology is used to automate the machining
Fig. 2. (a) A schematic showing the basic components of a CNC mill, which mainly consists of a worktable, a cutting tool, and a spindle [45], (b) schematic diagram
of micromilling process of pin fin-interconnected reentrant microchannels and (c) SEM images of pin fin-interconnected microchannels from the front and top
view [46].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
process. The CNC technology can improve precision and repeatability,
reduce human error, and enhance the capability to convert computer-
aided design models to finished parts directly [45].
Milling, planning, drilling, and grinding are the most commonly used
traditional machining methods to fabricate 3D-CS. The microstructures
fabricated by these methods have good stability and reliability, and can
also enhance the pool boiling heat transfer performance. Besides,
traditional machining methods have the advantages of high processing
efficiency, convenient operation, and low cost, etc. Therefore, tradi­
tional machining methods are widely used in the fabrication of 3D-CS,
although the processing scale of traditional machining methods is
relatively large.
3.2. Special machining methods
Special machining methods use non-mechanical energy to remove or
add materials, which can achieve precision and fine machining of
various materials. EDM, electrochemical machining, laser processing,
etching, and 3D printing are the typical special machining methods.
Electrodeposition and 3D printing are additive processing methods.
EDM, electrochemical etching, laser processing, and etching are
reducing processing methods. Special machining methods can fabricate
microstructures in micron or nanoscale, which can effectively regulate
the surface roughness, wettability, and capillary performances.
EDM can be divided into electrical discharge shaped machining
(EDSM) and wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM) according to
the shape of the electrode. As shown in Fig. 3a, EDM uses the local and
instantaneous high temperature generated by the discharge between the
electrode and the workpiece to achieve the purpose of removing mate­
rial [47]. The width of the microgrooves fabricated by EDM is limited by
the size of the electrode and is usually larger than 0.1 mm. As shown in
Fig. 3c, EDM can fabricate microgrooves with high aspect ratios, and its
machining accuracy can reach 1 μm [48].
Electrochemical machining is a process in which the metals are
processed by electrochemical reactions, as shown in Fig. 3b. Electro­
deposition is the most common way of electrochemical machining, it is a
process in which metals are deposited from an electrolyte under the
action of an electric field. Electrodeposition of copper is a commonly
used process to fabricate pool boiling porous surfaces. Electrodeposition
can fabricate porous surfaces at micron and nanometer scales. As shown
in Fig. 3d, the micro-scale pores are formed mainly because the bubbles
Y. Sun et al.
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of (a) WEDM [50] and (b) electrodeposition [51], (c) SEM image of columnar microstructure machined by EDM with laminated disc
electrode [52] and (d) electrodeposited porous surfaces [51].
during the electrodeposition process limit the metal deposition at the
corresponding locations, while the nanoscale structures are mainly
composed of pores between the electrodeposited nano-particles.
Countless micron and nanometer-scale structures can effectively
enhance the wettability and capillary force of the electrodeposited sur­
face, thus achieving excellent pool boiling heat transfer performance
[49]. Electrochemical etching is a method of preparing 3D-CS by anodic
oxidation reactions, which has been also applied in the processing of
pool boiling surfaces.
Etching is a process in which the substrate material is removed by
plasma or chemical solution to obtain the designed pattern. As shown in
Fig. 4, the etching process mainly includes mask, exposure, and etching
steps, and it can fabricate microstructure surfaces with micro and nano
scales. Etching can be divided into dry etching and wet etching ac­
cording to the etching medium. Dry etching equipment includes com­
plex mechanical, electrical, and vacuum devices and other expensive
Fig. 4. (a)–(f) Schematic diagram of the etching process, (g) a cross-sectional view (h) and a top-view of aligned silicon nanowires surface fabricated by metal-
assisted chemical etching process [54].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
equipment. Dry etching can fabricate microstructures with high aspect
ratios at submicron scales. It’s usually used to fabricate uniform mi­
crostructures to facilitate the theoretical study of the influence of surface
characteristics such as surface roughness and wettability on the pool
boiling heat transfer performances. Wet etching has the advantages of
simple operation, low equipment requirements, and ease to achieve
mass production. However, the anisotropy of wet etching is poor and
transverse etching occurs during the wet etching process, which results
in the etched microstructure presenting an arc profile. The size of the
microstructure fabricated by wet etching is usually above 3 μm [53].
Laser processing achieves the purpose of processing by utilizing the
local high-temperature produced by laser beams, and such a tempera­
ture is high enough to melt or vaporize the base materials. As shown in
Fig. 5a, laser processing can fabricate patterned microgrooves by con­
trolling the moving path of the laser beam, and the moving path of the
laser beam is usually designed and controlled by a computer. The laser
Y. Sun et al.
Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of (a) laser processing [57], (b) SLM, (c) SEM image of hierarchically 3D-textured copper surface machined by laser micromilling [58], (d)
and (e) images of porous lattice structure machined by SLM [59].
machined microgrooves usually have a V-shaped cross-section due to the
energy is strongest at the center of the laser beam. Laser processing melts
the base materials and the re-deposited materials usually form a porous
layer on both sides of the microgrooves, as shown in Fig. 5c. Laser
processing can process a variety of materials, has the advantages of high
efficiency and low cost. The laser-machined microstructures have
excellent capillary properties and boiling heat transfer performances
[55].3D printing is a technology based on digital models and fabricates
3D-CS by printing metal or plastic layer by layer, it can process all kinds
of special-shaped structures conveniently and achieve high precision.
Although 3D printing can transform digital models into physical parts
directly, its large-scale application is still limited by drawbacks such as
high cost, long working hours, and limited printing materials. Selective
laser melting (SLM) is the most commonly used 3D printing technology
for the fabrication of pool boiling surfaces, as shown in Fig. 5b, the laser
beam scans the powder bed layer by layer according to the path
designed in the 3D slice model to obtain the required microstructures. As
shown in Fig. 5d and e, SLM can be used to fabricate multi-scale com­
posite structures composed of porous matrix conveniently by controlling
the moving path of the laser beam [56].
Due to the use of non-mechanical energies, the melting of base ma­
terials is often accompanied by the special machining process. There­
fore, microstructure surfaces fabricated by special machining methods
are often composed of multi-scale structures. For example, 3D-CS
fabricated by laser machining are usually composed of microgrooves
and micro/nanopores in the porous layers, as shown in Fig. 5c. These
multi-scale surfaces can achieve excellent boiling performances by
combining the advantages of various scale structures. However, the pool
boiling performance of these multi-scale surfaces may deteriorate as the
metal matrix may oxidize due to high temperature during processing or
the nanostructures may be destroyed after boiling for a period of time
[58,60]. Therefore, 3D-CS fabricated by special machining methods
need further modification to improve their reliability [51,58,61].
3.3. Other machining methods
Other machining methods refer to the fabrication methods that can
not be classified as traditional machining methods or special machining
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
methods, such as sintering, spray coating, CVD, and electrospinning, etc.
These machining methods can produce micro/nanoscale structures on
the surface of the substrate, thereby improving the surface wettability,
changing the surface composition, and increasing the surface roughness.
These significant advantages make them ideal means for fabricating 3D-
CS.
Sintering is a process in which the powders are connected at high
temperatures to fabricate porous structures, the powders are bonded by
melted powders directly or by solders [62,63]. The sintering tempera­
ture needs to close to or reach the melting point of materials or solders to
form the liquid material or solder that bonds the powders together.
Besides, a vacuum atmosphere or a reducing atmosphere is usually
needed to prevent the oxidation of metal powders during the sintering
process. Polymer powders can also be sintered in air, and the porous
polymer structures formed by sintering can replace the porous metal
structure as the wicks of loop heat pipes [64,65]. Pressure is sometimes
needed to ensure the connection of powder particles. As shown in
Fig. 6a, 3D-CS with multiple scales can be fabricated by sintering with
specially designed molds. The pore size of sintered porous structure
varies with the particle size, and its size ranges from tens of nanometers
to hundreds of microns [66], as shown in Fig. 5b and c. The sintering
process is suitable for powders such as copper [62,67,68], nickel [69,
70], PTFE [64,65], and stainless steel powders [71], while the sintering
of aluminum powders [72] is complicated and is mainly restricted by the
oxide film on the powder surfaces.
Spray coating is a technology to strengthen or modify the surface by
atomizing the coating material through pressure or the centrifugal force
and applying it to the substrate, mainly including thermal spraying, cold
spraying, plasma spraying, and electrostatic spraying, etc [73]. The cold
spray facility is shown in Fig. 7, the powder material is deposited on the
substrate by gas pressure and the SEM images of the formed Cu-Diamond
porous coating are shown in Fig. 7b and c. By spraying a hydro­
philic/hydrophobic coating or a porous coating on the substrate, the
wettability and capillarity of the surface are regulated and efficient
boiling heat transfer can be achieved.
CVD is a process that uses gaseous materials to produce solid sedi­
ments through chemical reactions. The schematic diagram of the CVD
process is shown in Fig. 8a, the gaseous raw material is transformed into
Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of (a) sintering, (b) SEM image of the sintered porous surface with particle size ranges from 45 to 53 μm and (c) 180–212 μm [74].

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of (a) cold spray facility, (b) and (c) SEM images of cold spray coated Cu-Diamond composite surface [75].

nano-coating on the substrate under the action of high temperature and
catalyst. The commonly used CVD products in the field of pool boiling
heat transfer are allotropes of carbon, namely graphene and carbon
nanotubes [76], the SEM image of a silicon wafer coated with carbon
nanotube array is shown in Fig. 8b. These materials have a large specific
surface area and high thermal conductivity, which can increase heat
transfer area and reduce added thermal resistance. Therefore, both the
HTC and CHF of the boiling surfaces can be enhanced.
Electrospinning employs a high-voltage power supply to charge the
polymer liquid and form an electrostatic field. The polymer jets are
formed under the action of electric charge and electrostatic field, and
ultrafine polymer fibers with diameter ranging from several nanometers
to several microns are processed [77], as shown in Fig. 9. The
nano-textured surfaces fabricated by electrospinning can regulate the
wettability and bubble growth process in the boiling process, thus
enhancing HTC and CHF.

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Y. Sun et al.
Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of (a) chemical vapor deposition and (b) SEM image of silicon wafer coated with carbon nanotube array prepared by CVD [78].
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of (a) electrospinning and (b) SEM image of copper-plated nanofiber-covered surface machined by electrospinning [79].
Sintering is a common method for fabricating 3D-CS and wicks of
phase change heat transfer devices [80], which can fabricate porous
structures with excellent capillarity conveniently. Spray coating has
high machining efficiency and is suitable for mass production of
microstructure surfaces. However, the application of CVD and electro­
spinning in the field of boiling heat transfer is limited, which may be
mainly due to their low machining efficiency and poor stability of
nano-structures.
Although the fabrication methods for 3D-CS are classified into
traditional machining methods, special machining methods, and other
machining methods, different classes of fabrication methods are often
used simultaneously in the fabrication of pool boiling surfaces. Besides,
each machining method has its application scope and limitations, as
listed in Table 2. Therefore, a suitable fabrication method should be
selected according to the material characteristics, cost requirements,
and other conditions.
4. Enhanced heat transfer performance of 3D-CS
4.1. 3D-CS fabricated by traditional machining methods
Although the scale of microstructure surfaces fabricated by tradi­
tional machining methods is relatively large, they can provide a certain
capillary force and more nucleation sites, and store more working me­
dium. Therefore, the 3D-CS fabricated by traditional machining
methods can reach a much higher HTC and CHF than the plain surface.
Besides, traditional machining methods can be applied with other
fabrication methods to produce surfaces with cross-scale microstruc­
tures. This means that the traditional machining methods are indis­
pensable for the fabrication of 3D-CS.
Milling and drilling can produce uniform microstructure surfaces,
Cooke and Kandlikar [81] fabricated microchanneled copper surfaces
with channel width ranging from 197 to 400 μm and depth ranging from
100 to 400 μm, which were fabricated with end mills. The best per­
forming microchanneled surface dissipated a heat flux of 244 W/cm2
without reaching the CHF, and the corresponding HTC was 269
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
kW/m2K, which was over 5 times that of the plain surface for the same
wall superheat, or 3.7 times of the maximum HTC of the plain surface.
Gouda et al. [82] employed micro-milling to fabricate uniform
cross-section microchannels structured surface and segmented finned
microchannels structured surface, as shown in Fig. 10a and b, their
surface area was 2.53 times and 2.56 times that of the plain surface,
respectively. Both surfaces have better heat transfer performance than
the plane surface, and the segmented finned microchannels structured
surface has better heat transfer performance with an improvement of up
to 3 times. The enhancement was mainly induced by more nucleation
sites, better rewetting phenomenon, and favorable bubble growth and
release mechanism. EI-Genk et al. [83] fabricated dimples with di­
ameters of 300, 400, and 500 μm on copper surfaces by ball mill. As
shown in Fig. 10c and d, the accuracy of dimples diameter and pitch was
within ± 11 μm, and ± 5 μm, respectively. The pool boiling experiments
with PF-5060 as the working medium showed that the copper surface
with 400 μm dimples has the highest HTC of 1.06 W/cm2K, and CHF of
19.3 W/cm2.
Unlike milling which can fabricate continuous microstructures like
microgrooves and staggered microgrooves, drilling mainly fabricates
independent nucleation sites on boiling surfaces. Liang et al. [84] drilled
nine microscale pits with diameter ranges from 100 to 500 μm and depth
of 100 μm on copper surfaces, the effects of pit diameter, pit depth, and
pit spacing on the pool boiling performances were studied. The results
showed that the HTC and CHF increase monotonously with decreasing
pit depth while the pit diameter has minor effects on boiling enhance­
ments, and the boiling enhancements were maximized when the pit
spacing was identical to bubble departure diameter.
Different from milling, drilling, and other fabrication methods that
remove materials, Tang et al. [85] designed a special tool that can
achieve chip-free machining. The ploughing/extrusion process con­
ducted by this tool can produce micro-fins on the top of microgrooves,
thus increasing the depth to width ratio and enhancing the capillary
force of the microgrooves. Sun et al. [86] fabricated microgroove sur­
faces with reentrant cavities on a planer through two orthogonal
Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

Table 2
Machining methods of pool boiling surfaces and the corresponding advantages and disadvantages.
Category Machining Shape features Advantages Limitations
methods

Traditional Milling •.Plane •.Suitable for a variety of materials •. The tool needs to bear impact load
machining •.Microgrooves •. High processing efficiency •. Easy to vibration
methods •.Forming surfaces •. Intermittent processing, so that the
tool can get good heat dissipation
environments
Planning •. Plane •. Simple operation of the •. Low processing efficiency
•. Microgrooves corresponding equipments •. Low machining accuracy
•. Suitable for a variety of materials
Drilling •. Hole •. Low equipment requirements •. Low machining accuracy
•. Simple operation of the •. Difficulty in chip removal and heat dissipation of tool
corresponding equipments
Grinding •. Surface polishing •. High machining accuracy •. Low processing efficiency
•. High cutting temperature
•. Not suitable for soft metals, like copper and
aluminum
Special EDM •. Microgroove •. Suitable for materials with special •. Low processing efficiency
machining •. Micropore mechanical properties like ultra-hard •. Only applicable to conductive materials
methods •. Two-dimensional surfaces and brittle materials
with a straight line as the •. High machining accuracy
generatrix •. Minimal cutting force, thereby the
workpiece almost has no deform
•. High energy efficiency and high
material efficiency
Electrochemical •. Porous coating •. High processing efficiency •. Difficult to guarantee high machining accuracy
machining •. Microgroove •. Suitable for materials with special •. High technical difficulty
•. Surface polishing mechanical properties •. High equipment investment, difficult to design and
•. Almost no thermal effect during correct the electrode
processing •. The electrolyte is corrosive and difficult to recover
Laser processing •. Microgroove •. Energy concentration and small heat- •. High equipment investment
•. Microcavity affected zone •. The high temperature during processing will oxidize
•. Applicable for almost all materials the substrate
•. Non-contact machining and small
influence on workpiece
•. Low cost, no mold required, and
suitable for small batch processing
•. Easy for automatic processing
Etching •. Micropillar •. Wet etching: high efficiency, simple •. Wet etching: poor isotropy, produce a lot of waste
•. Microgroove equipment, high selectivity, and low liquid and waste gas, bubbles produced during the
cost chemical reaction process will affect the uniformity of
•. Dry etching: good anisotropy, high the etching
accuracy, easy to automate, and high •. Dry etching: high equipment investment
selectivity
3D printing •. Almost all geometric features •. Material saving •. Long working hours and high cost
•. No need for cutting tools, or molds, •. Limited machinable materials
can transform the 3D design into a •. High technical complexity
mock-up directly
Other machining Sintering •. Porous structure and •. Material saving •. Low production efficiency
methods composite structures based •. High cost
on the porous structure •. Poor strength and toughness
Spray coating •. Micro/nanoporous coatings •. Strong adaptability of materials •. The bonding strength between coating and substrate
•. The coating thickness is not limited is low
Chemical vapor •. Nano coating •. Reaction raw materials are easy to •. Low deposition rate
deposition obtain and have high flexibility •. High reaction temperature
•. Can fabricate coatings on the surface •. Difficult to fabricate local coating
of the inner hole of parts with •. The reaction gas is usually flammable, explosive, or
complex shapes toxic
Electrospinning •. Nanofibers and porous •. Nanofibers with a high aspect ratio, •. Low production efficiency
structures based on high specific surface area, flexibility, •.High equipment investment
nanofibers and structural abundance

chip-free ploughing/extrusion processes. As shown in Fig. 11, micro­
grooves with a depth of 0.5 mm and a pitch of 1.2 mm were formed, and
reentrant cavity arrays were formed on both sides of the microgrooves.
The reentrant cavities of this structure not only provide additional
nucleation sites but also limit the departure diameter of bubbles, thus
the HTC was about 15.8% higher than that of the plain surface.
Grinding is mainly used to change the surface roughness and to study
its influence on pool boiling heat transfer performance. Kim et al. [87]
fabricated copper surfaces with different average surface roughness by
polishing with sandpapers, unidirectional scratches were formed on the
copper surfaces due to the one-direction polishing. The surface
roughness (Ra) ranges from 0.041 to 2.36 μm. The wettability tests
showed that the contact angles viewed in the parallel/normal direction
increase/decrease with surface roughness, which was attributed to the
contact line pinning (parallel direction) and capillary wicking (normal
direction). The pool boiling tests showed that the CHF of the roughest
surface (Ra = 2.36 μm) was 1625 kW/m2, which was about 2.1 times as
much of the smoothest surface (Ra = 0.041 μm). The rough surfaces
enhanced the nucleate boiling heat transfer by providing more nucle­
ation sites, decreasing bubble departure diameter, and increasing bubble
departure frequency. A CHF model based on the model proposed by
Kandlikar et al. [35] that took into account the effect of surface

9
Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

Fig. 10. (a) Uniform cross-section microchannels and (b) segmented finned microchannels fabricated by micro-milling [82], (c) and (d) dimple surface fabricated by
CNC with ball mill [83].

Fig. 11. (a) SEM image of microgrooves with reentrant cavities, (b) sectional view of the reentrant cavities [86].

roughness was proposed as follow: 4.2. 3D-CS fabricated by special machining methods
( )[ ( )]0.5
1 + cos α 2 π 4C cos α Ra The development of special machining technology is mainly to break
q′′CHF = S + (1 + cos α) + Z (7)
16 π 4 1 + cos α Sm through the constraints of traditional machining methods and realize the
fabrication of various difficult cutting materials, complex shapes, special
where S is the accommodation factor relating to the surface contact and
sizes, and precision parts, etc. By using the non-contact machining
roughness factors, Ra is the average roughness, C is a constant and is
method, the workpiece can be processed with special energy such as
87.8, Sm is the mean spacing of surface roughness.
electric energy, sound energy, and heat energy, etc., which can obtain
Table 3 summarizes the features of different 3D-CS fabricated by
parts with lower surface roughness and high dimensional stability.
traditional machining methods, including the specific structural char­
Special machining methods can achieve micron-level precision and are
acteristics and the pool boiling enhancement effects. 3D-CS fabricated
now developing towards the direction of ultra-precision machining with
by traditional machining methods have more nucleation sites, larger
nanometer precision.
heat transfer area and better bubble dynamics, thereby achieving better
pool boiling heat transfer performances. The application of CNC tech­
4.2.1. Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
nology makes it easier to fabricate complex microstructures and im­
WEDM adopts wire electrodes to process the workpiece, and rough
proves machining accuracy and reliability. However, the structural scale
surfaces will be formed on the machined surfaces. Zhou et al. [90]
of microstructures fabricated by traditional machining methods is
fabricated a microporous copper surface by utilizing a single-step and
relatively large, which limits their applications in the field of ultra-thin
low-cost WEDM. An HTC of 16.7 W/cm2K and a CHF of 185.7 W/cm2
PCHTDs [88]. Therefore, technologies that can process microstructures
were realized by utilizing the numerous microscale cavities formed
with a lower scale, i.e., special machining methods and other precision
during the WEDM process, which were 198% and 61% higher than the
machining methods have been studied and applied.
plain surface, respectively. The enhanced pool boiling performances
were attributed to the improved receding contact angle and surface

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Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

Table 3
Summary of enhancement features of microstructure surfaces machining by traditional machining methods.
Reference Enhanced structure Machining Size of structure Base Enhancement effect Mechanism of boiling enhancement
method material
Working
fluid

Cooke and Microchanneled CNC milling Channel width: Copper q” of 244 W/cm2 and HTC of Microchannels facilitate early bubble
Kandlikar surfaces 197–400 μm Water 269 kW/m2K without nucleation and accelerate bubble generation
[81] Fin width: reaching CHF rate
200–300 μm
Channel depth:
100–445 μm
Gouda et al. Segmented Micro-milling Channel width: Copper HTC↑ More nucleation sites, better rewetting
[82] microchannels 400 μm Water phenomenon and better bubble dynamics
structured surface Channel depth:
554 μm
EI-Genk et al. Dimpled surfaces Ball milling Dimple diameter: Copper CHF↑, HTC↑ Faster bubble growth rate and larger bubble
[83] 300–500 μm PF-5060 Natural convection heat departure diameter
Dimple depth: 200 transfer↑
μm
Liang et al. Micro-pit surfaces Micro drilling Pit diameter: Copper CHF↑ The pit-to-pit spacing alleviates
[84] 100–500 μm Water HTC↑ hydrodynamic instabilities, micro pits serve
Pit depth: ONB↓ as artifical nucleation sites
100–500 μm
Pit spacing:
1.5–3.5 mm
Sun et al. [86] Microgroove surfaces Ploughing/ Microgroove Copper CHF↑ Restricted bubble departures diameter and
with reentrant cavities Extrusion depth: 0.3, 0.5 mm Water HTC↑ more nucleation sites, reentrant cavities
Microgroove pitch: ONB↓ serve as vapor traps and facilitate ONB
0.75, 1.2 mm
Kim et al. [87] Rough surfaces Sanding Surface roughness: Copper CHF↑ Strong capillary wicking and more
0.041–2.36 μm Water nucleation sites
Kim et al. [89] Rough surfaces Sanding Surface roughness: Aluminum HTC↑ Increased number of cavities
0.11–2.93 μm Water

roughness, which was consistent with Kandlikar’s model [35]. Besides,
the wire electrode can also be used to fabricate microgrooves on
workpieces. Gheitaghy et al. [91] investigated the pool boiling heat
transfer performance of vertical minichannel surfaces, inclined mini­
channel surfaces, and orthogonal inclined minichannel surfaces fabri­
cated by WEDM. As shown in Fig. 12a, the orthogonally intersected
minichannels exhibited the highest HTC and CHF, up to 170% and 65%
compared to the plain surface. The inclined minichannels and the
established square network can facilitate the transportation of liquid and
vapor, as shown in Fig. 12b and c, thereby achieving much better boiling
performances. Similarly, Nirgude et al. [92] studied the boiling perfor­
mance of various orthogonally intersecting tunnel surfaces fabricated by
WEDM. The results showed that the HTC of the structured surface was
increased about 250% and 100% when water and isopropyl alcohol
were used as working mediums, respectively, as compared with the
plain surface. Das et al. [93] investigated the effects of tunnel inclination

Fig. 12. (a) Boiling curves of various microchannel surfaces fabricated by WEDM, (b) schematic of bubble dynamic mechanism on inclined minichannles, and (c)
bubble dynamics on orthogonally intersected minichannels in different heat fluxes [91].

11
Y. Sun et al.
and cavity structure at the tunnel base on the pool boiling heat transfer
performance. Surfaces with unidirectional parallel tunnels and bidirec­
tional intersecting tunnels were fabricated by WEDM, and variation in
surface geometries was introduced by changing the inclination of the
tunnel and by providing different reentrant geometry at the tunnel base.
The results showed that the inclined tunnels, tunnels with circular bases,
and intersecting bidirectional tunnels exhibit higher augmentation, and
a combination of these features could be an excellent option for the
augmentation of boiling heat transfer. Similar work conducted by Saffari
et al. [94] confirmed that the heat dissipation increases with higher
WEDM current, lower cross-sectional fin angle, and deeper channel. The
maximum heat flux reached by the structured surface was 120 W/cm2
which corresponds to an enhancement of 200% in HTC compared to the
plain surface.
The width of the microgrooves fabricated by WEDM is limited by the
diameter of the wire electrode, which is often greater than 0.2 mm [95].
For example, the wire diameters adopted in Refs. [91–94] are all 0.25
mm and the widths of the microgrooves are all above 0.4 mm. Besides,
WEDM can only fabricate straight microgrooves, while EDSM using
cylindrical electrodes can break this limitation. He et al. [96] fabricated
hierarchical micro/nano-structured surfaces by EDSM. The roughness of
these structured surfaces increases first and then decreases with the
increasing EDSM current, which was affected by the high-temperature
corresponding to the high EDSM current. Besides, these structured sur­
faces can increase the bubble nucleation sites and the heat transfer area,
resulting in 62.9%–214.6% improvement in HTC when the heat flux was
above 155.2 kW/m2.
4.2.2. Laser machining
The local high temperature generated by the laser beam can melt
material instantly, and the fabrication of microstructure can be achieved
by controlling the moving path of the laser beam. The structure pa­
rameters and moving path of laser machining are usually designed and
controlled by computers, which means that laser machining has high
repeatability and processing efficiency. Nanosecond, picosecond, and
femtosecond laser machining are commonly used laser machining
methods. The interaction time of picosecond and femtosecond laser with
the material is very short and has a limited thermal effect on the sur­
rounding material, thus surfaces with high surface quality can be
obtained.
Gregorčič et al. [97] demonstrated that the structured stainless steel
surfaces with multi-level μ-cavities textured by nanosecond laser have
the potential to overcome the drawbacks of challenging and expensive
production, mechanical and/or thermal instability, or problematic
scale-up. The pool boiling experiments of these surfaces in two very
contrasting fluids, water and FC-72, confirmed that such surfaces enable
enhanced heat transfer and controlled boiling in combination with
diverse fluids. Cheng et al. [98] used picosecond laser processing to
fabricate fishbone patterns on cylindrical copper surfaces, the HTC of
fishbone patterned surface reached 1.12 times that of the plain surface,
at the highest evaluated heat flux of 426 kW/m2. Liu et al. [99]
employed femtosecond laser processing to fabricate micro/nano hier­
archically surfaces on silicon substrates. The CHF and HTC of such
surfaces reached 1.91 and 5.87 times of plain surface, respectively. The
greatly enhanced pool boiling performances were attributed to the
improved coalesced bubble departure frequency, Jakob number at CHF
and the capillary wicking effects. A CHF model based on Rahman’s
model [41] that considering these factors was proposed:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2σ ρ hlv dV
′′ − 6
qCHF = 1.57 × 10 ρl hlv f Ja0.32 + 0.189 l (8)
g(ρl − ρv ) Aw dt t=0
where f is the coalesced bubble departure frequency, Ja is Jakob num­
ber, Aw is the apparent wetted area of the surface, dV/dtt = 0 is the initial
volume flow rate.
Kruse et al. [100] fabricated functionalized stainless steel surfaces by
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
using femtosecond laser surface processing, which forms self-organized
mound-like microstructures covered by layers of nanoparticles. The pool
boiling experiment with deionized water as working fluid revealed that
the CHF and HTC of these functionalized surfaces reached 1.56 and 2.93
times of smooth surface, respectively. In addition to the excellent boiling
performance, the secondary boiling phenomenon often occurs on
laser-machined surfaces [101]. As shown in Fig. 13, the secondary
boiling effect refers to a distinct decrease in wall superheat temperature
near the CHF due to a significant increase in HTC, which was a result of
temperature drop and nucleation characteristic length scales. The laser
machining method can form multiscale highly wetting surfaces regard­
less of the material composition, which has a wide size range of potential
nucleation cavities with significantly large temperature gradients. The
secondary boiling effect, i.e., nucleation started at the bottom of the
microstructure valleys and extended to the microstructure peaks at high
heat fluxes, creates a nonlinear increase in HTC which results in the
characteristic “hook back” in the boiling curves.
Laser processing can also fabricate microstructure on polymer films.
The local high temperature generated during laser processing can lead to
the carbonization of polymer and even convert it to graphene, thus
greatly enhancing the heat transfer performance of the polymer films.
Kong et al. [102] irradiated polyimide films with a continuous-wave CO2
laser, and microgrooves with a width of about 160 μm were fabricated
by controlling the scanning path of the laser beam. As shown in Fig. 14,
the laser machined surface not only has microgrooves but also has
numerous micro/nanopores, and the inclusion of laser-induced gra­
phene resulted in a 2- to 3-fold increase in both HTC and CHF.
Laser machining can fabricate multi-scale structures on various
material surfaces conveniently, the coatings on the surface of micro­
structures formed by the deposited melting material usually induce the
secondary boiling effects. This makes the laser-machined surfaces have
excellent pool boiling heat transfer performances under high heat fluxes.
Besides, laser machining can fabricate microstructures on polymer sur­
faces, carbonize them and change their wettability, greatly improving its
heat transfer performance to meet the needs of flexible heat dissipation
applications.
4.2.3. Electrochemical machining
Electrochemical machining uses electrochemical reactions to process
metal materials, which can be applied regardless of the hardness and
toughness of materials. Electrodeposition is the most commonly used
electrochemical machining method, which can form a porous structure
on the processed surfaces and improve capillary and wettability.
Xu et al. [103] confirmed that the electrodeposited porous layer
consisted of macropores above 200 μm diameter, micropores around 2
Fig. 13. Pool boiling curves illustrate the secondary boiling effects [101].
Y. Sun et al.
Fig. 14. (a) SEM image of laser-induced graphene surface, (b) boiling curves the pristine polyimide and the laser-induced graphene surface [102].
μm diameter, and dendritic structure around 400 nm diameter. Li et al.
[104] adopted the electrodeposition method with in-situ grown dy­
namic gas bubble templates to fabricate the well-ordered 3D
macro-porous metallic surface layer with nanostructured porosity. This
structural surface was built with in-situ grown dynamic bubble tem­
plates, thereby it was perfect for bubble generation and departure dur­
ing the boiling process. The HTC was over 17 times that of the plain
surface with the heat flux of 1 W/cm2 and the extraordinary boiling
performance was attributed to the nanocavities and vapor escape
channels. Patil et al. [61] employed a two-step electrodeposition tech­
nique to control the pore size and porous layer thickness of the porous
structures on copper chips. This technique involved the application of
high current density for a short time and a lower current density for a
longer time. The cauliflower-like microstructures produced by lower
current density performed better than open dish-like microstructures
generated by higher current density, and the highest HTC reached 176
kW/m2K. Similar work conducted by Wang et al. [105] revealed that the
micro/nanoporous copper surface modified by lower current density can
further enhance the pool boiling heat transfer. At the same heat flux (90
W/cm2), the HTC of the modified surface is 1.7 times over that of the
original micro/nanoporous surface fabricated by the electrodeposition
method and 4.8 times over that of the plain surface.
The electrodeposited porous surfaces can be modified by stirring the
electrolyte during the electrodeposition process. Li et al. [51] fabricated
three-tier hierarchical nanoengineered surfaces by stirring the electro­
lyte during the electrodeposition process. As shown in Fig. 15, the
first-tier micropores, second-tier dendritic structures, and third-tier
copper nanoparticles corresponding to Fig. 15b–d can increase nucle­
ation site density, regulate bubble evolution and improve surface
wicking ability, respectively. The maximum CHF of the three-tier hier­
archical surface was about 400 W/cm2, corresponding to an enhance­
ment of about 245% compared to smooth copper surfaces.
Mo et al. [106] prepared a porous honeycomb surface with a radial
diameter gradient by infusing liquid onto the reaction surface during the
electrodeposition process. A pump was used to transport water to the
electrodeposited surface, and a porous honeycomb surface with a radial
diameter gradient was formed due to the scour of water. The pool
Fig. 15. (a) Schematic diagram of the mechanisms governing the bubble growth, (b) micropore array, and (c) self-assembled microscale dendritic walls comprised of
(d) copper nanoparticles [51].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
boiling experiment results showed that the surface with radial diameter
gradient can accelerate the water replenishment and achieve a better
rewetting, thereby its HTC can reach 1.4–1.5 times that of surfaces with
uniform pore diameters. Shi et al. [107] fabricated copper nanowire
arrays on copper surfaces by using the porous alumina membrane
template-assisted electrodeposition process. As shown in Fig. 16, copper
nanowire arrays with defects can enhance the wettability and increase
the nucleation sites, thereby better boiling heat transfer performances
were achieved.
In addition to copper, graphene nanosheets [108], copper-zinc
nanoparticles [109], and other nanomaterials [110–113] can also be
deposited on the pool boiling surfaces through electrochemical
machining. Rishi et al. [108] prepared a graphene nanoplatelets-copper
porous coating via a multistep electrodeposition technique. The gra­
phene nanoplatelets were added to the electrolytic, which was deposited
on the cathode with copper during the electrodeposition process. The
superhydrophilic copper-graphene nanoplatelet coatings can increase
CHF and HTC by 130% and 290%, respectively. Wu et al. [109] inves­
tigated the pool boiling performances of deposited surfaces with copper
nanoparticles and Cu-Zn alloy copper nanoparticles, which were formed
by electrophoretic deposition. The HTCs have enhanced by up to 70%
and 190% with acetone and HFE-7200 as the working medium,
respectively. A CHF model which slightly revised the Rahman et al.
model [41] was proposed to estimate CHF for modified surfaces to
evaluate the capillary wicking effects.
ρl hlv dV
q′′CHF = q′′CHF.Rahman + Kwi (9)
Awet dt t=0
where Kwi is the ratio of the wetted surface area to the total surface area,
Awet is the apparent wetted surface area in contact with a pendant
droplet.
Kim et al. [114] fabricated micro-structured stainless-steel wire
meshes using electrochemical etching and examined their pool boiling
heat transfer performances. By attaching the wire meshes directly to the
top surface of the heater, the liquid phase on the hot surface can be
sustained and the excessive expansion of dry spots can be inhibited,
thereby reaching a 64%–84% higher CHF. Lu et al. [115] prepared TiO2
Y. Sun et al.
Fig. 16. SEM images of copper nanowire array with the height of 5 μm [107].
nanotubes on titanium surfaces using the electrochemical anodization
method, nanotubes with different parameters involving diameter and
length were obtained by changing the anodization time. The experi­
mental results showed that the TiO2 nanotubes can reduce the contact
angle to 29.2◦ , increase the surface roughness to 2.14 times that of the
plain surface, and enhance the CHF by 48%.
4.2.4. 3D printing
SLM is the most commonly used 3D printing method for fabricating
3D-CS, which can fabricate 3D-CS with porous alloy matrixes. Wong
et al. [59] studied the pool boiling heat transfer performance of porous
lattice structures made of AlSi10Mg powder. The SLM-processed sam­
ples possess repeating geometry of octet-truss unit cells and were varied
with cell sizes and structure height. The maximum HTC of SLM pro­
cessed samples was 2.81 times that of the plain surface. Bian et al. [116]
used 3D printing to fabricate pin-fins, microgrooves, and cube structures
with the steel-bronze mixture, which were promising for nuclear power
plant devices. The results showed that the HTC of 3D printed samples
can reach 1.72–2.22 times that of the Inconel plate under low heat
fluxes. Pi et al. [117] fabricated reentrant microchannels structures by
Fig. 17. (a) Picture and geometric design of reentrant microchannels, (b) cross-sectional view of reentrant microchannels, and (c) top view of reentrant micro­
channels [117].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
SLM from bronze powder, which was composed of parallel Ω-shaped
reentrant channels with rough wall surfaces, As shown in Fig. 17. The
reentrant microchannels structures can increase the nucleation sites,
enlarge the surface area for heat exchange, and accelerate liquid
replenishment for surface wetting. Therefore, the reentrant micro­
channels structures presented a 10%–330% enhancement in HTC over
the plain surface in subcooled boiling conditions.
3D printing can also fabricate polymer frames on pool boiling sur­
faces to regulate bubble growth. Elkholy et al. [118] adopted fused
deposition modeling to fabricate porous polymer fixtures, which were
designed to alter bubble dynamics and improve the HTC of plain sur­
faces. The fixtures made of Polylactic acid material have a uniform
pattern of square cells, and they were attached mechanically to the
boiling surface. The continuous pores network of the printed road can
provide higher capillary pressure, and the HTC can improve by up to
81% by adjusting the size parameters of the fixture.
4.2.5. Etching
Etching mainly fabricates microstructures on silicon wafers and en­
hances the boiling heat transfer. Seo et al. [119] used the deep reactive
Y. Sun et al.
ion-etching method to fabricate micro-holes on silicon surfaces. The hole
depth of the samples was 170 μm and the diameter of the holes was 4.3,
2.15, and 1.075 mm, respectively. These hole-patterned surfaces
exhibited 16.7%–33.1% higher CHF than the plain surface, which was
attributed to the well-dispersed localized lower temperature regions
induced by the additional water supply on the hole patterns and the
increased effective heat transfer area. Liu et al. [120] employed deep
reactive ion etching to fabricate cavity with hydrophobic micropillar
array on silicon surfaces, and the dimensions of micropillars were
designed to fit the Cassie wetting model. Compared with commonly used
hole-shaped cavities, the Cassie-wetting nucleation sites showed ad­
vantages in terms of easiness of activation and reliability of enduring
harsh boiling perturbations. Shim et al. [54] fabricated random silicon
nanowires and aligned silicon nanowires on silicon by using
metal-assisted chemical etching and nanosphere lens lithography,
respectively. The results of the wicking test and pool boiling test
demonstrated that the CHF was enhanced with high volumetric wicking
rate surfaces because of a positive effect on the liquid supply to the dry
region for delaying vapor merging and removal of additional thermal
energy. Nguyen et al. [121] investigated the enhancement of CHF by
nanopillar arrays, which were fabricated by inductively coupled plasma
reactive ion etching. The enhancement in both the CHF and the critical
temperature was induced by the intensified rewetting process, which
increases with the height of nanopillars. Kim et al. [122] fabricated
microchannel surfaces with the channel width of 5–30 μm by using the
deep reactive ion etching, and a fluid-dynamics model that considers
capillary pumping and viscous friction was proposed. This model can
accurately predict the CHF variation associated with different channel
widths by focusing on the spatial distribution of the liquid penetration
region and the local dry spot under a large bubble. Similarly, Dhillon
et al. [123] fabricated nanograss-micropillar layered structures on sili­
con surfaces by using two etching processes. The dynamics of dry spot
heating and rewetting phenomena during pool boiling were studied by
using high-speed optical and infrared imaging. The results showed that
the dry spot heating timescale was of the same order as that of the
gravity and liquid imbibition-induced dry spot rewetting timescale. A
coupled thermal-hydraulic model that relates CHF to rewetting of dry
spots on boiling surfaces was developed as follow:
[( )1/4 ( )]
4Δρg3 2ΔρgKv Pc
q′′CHF = ρs Cs ⋅min(ts , LD )(Tcri − To ) × + max 0,
σ μσ
(10)
where ρs, ts and Cs are the density, thickness and specific heat of the
boiling substrate, respectively. LD is the thermal diffusion length, Tcri is
the critical dry spot temperature, To is the initial substrate temperature
at the center of dry spots, Δρ is the mass density difference of fluids, Kv is
the permeability, Pc is the capillary pressure.
In addition to fabricating micro/nano structures to accelerate the
rewetting process, etching can also fabricate irregularly distributed
surfaces to regulate bubble growth and enhance pool boiling heat
Fig. 18. (a) SEM image of circular micropillar blocks on P doped silicon chips processed by dry etching, (b) bubble behaviors of circular micropillar block surface at a
heat flux of 19.6 W/cm2, and (c) schematic view of vapor columns distribution [124].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
transfer. Lei et al. [124] fabricated circular micropillar blocks on P
doped silicon chips with the surface area enhancement ratio of 2–2.52
using the dry etching technique. As shown in Fig. 18, the specially
designed block division and block area could effectively prevent vapor
columns from coalescing, limit the radius and spacing of the critical
vapor columns. Therefore, a high CHF can be obtained even when the
surface area enhancement ratio was relatively low. Similarly, Duan et al.
[125] fabricated uniform and non-uniform micropillar surfaces with the
surface area enhancement ratio of 1.94–4.73 using the dry etching
method. The height of micropillars was 120 μm and the diameters were
25, 50, and 100 μm, respectively. The results confirmed that
non-uniform micropillars with smaller surface area enhancement ratios
can have larger CHF than uniform micropillars with larger surface area
enhancement ratios. Therefore, the uniformity of microstructures
should be considered when predicting CHF.
Table 4 summarizes structural characteristics and enhancement ef­
fect of 3D-CS fabricated by special machining methods, including micro/
nano porous surfaces, microchannel surfaces, and hierarchical structure
surfaces, etc. They all provide more nucleation sites and larger heat
transfer areas, which is similar to the 3D-CS fabricated by traditional
machining methods. Besides, these 3D-CS can improve the surface
wettability, accelerate the rewetting process and have better bubble
dynamics. All of these features are effective ways to enhance CHF and
HTC. The enhanced boiling performance is dependent on many struc­
tural parameters, such as microchannel width, microchannel depth,
porous layer thickness, and the uniformity of microstructures, etc, which
should be optimized to further enhance the pool boiling heat transfer
performances.
4.3. 3D-CS fabricated by other machining methods
4.3.1. Sintering
Sintering is a common method for fabricating wicks of PCHTDs.
Copper powder is the most commonly used raw material for sintered
porous structures, which can be sintered in a vacuum or a reducing at­
mosphere. Sarangi et al. [128] experimentally investigated the boiling
performances of two types of copper porous surfaces, i.e., free-particle
layer (loose copper particles placed on the heated surface) and sin­
tered copper porous surfaces. The results showed that the wall super­
heats of the sintered porous surface were significantly lower than that of
the free-particle layer for any given particle size and heat flux. However,
the effect of particle size was remarkably similar for both enhancement
techniques and optimum size of 100 μm was identified for both porous
surfaces. Jun et al. [129,130] studied the effects of particle size and
heater orientation on the boiling performance of sintered porous struc­
tures. The maximum HTC was measured to be approximately 400
kW/m2K with an average particle size of 67 μm and 296 μm coating
thickness, which was approximately 8 times higher than that of the plain
surface. The significant improvement in heat transfer enhancement was
attributed to a large number of small feed jet bubbles created from
porous structures, postponing the dry out caused by forming large
Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

Table 4
Summary of enhancement features of microstructure surfaces machined by special machining methods.
Reference Enhanced structure Machining method Size of structure Base material Enhancement Mechanism of boiling enhancement
Working fluid effect

Li et al. [51] Hierarchical structured Stirring during Porous layer thickness: Copper CHF↑ More bubble nucleation sites, better
surfaces electrodeposition 23–112 μm Water HTC↑ bubble evolution, improved surface
Copper nanoparticles: ONB↓ wicking ability and separated liquid-
300 nm vapor pathway
Dendritic spacing:
0.5–2 μm
Patil et al. Cauliflower-like porous Two-step Porous layer thickness: Copper HTC↑ –
[61] surface electrodeposition 53.1–83.3 μm Water
Zhou et al. Microporous surface WEDM Microcavity diameter: Copper CHF↑ Micro cavities facilitate ONB, increase
[90] 0.5–10 μm Water HTC↑ HTC, improves surface wettability and
ONB↓ bubble dynamic
Gheitaghy Orthogonal inclined WEDM Channel width: 0.5, 0.7 Copper CHF↑ Better bubble dynamics, larger heat
et al. [91] minichannel surface mm Water HTC↑ transfer area and faster capillary flow
Channel depth: 0.5–1.4
mm
Inclination angle: 45◦
Nirgude et al. Orthogonal intersecting WEDM Channel width: 0.61, Copper HTC↑ Enhanced liquid transport and
[92] tunnel structured 0.725 mm Water and improved liquid-vapor interaction
surfaces Channel depth: 0.5, 1 isopropyl
mm alcohol
Channel pitch: 0.9 mm
Das et al. Micro-tunnel surfaces WEDM Tunnel width: 0.4 mm Copper HTC↑ –
[93] Tunnel depth: 2 mm Water
Inclination angle: 60◦ ,
90◦
He et al. [96] Hierarchical micro/nano EDM Ra: 0.25–2.5 μm Copper CHF↑ More bubble nucleation sites, larger
structure surface Rz: 2–10 μm Water HTC↑ heat transfer area and faster bubble
departure frequency
Gregorčič Multi-scale μ-cavity Laser texturing Channel pitch: 40–80 Stainless steel HTC↑ More bubble nucleation sites
et al. [97] surface μm Water and FC-
Cavity diameter: 72
0.2–1.5 μm
Liu et al. [99] Micro/nano Femtosecond laser Channel pitch: 30–800 P-doped CHF↑ Better liquid supply, coalesced bubble
hierarchically structures processing μm silicon HTC↑ departure frequency, high nucleation
surfaces Channel depth: 35–101 FC-72 ONB↓ site density and microscale cavities
μm
Kong et al. Laser-induced graphene- Laser texturing Channel Polyimide CHF↑ Higher thermal conductivity, superior
[102] patterned surface depth:200–1000 μm FC-72 HTC↑ liquid spreading and larger pore size
Channel width: 163.4 ONB↓
μm
Wang et al. Bi-porous copper surface Two-step Porous layer thickness: Copper CHF↑ Lower interface energy that accelerates
[105] electrodeposition 140, 170 μm Water HTC↑ the bubble growth rate
Porosity: 89%
Mo et al. Porous honeycomb Injection during Porous layer thickness: Copper HTC↑ Superior rewetting ability, faster bubble
[106] surface with a radial electrodeposition 120, 160, 180 μm Water ONB↓ growth speed and more nucleation sites
diameter gradient Porosity: 90%–92%
Rishi et al. Graphene nanoplatelets- Multistep Porous layer thickness: Copper- CHF↑ More nucleation sites, better bubble
[108] copper porous surfaces electrodeposition 20–50 μm and 60–80 graphene HTC↑ dynamics, wickability and wettability
μm Water
Wu et al. Nanoparticles-coated Electrophoretic Pore diameter: 10–90 Copper HTC↑ More nucleation sits
[109] surfaces deposition and μm Acetone and
electrodeposition Copper particle: 126 ± HFE-7200
24 nm
Copper-zinc particle:
32 ± 4 nm
Kim et al. Wire mesh coated surface Electrochemical Wire diameter: Stainless steel CHF↑ The hydrophilic wire mesh sustains the
[114] etching 0.29–0.7 mm Water liquid phase
Wire pitch: 1.29–2.67
mm
Lu et al. Nanotube coated surfaces Electrochemical Diameter: 125–210 nm Titanium CHF↑ Better bubble dynamics, more
[115] anodization Length: 2.4–8.1 μm Water HTC↑ nucleation sites and formation of a
thinner microlayer
Bian et al. Microporous structured 3D print Particle size: 9.6–55.5 Steel-bronze HTC↑ Rougher surface, more nucleation sites
[116] surfaces μm alloy and better bubble dynamics
Porous layer thickness: Water
25 μm
Pi et al. [117] Reentrant microchannels SLM Channel diameter: 0.8 Bronze HTC↑ More nucleation sites, larger heat
structures mm Water ONB↓ transfer area and more liquid
Channel pitch: 1.5 mm replenishment
Particle size: 15–45 μm
Liu et al. Composite porous SLM Pore size: 0.6, 2 mm Aluminum CHF↑ Reduced gas-liquid resistance
[127] structures Pore spacing: 1, 4 mm alloy HTC↑
Water
(continued on next page)

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Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

Table 4 (continued )
Reference Enhanced structure Machining method Size of structure Base material Enhancement Mechanism of boiling enhancement
Working fluid effect

Elkholy et al. Copper surfaces with Fused deposition Wall thickness: 0.5 mm Copper and CHF↑ Polymer fixtures promote heat flow to
[118] polymer fixtures modeling Fixture height: 2, 4, 6 Polylactic acid HTC↑ bare regions and initiate nucleation
mm Water earlier
Cell size: 1.9, 4.3, 6.7
mm
Seo et al. Holes patterned surfaces Deep reactive ion- Hole diameter: 4.3, Silicon CHF↑ Well-dispersed high-temperature
[119] etching 2.15, 1.075 mm Water HTC↑ regions and additional water supply
Hole depth: 170 μm
Liu et al. Cavity with hydrophobic Deep reactive ion- Side length: 10 μm Silicon HTC↑ Easy to activate nucleation sites and
[120] micropillar arrays etching Spacing: 10 μm Water high reliability
Nguyen et al. Nanopillar array surfaces Plasma reactive ion Pillar diameter: 440 nm Silicon CHF↑ The increased rewetting velocity
[121] etching Pillar pitch: 800 nm FC-72 HTC↑ induced by nanopillars
Pillar height:
260–1390 nm
Kim et al. Microchannel surfaces Deep reactive ion- Channel depth: 20 μm Silicon CHF↑ Stronger capillary pumping and lower
[122] etching Channel width: 5–30 Water viscous friction
μm
Channel pitch: 10, 15,
30 μm
Dhillon et al. Nano-textured nanopillar Two reactive ion Micropillar spacing: Silicon CHF↑ Decreased surface-level liquid-solid
[123] surfaces etching processes 1.7–200 μm Water contact angle and the micro-imbibition
Micropillar height: layer facilitates the rewetting process
99.6–17.1 μm
Lei et al. Cylindrical Dry etching Micropillar height: Silicon CHF↑ Restricted coalescence of vapor columns
[124] microstructured surfaces 0.12 mm FC-72 HTC↑
Diameter of blank area:
0.2, 0.61, 1.8 mm
Duan et al. Non-uniform micro-pillar Dry etching Micropillar diameter: P-doped CHF↑ Nonuniformity, strong wickability,
[125] surfaces 25, 50, 100 μm silicon HTC↑ larger range of effective nucleation sites
Micropillar height: 120 FC-72 ONB↓ and larger the maximum active
μm nucleation site radius
Serdyukov Microgroove surfaces Laser texturing Surface roughness: Silicon CHF↑ Decreased bubble departure diameter,
et al. [126] 0.68 μm Water HTC↑ higher nucleation site density and
nucleation frequency

bubbles on the heated surface. Zhang et al. [131] developed surfaces

with gradient porosity by sintering copper meshes, and an outstanding
CHF of 2719 kW/m2 with HTC of 261 kW/m2 was achieved. The CHF
model developed by Chu et al. [36] predicted the CHF of uniform
meshes accurately but underestimated the CHF of gradient meshes. The
extraordinarily enhanced boiling performance was mainly attributed to
the micro-chimney effect in the gradient meshes, which enabled
ever-faster bubble departure at small diameters throughout the entire
nucleate boiling. Nasersharifi et al. [132] fabricated monolayer,
columnar, and mushroom post wicks, as shown in Fig. 19. The mush­
room porous structure was formed by a multi-step sintering process, the
pre-sintered columnar porous structure was placed upside down in the
mold, and the mushroom structure was formed on the surface of the
columnar after the second sintering process. The multilevel modulated
wicks can enhance the CHF and HTC by controlling the liquid-vapor
flow. The monolayer wicks without and with the mushroom post
structure provided 20% and 87% CHF enhancements, respectively,
compared to the plain surface. The greatly enhanced pool boiling per­
formances were attributed to the mushroom posts, which effectively
reduced the hydrodynamic instability wavelength.
Rishi et al. [133,134] sintered graphene nanoplatelets-copper com­
posite coating and investigated its boiling performances. The graphene
nanoplatelets were attached around the individual copper particles by
Fig. 19. The image of (a) the monolayer wick, (b) the columnar posts wick, and
ball milling, and screen printing or salt templated method was used to
(c) mushroom posts wick [132].
adjust the pore size of the sintered porous structure. The stretched or
elongated pores observed in the coatings contributed to better pool
boiling heat transfer due to their ability to contain and supply liquid, powder can also be joined by solder paste. Especially for aluminum
which acts as nucleation sites for vapor generation and escape. The powder, which was difficult for sintering due to the inert oxide film on
highest pool boiling performance was achieved by the surface contain­ the surface. Godinez et al. [135] fabricated aluminum microporous
ing 3 wt% graphene nanoplatelets with screen printing control the pore surfaces using a brazing method. A mixture of aluminum powder,
size, with a CHF of 289 W/cm2 and an HTC of 131.4 W/cm2K, brazing pastes, and a thinner was spread evenly over the aluminum
respectively. surface and s brazed at about 600 ◦ C, and magnesium was adopted as
In addition to connecting powders by the molten particles, the oxygen and vapor absorber. Boehmite oxidation nanolayers were

17
Y. Sun et al.
formed on the porous surfaces before the pool boiling tests. The results
showed that each mean particle diameter corresponds to an optimal
coating thickness, and the optimized coating thickness resulted in
comparable HTCs regardless of the particle diameter. The HTC was
improved by a factor of 5 when compared to the plain aluminum surface,
which was similar to that of copper powder sintered surface. However,
the aluminum porous coating does not affect the CHF relative to the
plain surface. Jun et al. [63] developed porous coatings by brazing
copper particles onto copper surfaces. Three boiling performance re­
gimes according to coating thickness were found-microporous (up to 96
μm), microporous-to-porous transition (96 μm–225 μm), and porous
(225 μm and thicker). Each regime was characterized by specific HTC
and CHF enhancement trends with coating thickness increase.
4.3.2. Spray coating
Lim et al. [136] fabricated biphilic surfaces by a spray-coating
method using a commercial hydrophobic spray made of
self-assembling alkanethiol molecules, the size and pitch of the hydro­
phobic pattern on the biphilic surface can control the bubble departure
diameter effectively. The Cassie-Baxter state induced by the biphilic
surface enhanced the CHF and HTC as 14.5% and 34.1% over the bare
surface. MacNamara et al. [75] created Cu-Diamond composite coatings
by cold spray and performed boiling experiments with water. The HTC
and CHF of this multi-scale textured surface reached 200 kW/m2K and
1500 kW/m2, respectively, the enhancements were mainly attributed to
the better capillary performance. Surtaev et al. [137] used directional
plasma spraying technique to create capillary-porous coatings on
stainless steel tubes, a three-component bronze powder with the powder
particles size of 20–100 μm was adopted as the coating material and the
coating thickness was controlled by adjusting the spraying time, as
shown in Fig. 20. The study showed that the maximum heat transfer
enhancement induced by capillary-porous coatings was 4 times at
boiling of liquid nitrogen and 3.5 times at boiling of water in the low
heat flux region. Park et al. [138] sprayed carbon nanotubes and gra­
phene on zirconium sheets using the gravity-type compressed-air spray
with a 0.3 mm nozzle. The results showed that the contact angle of the
heating surface decreased with the increase of deposition time, and the
Fig. 20. SEM images of (a–b) smooth stainless steel tube, and (c–d) stainless steel tube with capillary-porous coating. The inserted image is the 3D profile of the
coated tube [137].
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
CHF increased in inverse proportion with the decreased contact angle.
4.3.3. Electrospinning
Jun et al. [139] fabricated nano-textured surfaces, i.e., copper
platelets covered with copper-plated electrospun nanofibers by elec­
trospinning and electroplating methods. These nano-textured surfaces
can promote bubble growth by increasing the average temperature of
fluid surrounding growing bubbles, thereby maintaining 3–8 times HTC
than the plain surfaces. By replacing Kelvin-Helmholtz wavelengths
with Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities and ignoring ρl, a CHF model based on
Zuber’ model was developed:
( )1/4
σρl g
q′′CHF = 0.182ρv hlv (11)
ρ2v
Fukiba et al. [140] prepared nanofiber coatings on copper plates by
electrospinning. As shown in Fig. 21, numerous micro/nano pores were
formed on the copper surface by the interlaced nanofibers, which pro­
vided more nucleation sites. The results of boiling experiments showed
that the CHF of the nanofiber-coated surface was twice as large as that of
the plain surface.
4.3.4. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
As shown in Fig. 22, Jaikumar et al. [141] developed nanoscale and
microscale graphene/graphene oxide coated surfaces using atmospheric
pressure CVD and dip-coating, respectively. The CHF for the nanoscale
coated surfaces reached 157 W/cm2, and the obvious enhancement was
mainly attributed to the liquid wettability, especially the unusually large
contact angle hysteresis. Dharmendra et al. [142] coated diamond and
carbon nanotubes on copper surfaces by a hot filament CVD technique,
and the main purpose of the diamond layer was to improve the adhesion
between CNT and copper substrate. The hydrophobicity and high
roughness of CNT coated surface can induce an early ONB and can in­
crease the CHF and HTC by 38% and 80%, respectively. Su et al. [143]
adopted the atmospheric pressure CVD method to prepare graphene
coatings on copper substrates and further fluorinated the graphene
coating with XeF2 powder. The hydrophobic surface and effective cavity
structure induced by graphene/fluorinated graphene coatings can
Y. Sun et al.
Fig. 21. SEM images of nanofiber-coated copper surface [140].
Fig. 22. SEM images of graphene oxide coated surfaces with different coating durations [141].
enhance heat transfer performance up to twice as much.
Table 5 summarizes specific structural characteristics and enhance­
ment effects of 3D-CS fabricated by sintering, spray coating, and CVD,
etc. Microporous surfaces and nano-textured surfaces improve the pool
boiling heat transfer performance by increasing nucleation sites,
providing larger heat transfer areas, modifying the surface wettability
and bubble dynamics. Sintering is a common method for fabricating
porous structures, although it often requires a special atmosphere to
prevent the metal powders from being oxidized under high tempera­
tures. Nano-textured surfaces fabricated by spray coating, electro­
spinning, and CVD, etc, may not be able to maintain their superior pool
boiling performances in intense boiling environments. The risk of
nanostructures detachment and the heat transfer performance deterio­
ration overtime during boiling poses serious concerns about the reli­
ability of nano-textured surfaces. Therefore, there is an urgent need to
design protective structures to avoid the detachment of nanostructures,
and integrating nanostructures with structures at other scales may be an
effective way to improve the long-term reliability of nanostructures.
4.4. 3D-CS fabricated by hybrid machining methods
With the increasing abundance of fabrication methods, two or even
more fabrication methods are simultaneously applied to the fabrication
of 3D-CS. In this way, multi-scale microstructures can be processed, and
the advantages of microstructures at each scale can be combined to
further improve the boiling heat transfer performance. Jaikumar and
Kandlikar [145] studied the pool boiling heat transfer mechanisms on
open microchannel surfaces with three different coating configurations,
i.e., porous coatings were sintered on the fin-top, channels and
throughout of the CNC machined microchannel surfaces, respectively. A
maximum CHF of 420 W/cm2 at a wall superheat of 1.7 ◦ C was reached
by the 300 μm width channels with porous canting on the channels,
which is an enhancement of 228% compared to the plain surface.
High-speed images suggested that the jet impingement on the fin tops
ensured sufficient liquid feed into the channels, thus an ultra-high CHF
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
was achieved. By combining the sintering process with the cutting
process, Ha et al. [146] fabricated copper microporous coatings with
vapor channels. As shown in Fig. 23, the vapor channels with a width of
350 μm were fabricated onto the microporous coating using a dicing
saw, which was conducted by removing the particles rather than by
cutting the structures. Besides, enhanced structures, i.e., both the copper
substrate and the microporous layer have vapor channels. The solid
channels were fabricated with micro-milling and a two-step sintering
process was adopted to fabricate the enhanced structures. The experi­
mental parametric study showed that both CHF and HTC increase as the
channel depth increases and as the channel pitch decreases.
Chen et al. [147] combined the wire-cutting method with the
two-step electrodeposition method to fabricate two-tier copper
nanowire-microgrooves surfaces. The wire-cutting method adopted the
Excel’s jeweler saw blade, which ensured the microgrooves have the
same width of 262 μm and depth of 518 μm. The experimental results
demonstrated that both the wicking effect and modulated wavelength
effect contribute to CHF enhancement on the two-tier structures and the
collective effect depends on the combination of copper nanowire height
and microgroove mesh pitch. A CHF model including the modulated
wavelength of hydrodynamic instability and the capillary wicking effect
was proposed as follow:
( )1/2
π ρv σ V ρl hlv
q′′CHF = C hlv + (12)
8 λu A
where C is a constant and is 7.3, V is the volumetric wicking rate, λu is
the modulated wavelength, A is the heating surface area.
The distribution of microgrooves was further optimized by bionic the
growth mechanism of the leaf vein [148]. As shown in Fig. 24, the
biomimetic microgrooves can reduce the flow resistance of liquid flow
significantly and the copper nanowires can increase the nucleation site
density and reduce the average radius of vapor columns. Therefore,
biomimetic structures with copper nanowires reached a CHF of 229.2
W/cm2.
Tang et al. [149] fabricated porous interconnected microchannel
Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

Table 5
Summary of enhancement features of microstructure surfaces machined by other machining methods.
Reference Enhanced structure Machining method Size of structure Base material Enhancement Mechanism of boiling enhancement
Working fluid effect

Sarangi et al. Porous surface Sintering Particle size: Copper HTC↑ Larger number of nucleation sites
[128] 45–1000 μm FC-72
Thickness: 180–4000
μm
Jun et al. [129, Microporous coating Sintering Average particle sizes: Copper CHF↑ Micro-scale cavities and reentrant cavities
130] surfaces 10, 25, 67 μm Water HTC↑
Zhang et al. Porous micromesh Sintering Wire diameter of Copper CHF↑ Much higher nucleation site density, larger
[131] surfaces mesh: 40, 50 μm Water HTC↑ surface area, facilitated bubble dynamics and
Mesh number: 100, ONB↓ micro-chimney effect
300 in.-1
Nasersharifi Multi-level porous Multi-step Particle size: 200 μm Copper n- CHF↑ Reduced hydrodynamic instability wavelength
et al. [132] surfaces sintering Column spacing: 1, pentane HTC↑
3.5 mm
Godinez et al. Microporous coating Brazing Particle diameter: 11, Aluminum HTC↑ More nucleation sites and superhydrophilic
[135] surface 24, 66 μm Water surfaces
Lim et al. [136] Biphilic surface Spray coating Pattern size: 0, 2, 3 Silicon CHF↑ Easy nucleation on the hydrophobic pattern and
mm Water HTC↑ additional nucleation sites
Pattern pitch: 4–8 mm
Pattern number: 16-
64
Surtaev et al. Porous coating Plasma spraying Particle size: 20–100 Stainless steel HTC↑ Significant increase in nucleation sites
[137] surfaces μm Water, liquid
Thickness: 400–1390 nitrogen
μm
Porosity: 60%
Park et al. [138] Nano-particle Compressed-air Carbon nanotube Zirconium CHF↑ Enhanced wettability
deposited surfaces spray diameter: 10–15 nm Water
Graphene diameter:
15 μm
Jun et al. [139] Nano-textured Electrospinning Fiber diameter: Copper CHF↑ Facilitated bubble growth rate, delayed
surfaces 20–100 μm Ethanol, HTC↑ formation of vapor film
Pore diameter: 3–10 Water
μm
Dharmendra Copper nanotube Hot filament CVD Length: 300–500 nm Copper CHF↑ Larger effective heat transfer area and high
et al. [142] coated surface Diameter: 50 nm Water HTC↑ thermal conductivity,
Su et al. [143] Graphene coated Atmosphere Graphene size: Copper HTC↑ More nucleation sites and larger bubble size
surface pressure CVD 166.4–259.8 nm R-141b
Moghadasi et al. Nanostructure Spin-coating Particle size: Copper CHF↑ Increased bubble departure frequency, more
[144] surfaces 10.12–123.48 nm Water HTC↑ nucleation sites and larger surface area

Fig. 23. (a) SEM image of patterned microporous surfaces with vapor channels, (b) an enhanced structure that has vapor channels both in solid copper and
microporous coatings [146].

nets by sintering and WEDM, the porous interconnected microchannel
nets exhibit the ONB at a wall-superheat lower than 3 ◦ C and the
maximum heat flux reached 1100 kW/m2 without reaching the CHF.
Gheitaghy et al. [150] combined the WEDM and electrodeposition to
fabricate U-shaped mesochannel with porous coatings. The CHF and
HTC of this mesochannels-porous coating combined surface reached
170 W/cm2 and 23.5 W/cm2K, respectively. Multi-scale surfaces can
combine the advantages of each scale structure to achieve higher CHF
and HTC. Accordingly, the fabrication process will be complex and the
fabrication cost will be high. Shen et al. [151] prepared hybrid wetting
surfaces with pillars through the combination of WEDM and chemical
deposition. The pillars in millimeters were shaped using the WEDM, and
then one part of the surface was covered with glue to create hydrophobic
surfaces on the other part by the chemical deposition method. The
maximum HTC enhancement of these hybrid wetting surfaces reached
100% than the plain surface. Može et al. [152] laser-textured aluminum
surfaces using a nanosecond fiber laser, and fluorinated silane was
chemical vapor deposited on the textured surfaces to modify the surfaces
from superhydrophilic to superhydrophobic. The larger microcavities
with a mean diameter of 4.2 μm can induce an early transition into the
favorable nucleate boiling regime, and the smaller microcavities with a
mean diameter of 2.8 μm can provide superior performance at high heat

20
Y. Sun et al.
Fig. 24. (a) The overall picture of the biomimetic structure with copper nanowires on the top, (b) SEM image of copper nanowires on the top of biomimetic
structures, and (c) copper nanowires array of 25 μm tall [148].
fluxes. Therefore, both superhydrophilic and superhydrophobic surfaces
exhibited significant enhancement on pool boiling heat transfer and the
superhydrophobic surface can enhance HTC by 500%. Wen et al. [153]
fabricated a two-level hierarchical surface by the combination of
wet-etching, and anodic alumina oxide template-assisted electrodepo­
sition method. As shown in Fig. 25, the two-level hierarchical surface
composed of long nanowire arrays and short nanowire clusters can
improve all the boiling heat transfer characteristics through increasing
bubble nucleation site density, capillary-induced liquid rewetting and
the separation of liquid-vapor pathways. A 71% higher CHF, a 185%
higher HTC and a 37% lower ONB were obtained, as compared with the
plain surface. A CHF model considering the wicking effect based on
Kandlikar’s model was proposed as follow:
V ρl hlv
q′′CHF = q′′CHF,Kandlikar +
A
Zupančič et al. [154–156] studied the pool boiling heat transfer
performance of non-uniformly wettable stainless steel foils, functional­
ized by PDMS-silica coating and nanosecond laser texturing. The
biphilic surfaces with differently sized hydrophobic spots reached an up
to 200% higher CHF compared to the bare stainless steel. Smaller hy­
drophobic spots reduced the bubble diameter and increased the nucle­
ation frequency, while larger hydrophobic regions promoted boiling
incipience and exhibited higher HTC at low heat fluxes.
3D-CS fabricated by various machining methods has achieved good
pool boiling performances and several CHF prediction models for
different 3D-CS have been proposed, as listed in Eqs. (8)–(13). It can be
found that these CHF models were estimated based on the CHF model for
plain surface, and the effects of surface roughness, wickability, bubble
dynamics and other factors were also taken into consideration. Different
machining methods result in different surface structure characteristics
and improve different influencing factors. Therefore, the CHF models of
3D-CS fabricated by different machining methods have different ex­
pressions. Table 6 summarizes the structural characteristics and boiling
enhancement of multi-scale structures fabricated by hybrid machining
methods. The multi-scale structure surfaces have the advantages of
structures in each scale, which can accelerate the rewetting process and
modify the bubble growth, thereby obtaining excellent boiling heat
transfer performances. However, the use of multiple machining methods
Fig. 25. SEM images of the two-level hierarchical surface with patterned copper nanowire arrays [153].
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437
may increase the fabrication time and cost, which limits their large-scale
application.
5. Conclusions and recommendations
With the increasing demand for new energy sources such as solar
energy, nuclear energy, geothermal energy, etc., and the increasing heat
flux in electronic devices, pool boiling has a broad application prospect
as an efficient method of energy conversion and utilization. Three-
dimensional complex structures (3D-CS) with high pool boiling heat
transfer efficiency is an inevitable choice to further improve the energy
conversion efficiency of energy systems and solve the heat dissipation
problem of electronic devices.
This review presents a comprehensive comment on the pool boiling
(13) heat transfer enhancements and fabrication methods of 3D-CS. Tradi­
tional machining methods, special machining methods, and other
machining methods are applied to modify the heating surfaces to
strengthen the capillary force, optimize the hydrodynamic instability
wavelength, improve the wettability, increase the heat transfer area and
nucleation sites, etc. 3D-CS fabricated by various fabrication methods
have achieved much better pool boiling heat transfer efficiency and are
reviewed in detail. Traditional machining methods can fabricate 3D-CS
with high reliability at low cost, special machining methods and other
machining methods fabricate 3D-CS with micro/nano scale and high
pool boiling heat transfer performances. However, CHFs achieved by
various 3D-CS are still well below the theoretical limit. Therefore,
further investigation and improvement on the fabrication methods and
heat transfer theory of 3D-CS are needed to meet the demands of high-
density energy systems. Based on the current research status and prac­
tical application requirements of pool boiling systems, it is suggested
that further research on pool boiling systems should be focused on the
following:
(1) Multi-scale structures have the merits of several enhancement
structures and possess excellent pool boiling heat transfer per­
formance. Therefore, the integration of multi-scale structures, e.
g., microscale and nanoscale structures is worth studying. Be­
sides, fabrication methods, such as 3D printing, laser machining,
21
Y. Sun et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 162 (2022) 112437

Table 6
Summary of enhancement features of microstructure surfaces machined by hybrid machining methods.
Reference Enhanced structure Machining method Size of structure Base material Enhancement Mechanism of boiling enhancement
Working fluid effect

Jaikumar Microchannel surfaces with CNC machining and Channel width: 300, Copper CHF↑ Jet impingement induced by porous
et al. [145] porous coatings sintering 500, 762 μm Water HTC↑ coatings on fin tops accelerates the
Channel depth: 400 liquid feeding
μm
Ha et al. Microporous surfaces with Sintering and micro- Powder diameter: Copper CHF↑ The shorter distance of the lateral
[146] microchannel vapor channels milling 125–150 μm Water HTC↑ vapor flow and reduced acceleration
Channel width: 178 pressure drop
μm
Chen et al. Microgroove surface with Wire cutting and Microgroove pitch: Copper CHF↑ Better wicking effect and modulated
[147] nanowires electrodeposition 0.5, 1.0, 4.0 mm Water wavelength effect
Nanowire diameter:
70 nm
Nanowire height: 5,
15, 25 nm
Tang et al. Porous interconnected Sintering and WEDM Powder size: 25–125 Copper ONB↓ More nucleation site at low heat fluxes
[149] microchannel nets μm Water HTC↑
Channel width:
0.25–0.7 mm
Channel pitch: 1.2
mm
Gheitaghy Mesochannel surface with WEDM and Mesochannel width: Copper CHF↑ Enhancement of capillary
et al. [150] microporous coatings electrodeposition 0.4 mm Water HTC↑ performance, surface area, more
Mesochannel depth: nucleation site and better bubble
0.5 mm dynamics
Micropore size:
100–200 μm
Shen et al. Hybrid wetting surfaces Wire-cutting and Micropillar width: Copper HTC↑ Hybrid wetting pattern and rib height
[151] chemical deposition 1.0 mm Water
Micropillar height:
1.0, 1.5 mm
Može et al. Superhydrophobic Laser texturing and Microcavity Aluminum CHF↑ Wenzel wetting regime achieved by
[152] microcavity surfaces CVD diameter: 4.2 μm Water HTC↑ surface wettability and topography
Zupančič Hybrid wetting surfaces Laser texturing and Hydrophobic spot Stainless steel CHF↑ High nucleation site density and
et al. [156] annealed coating size: 0.25 mm Water HTC↑ redistributed wall-temperature
ONB↓
Lin et al. Micro-nano structured Sandblasting and Surface roughness: Copper CHF↑ More nucleation sites, better bubble
[157] surface chemical oxidation 0.15–12.13 μm Water HTC↑ dynamics and liquid supply
Nanostructure
height:
16.94–119.89 μm

and electrodeposition, which can fabricate multi-scale structural
surfaces conveniently need further exploration.
(2) Spray coating, electrospinning, CVD, and other machining
methods that can produce nano-coatings on the structural sur­
faces to regulate the wettability, thereby enhancing the HTC.
Although nanostructures can enhance the boiling performance,
they lack long-term stability due to the destruction of nano­
structures under intense pool boiling conditions. Therefore, new
fabrication methods and matrix structures are needed to protect
nanostructures from degradation. Design temperature-adaptive
nanostructures that can bend actively at high temperatures to
avoid severe deformations and self-healing when the temperature
drops [158], may be an effective way to improve the long-term
stability of nanostructures.
(3) A large number of studies on pool boiling were conducted with
copper as substrate and water as the working medium. Besides,
water has been widely used as the working medium of copper-
base phase change heat transfer devices, and it has the advan­
tages of good thermophysical properties, being environmentally
friendly, and cheapness. However, water has insulation problems
and contains impurities even after multilevel treatments. There­
fore, suitable refrigerants or dielectrics should be selected as the
working medium of pool cooling systems when it is used for heat
dissipation of electronics, although their heat transfer perfor­
mance is worse than that of water. Besides, it is necessary to study
the influence of microstructures on the pool boiling heat transfer
performance of refrigerants and select suitable machining
methods to fabricate effective microstructure surfaces.
(4) The pool boiling heat transfer performance in the confined space,
especially the pool boiling heat transfer performance of 3D-CS,
needs to be studied. The continuously decreasing thickness of
modern electronic devices results in a sharp reduction in the
effective cooling space. The narrow space will limit the nucle­
ation, growth, and departure of bubbles, thereby affecting the
HTC and CHF. Therefore, it is necessary to study the pool boiling
heat transfer mechanism of 3D-CS in confined space, thereby a
suitable fabrication method can be selected to fabricate micro­
structures that can maintain good pool boiling heat transfer
performance in a narrow space.
(5) Up to now, the influences of fabrication methods and micro­
structures on pool boiling heat transfer performance are con­
ducted on the surfaces of copper, aluminum, and other rigid
substrates. However, the rise of flexible electronic devices puts
forward the flexible requirements on phase change cooling sys­
tems. Therefore, there is an urgent need to study the fabrication
methods of microstructures on flexible substrates, i.e., polymer
films, and their effects on enhancing pool boiling heat transfer
performances. Besides, the compatibility between polymer ma­
terials and working mediums needs to be studied to design
reasonable flexible phase change cooling systems.
(6) The theoretical analysis of pool boiling heat transfer need further
optimization. Heat transfer models that can predicate the pool
boiling performances more accurately will help the design and

22
Y. Sun et al.
fabrication of pool boiling systems. Besides, the simulations of
pool boiling deserve more attention to help understand the un­
derlying science.
(7) The pool boiling heat transfer performances of 3D-CS need to be
further studied in combination with practical application re­
quirements. The effects of pressure and heater orientation on
CHF, the feasibility of large-scale fabrication and application,
fabrication cost, etc need to be studied to be closer to the appli­
cation scenario.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This research was financially supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China No. 51905352, National Natural Science Founda­
tion of Guangdong Province No. 2020A1515011039, and Basic Research
Foundation of Shenzhen No. JCYJ20190808144003701.
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