FQ TESTE NOTES

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Electricity is as old as the Universe!

Humanity has always contemplated with admiration and respect the sparks that occur during
thunderstorms. Sparks are nothing more than a manifestation of a natural electrical phenomenon.

But large-scale and recent electricity production has completely revolutionized our daily lives. Living
without electricity is hard to imagine these days. Electricity can be used to produce electricity. "clean",
"comfortable" energy, easy to transport and transform...

Much of our well-being depends on electricity! But, to use it, we need electrical circuits where it
circulates.

It is important to have knowledge about electricity in order to know how to use it properly and without
wasting it.

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1.1. Electric current: what it is and how to use it

Electricity and everyday life

Electricity is needed in virtually all types of activities. Electricity is needed at home to function.of the
most varied household appliances [1].

In transport, it is electrical energy that moves trains, cars, electric cars, elevators

In hospitals, electrical energy allows the operation of all equipment: surgical, diagnostic,

etc.

In all public street lighting, as well as in housing, electric lamps are used

In factories, the most varied production, storage and product control machines work thanks to electrical
energy [5]

In distance communication, the operation of telephones, cell phones, GPS and remote controls is only
possible with the use of electrical energy

Electricity is today an essential good. Its lack prevents us from carrying out practically all of our daily
tasks.

Electricity in communications.
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What is electric current

Electric current is said to be a directed movement of particles or corpuscles with an electric charge.
These particles and corpuscles are part of the constitution of matter.

As you know, matter is made up of atoms. Atoms have: - a nucleus, where protons, particles with a
positive electrical charge (+), and neutrons, particles with no electrical charge, are very close together; -
an area around the nucleus, where electrons, particles with a negative electrical charge (-) move [7].

The electrons furthest from the nucleus of the atoms of certain materials - metals, metallic alloys and
graphite - have the possibility of moving disorderly between the atoms of these materials. They are
called conduction electrons [8] It is possible, as you will see later, to cause the conduction electrons to
be set in oriented movement, in one direction, throughout the entire material [9]

[7] All atoms have electrons (-) that move around the nucleus.

The guided movement of electrons constitutes the electric current in metals, metallic alloys and
graphite.

•There are substances, such as salts and hydroxides, which are made up of electrically charged particles:
positive ions and negative ions, which strongly attract each other. When these substances dissolve in
water, the positive and negative ions separate, moving disorderly throughout the solution [10] Also
acids, which are not made up of ions, generate positive and negative ions with great mobility when they
dissolve in water. It is possible, as you will see later, to transform the disordered movement of lions into
a oriented movement of positive lions in a certain direction and negative ions in the opposite direction
[11].

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The oriented movement of positive and negative ions in opposite directions constitutes the electric
current in aqueous solutions of salts, hydroxides and acids.\

Electric current is a guided movement of particles or corpuscles with an electric charge:

-in metals, metal alloys and graphite, it is a guided movement of

in aqueous solutions of salts, hydroxides and acids, it is a oriented movement of positive ions, in one
direction, and negative ions, in the opposite direction.
 SOME GOOD CONDUCTOR MATERIALS

1)Copper wire

2)Aluminium

3)Graphite

SOME BAD CONDUCTOR MATERIALS

1)plastic

2)cotton

3)paper

4)sodium chloride

5)distilled water

(12) Objects made of good and bad conductive materials.

Metals, such as copper, metallic alloys and graphite, which have conduction electrons, are materials
where an electric current can exist and are therefore called good electrical conductors or simply
electrical conductors Aqueous solutions of salts, hydroxides and acids, which have ions with
greatmobility are also good electrical conductor materials [13]

• Plastic, cotton or rubber are examples of materials that do not have electronsconduction and where it
is not possible to have an electric current, called, forthat, bad electrical conductors or electrical
insulators. Distilled water and also a bad electrical conductor.

Salts, such as sodium chloride, have ions in their constitution, but as they are solid at room temperature,
their constituent ions do not have the mobility to allow the existence of an electric current. These are,
therefore, other examples of bad electrical conductors [14].

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You know very well that, in everyday life, electrical devices only work when we connect them to the
electrical outlet, batteries or dynamos, which are sources of electrical energy [15].During their
operation, electrical devices, such as lamps, resistors and motors, receive electrical energy and
transform it into light, thermal and mechanical energy, respectively. That is why they are called electrical
energy receivers
 When a receiver is properly connected to a source of electrical energy and it works, there is now a
closed path with electric current, that is, a closed electrical circuit.

Figure 17 shows one of the simplest electrical circuits you can find: a light bulb connected to a battery.
In this circuit there is a oriented movement of electrons in the direction of the battery terminal marked
with - to the terminal marked with +, along the filament of the light bulb.

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How to install simple electrical circuits

In order to install electrical circuits, you must pay attention to the following:

All electrical devices have two terminals. In batteries, the terminals are called poles, with the positive
pole designated by and the negative pole by -[18].

There are devices, called switches, that allow the receivers to be turned on and off [19]. When the
switch is open, the circuit is broken: there is no electrical current. When the switch is closed, the circuit
is not broken: there is electrical current.

Connecting wires are used to connect the different devices of a circuit together. Sometimes clamps
called crocodiles are attached to the ends of the wires to attach them to the components of the circuit
[20].

Now you can properly install an electrical circuit that allows you to turn a lamp on and off: you connect
each of the lamp terminals to one of the poles of the battery through connection wires, inserting a
switch.

-if the switch is not closed, if one of the lamp terminals is not connected to the battery, if the
connections to the lamp are made on the same terminal or if the two lamp terminals are connected to
the same pole of the battery, the lamp does not lights [21];

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when you connect terminal A of the lamp to one of the poles of the battery, terminal B to the other pole
and the switch is closed, you establish a closed electrical circuit and the lamp lights up [22]. In this
circuit, the terminal of the lamp connected to the positive pole of the battery is its positive terminal and
the one connected to the negative pole of the battery is its negative terminal.

Proceeding in the same way, you can install:

- a circuit that allows switching on and off an electrical resistance [23]; - a circuit that allows switching an
electric motor on and off [24].
 In these circuits, the positive terminal of the receivers is the one connected to the positive pole of the
battery and the negative terminal is the one connected to the negative pole of the battery.

Real and conventional directions of electric currentIn any of the electrical circuits of figures 22, 23 and
24 there is orient movement state of electrons in the sense:

battery negative pole in the loop battery positive pole

In all electrical circuits that use batteries as an energy source, the movement of free electrons always
occurs in only one direction, which is called the real direction of the electric current.

The electric current generated by batteries is a unidirectional current, as it flows only sense. It is called
direct current and is symbolized by DC or

The conventional direction of the electric current is designated as the opposite of the movement of the
electrons, that is, from the positive pole of the battery to the negative pole [25].

Other sources of electricity

generate electric current that periodically changes direction. It is called alternating current and is
symbolized by AC or

In the circuits of light bulbs connected to the mains socket, the electric current is alternating.

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How to diagram an electrical circuit

Any electrical circuit is always represented by diagrams or electrical diagrams, making each electrical
device correspond to its symbol,

With these symbols you can schematize, for example, the circuit that allows you to turn on and off a
lamp connected to a battery [26] and [27].

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In summary

⚫ Electricity is a physical phenomenon related to the movement of electric charges that can be used to
produce electricity. Electricity can cause heat phenomena. physical, luminous and mechanical, which are
used in many day-to-day activities. The electric current and a directed motion of

- conduction electrons, in metals, metallic alloys and graphite:

-Positive and negative lions. With great mobility, in solutions aqueous salts, acids and hydroxides.
⚫ Good electrical conductors, or simply electrical conductors, are materials that have conduction
electrons or ions with great mobility.

• Bad electrical conductors or electrical insulators are materials that do not have electrons of
conduction nor highly mobile ions

• Electric current is necessary!

-a device that originates it-generator or source of electrical energy,

- devices with materials that are good conductors and receive electrical energy.

• A closed electric circuit is a closed path for electric current.

• Continuous electric current flows in only one direction and is symbolized by DC or =

In direct current electrical circuits:

- the conventional direction of electric current is from pole + to pole -

- the real direction of the electric current is the movement of the electrons, from the - pole to the + pole

Electrical circuits are represented by schematics in which the components are matched.

electrical components the symbols that are tabulated.

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1.2. Physical quantities: electric voltage and electric current

Voltage between two points in a circuit

Do you know that electric current is a directed movement of electric charges ingood conductive
materials?

-What gives rise to this movement?

For the oriented movement of electric charges to arise, it is necessary to create an electric voltage
between two points of a circuit.
 - What is electrical voltage?

The electrical voltage or potential difference between two points in a circuit is related to the force that
moves electric charges from one point to another.

This force is called electric force and, as it causes the movement of charges, it performs work [28].Work
is equal to the increase in energy of electrical charges.

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Volta's Stack - The First Electrochemical Generator The first electrochemical generator was invented by
the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta at the beginning of the 19th century. This physicist verified that
between two disks of different metals.

separated by a flannel moistened in an acidic solution, an electric current was produced when he
connected them through a conductive wire. He called this set the stack element [29]. He also designated
the two disks by electrodes and the acid solution by electrolyte.

To produce a stronger electric current, Alessandro Volta stacked several of these elements and called
the whole a pile [30].

For the construction of his cell element, Alessandro Volta based himself on observations made by the
Italian doctor Luigi Galvani. This noticed that the thighs of a dead frog, in contact with two different
metals, contracted. electricity between two different metals brought into contact through the frog's
body

Current batteries, known as dry batteries, are based on the Volta element. Still common are those that
have a bar of graphite, an electrode, surrounded by a paste soaked in a conductive solution, the
electrolyte, this set being inside from a zinc cup, the other electrode [31].

Inside the batteries, when the electrodes are connected to each other through the external circuit,
chemical reactions take place between the electrodes and the electrolyte. These are oxidation-reduction
reactions, which, as you know, are reactions in which

electron transfer takes place. The result is: - an electrode with an excess of electrons, the negative
electrode or negative pole - an electrode with a lack of electrons, the positive electrode or positive pole.

This difference that appears between the electrodes corresponds to the electrical voltage responsible
for:

- movement of electrons in the circuit

exterior:- movement of electrolyte ions inside the cell, negative ions towards the positive electrode and
positive ions towards the negative electrode [32].
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All batteries have their voltage or potential difference written on them [33]. The greater the voltage of
the power source of a circuit, the greater the intensity of the force that can cause the oriented
movement of the electrical charges in the circuit, the more work is done and, consequently, the more
energy is supplied to the electrical loads in the circuit.

Voltage measurement between two points - voltmeters

Voltage is measured with devices called voltmeters. It can also be measured with multimeters set in the
proper position for the voltage. Voltmeters and multimeters can be analog or digital [34].

Before measuring voltages, you should consider the following procedures: - see what the range is, that
is, the maximum value that the voltmeter can measure:

- determine the value of the smallest division, if the device is analog.

These procedures are exemplified for the scale shown in figure 35.

•The range of the voltmeter is 3 V.

• The smallest division of the scale is worth 0.1 V, because:

-the values written on the scale are 0 V, 1 V, 2 V and 3 Ve between two of these values there are 10
divisions

To measure the voltage between the terminals of a receiver in a closed electrical circuit, connect the
voltmeter in parallel to the terminals of the receiver

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Thus, to measure the voltage between the terminals of a lamp in a circuit where the generator is a
battery, like the one in figure 36, you must:

- adjust the voltmeter for direct current=; - connect in parallel the negative terminal (-) of the voltmeter
to the negative terminal of the

lamp and the positive terminal (+) of the voltmeter to the positive terminal of the lamp: - start by using
the scale with the widest range until you find the most suitable one,if the voltmeter has multiple scales.

There is only voltage between two points of a closed electrical circuit when there is a receiver between
these points. Between the terminals of a conductor wire or a switch the voltage is zero. That is why, in
the circuit of figure 36, the voltage between the lamp terminals is equal to the voltage between the
battery terminals
physical quantity electric current

The physical quantity electric current is represented by the letter / In metallic conductors and in
graphite, it is related to the number of electrons that pass through a straight section of the circuit per
unit of time [37].

[37] Electric current is related to the electric charges that pass through a cross-section of the circuit per
second.

The more electrons pass through the cross section of the circuit per second, the greater the value of the
electric current, When, in a cross section of the circuit, 6.28 x 10 electrons (6,280 000 000 000 000 000
electrons) pass every second, says Make sure the current is 1 ampere..

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The ampere, symbol A, is the SI unit of electric current. It is named in honor of the physicist Andre
Ampère. Kiloampere kA multiples are also used. and the subaltriple milliampere, mA

Measurement of electrical current – ammeters

Electric current is measured with devices called ammeters or with multimeters. timemeters in the
proper position to measure electric current [38].

As with voltmeters, when you use an ammeter, you should - check the range of the device, as it should
always be greater than the value you intend to measure;

determine the value of the smallest division, when it comes to an analog model

Unlike what happens with voltmeters, ammeters are always installed in electrical circuits in series. Thus,
to measure the electric current in a circuit with a light bulb in which generator is a stack, like the one in
figure 39, you must:

- adapt the ammeter to measure direct current (DC: =);

place the ammeter inside the circuit so that its negative terminal

(-) line up with the negative pole of the battery and the positive (+) terminal aligning the positive pole of
the battery.

Whenever a circuit corresponds to a single path for electric charges, the electric current has the same
value at all points in the circuit. Therefore, in the circuit of figure 39, the ammeter can be installed
between the battery and the lamp or between the lamp and the switch or between the switch and the
battery, and it always indicates the same value.
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In summary

The electric voltage or potential difference, U, between two points in a circuit is related to the work
done by the electric force that moves an electric charge between those two points.

The Si unit of electrical voltage is the volt symbol VO multiple kilovolt. kV, worth 1000 Veosub-multiple
millivolt, mV. is worth 0.001 V

⚫ An electrical generator is the device that creates electrical voltage in a circuit. • Batteries are
electrochemical generators: they generate electrical energy at the expense of chemical energy

⚫ The first electrochemical generator was the Volta stack, invented by Alessandro Valta in the early th
century. It was a stacking of various battery elements consisting of a copper disc and a zinc disc between
which was placed each flannel soaked in an acidic solution In a stack there are two different conductors,
metallic or graphite, the electrodes and a conductive solution, the electrolyte. The chemical reactions
that occur inside it make one electrode become negative and the other positive, creating the voltage in
the electrical circuit Chemical reactions

The voltage between two points of a circuit is measured with voltmeters, symbolized because they are
connected in parallel to the points of the circuit between which the voltage is to be measured.

• The electric current I measures the number of electric charges that pass in a straight section of the
circuit per unit of time.

• The Si unit of electric current is the ampere, symbol A. The kiloampere multiple, KA is 1000 A, and the
milliampere submultiple, mA, is 0.001 A.

• Electric current is measured with ammeters, symbolized by A- which stands for connected in series at
the point in the circuit where the current is to be measured.

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13. Associations of receivers and batteries

It is possible to install more than one receiver in an electrical circuit. install it node can be done in two
ways: in series or in parallel Association of lamps in series

In a circuit with lamps in series, each one is connected after the other, and there is only one path for the
electric charges. Figure 40 shows a circuit with an association of two lamps in series.

What are the characteristics of associating lamps in series?

In circuits with associations of lamps in series,it is verified that

 1. the switch, whatever its location, controls all the lamps, because they are all on the same path
2. when one of the bulbs is removed, or if one of them burns out, they all go out, because the
circuit is opened
3. when more lamps are associated, their luminosity decreases, because the same electrical energy
is divided by more receivers
4. [41] The switch turns on and off all the lamps.
5. [42] A faulty lamp interrupts the circuit

Parallel association of lamps In a circuit with a parallel association of lamps, each one is installed on
a different branch, so there is more than one path for electrical charges. There is a point, called a
node, where charges moving in the circuit or main branch are divided by the branches, and another
node where the charges come together again. Figure 45 shows a circuit with an association of two
lamps in parallel where the branches and nodes are evident.

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-What characterizes the combination of lamps in parallel?

In circuits with associations of lamps in parallel it is verified that...

1. the switch installed in the main branch controls all the lamps, but installed in a branch controls
only that branch.
2. when one of the lamps is removed, or when one of them burns out, the others remain lit,
because only the branch of that lamp is open [47].
3. when more lamps are associated, their luminosity is maintained. Each one continues to receive
the energy it received, as it is directly connected directly to the generator [48].
The association of receivers in parallel has the advantage that the entire circuit continues to
function in the event that one of the receivers stops working.this, the installation of the lamps
and all the appliances Knitting in houses is done in parallel [49].
Circuits with the two types of association of lamps

The installation of three or more lamps can lead to varied circuits Four lamps, for example, can
not be installed:

-all in series: -all in parallel;

-two lamps in the main circuit, in series, with the other two in the main circuit, in series, with all the
others

parallel;

-a lamp in the after three, as shown in figure 50, etc.

 -when you remove light bulb L,, installed in the main circuit, they all go out -when you remove
light bulb L2, which is alone in a branch, the others go- In this circuit, for example, the following
is verified:

keep lit;

- when one of the lamps, La or L, installed in series on a branch is removed, the other goes out.
Voltage in series lamp associations

Figure 51, on the next page, shows a circuit with an association of dilamps in series and three
voltmeters that allow measuring the voltage between terminals A and B of lamp L, C and D of
lamp L2, A and D of the association of lamps L and L-in series.
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As you can see:

-the voltage between the terminals of each lamp is lower than that between the terminals of
the association of the two lamps in series: UL< Uassoclation and UUassociationi -the voltage
between the terminals of the association of L, and L, in series and is equal to the sum of
connections between the terminals of L, and of L,; 2.5V = 1.0V+1.5V.
The voltage between the terminals of a combination of lamps in series is equal to the sum of the
voltages between the terminals of each of the lamps.

A series association = UL,+UL+...

. The energy supplied by the battery to the electrons is distributed by the various lamps in series
association.

.The brightness of each lamp connected in series is lower than that of the single lamp, and the smaller
the number of associated lamps.

Electric current in associations of lamps in series Figure 52 shows a circuit with an association of two
lamps in series and four ammeters, to measure the electric current in four different points.

As you can see, all ammeters indicate the same value: 0.08 A. This means that the value of the electric
current is the same at all points in the circuit.

In a circuit with a combination of lamps in series, the electric current has the same value in any lamp:

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Voltage in parallel lamp associations Figure 53 shows a circuit with an association of two lamps in
parallel and three voltmeters that allow measuring the voltage between terminals A and B of lamp L,, C
and D of lamp L,, E and F of the association of lamps L, and L, in parallel. As you can see, all voltmeters
indicate the same value. 2.2V
 This means that the voltage between the terminals of L, and L, is equal to and is also equal to the
voltage between the terminals of the combination of L, and L₂ in parallel.

The voltage between the terminals of a combination of lamps in parallel is equal to the voltage
between the terminals of any of the lamps, whether they are the same or different. U association in
parallel = UL1= UL2 The battery supplies equal energy to the electrons traveling through each one of
the lamps. The brightness of each lamp in the parallel combination is equal to the glow of a single
lamp.

If the bulbs in the circuit in figure 54 were different, the electric current in the branches would be
different, but the electric current in the main branch would still be equal to the sum of the values of the
electric current in the branches.

In a circuit with an association of lamps in parallel, the electric current in the main branch is equal to
the sum of the electric currents in all the branches because the conduction electrons are divided by
the various branches.

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Association of cells in series

As you know:

- batteries create a certain voltage in electrical circuits;

-ha, on the market, batteries with different voltages: 1.5 V, 4.5 V and 9 V:

For proper functioning of the electrical receivers, the generator voltage must be matched to the voltage
written on the receivers.

Therefore, to adapt the electrical voltage to what is written on the receivers, use two or more batteries,
connecting the negative pole of one battery to the positive pole of the next and so on.

What is called an association of cells in series is formed. Figure 55 shows two devices with an association
of batteries in series.

When batteries are connected in series, the electrical voltage of the combination is equal to the sum of
the voltages of all the batteries, as shown below

The voltage between the terminals of a combination of cells in series is equal to the sum of the
voltages between the terminals of the various cells:stack association = Stack 1+ Stack 2 +...The greater
the number of associated batteries, the greater the electrical voltage created. A combination of cells
in series supplies more energy to the electrical loads in the circuit than a single cell.
In summary

The association of two or more receivers in the same circuit is done in series or in parallel, and both
types of association can exist together.

Many electrical circuits have series battery associations as their energy source, in which: -the positive
pole of a battery is connected to the pole

negative of the next and so on; -the voltage is equal to the sum of the voltages between the terminals of
the various batteries.

The purpose of an association of batteries in series is to increase the electrical voltage in the circuit and,
consequently, increase the energy supplied to the electrical loads.