APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1

SYMBOLS, UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

a acceleration m s-2; [L] [t]-2

thickness m; [L]
aw water activity p/ps or Y/Ys ; dimensionless
A area m2; [L]2
b height of liquid in a centrifuge m; [L]
(Bi) Biot number hsL/k;hsD/k;hsr/k;hsa/k ; dimensionless
c specific heat kJ kg-1 °C-1; [F] [L] [M]-1 [T]-1,
cp specific heat at constant pressure, cs humid heat
C heat conductance J m-2 s-1 °C-1; [F] [L]-1 [t]-1 [T]-1
coefficients - discharge, drag, geometric; constant; dimensionless
COP coefficient of performance in refrigeration
d diameter m; [L]
D diameter m; [L]
diffusivity m2 s-1; [L]2 [t]-1
sieve aperture m ; [L]
e small temperature difference °C; [T]
E energy J; [F] [L]
Ec mechanical pump energy, Ef friction energy, Eh heat energy, Ei Bond's work index in grinding
(energy to reduce unit mass from infinitely large particle size to 100m), Ek kinetic energy, Ep
potential energy, Er pressure energy
f friction factor; dimensionless
ratio of actual drying rate to maximum drying rate, dimensionless
fc crushing strength of material kg m-1 s-2; [M] [L]-1 [t]-2
F force N, kg m s-2; [F], [M] [L] [t]-2
Fc centrifugal force, Fd drag force, Fe external force, Ff friction force, Fg gravitational force; Fs
accelerating force in sedimentation,
Fl mass ratio of liquid to solid in thickener feed; dimensionless
time to sterilize at 121°C min; [t]
(Fo) Fourier number (kt/cL2); dimensionless
(Fr) Froude number (DN2/g); dimensionless
F(D) Cumulative particle size distribution, F'(D) particle size distribution; dimensionless
g acceleration due to gravity m s-2; [L] [t]-2
G mass rate of flow kg m-2s-1 ; [M] [L]-2 [t]-1;
(Gr) Grashof number (D32gt/2); dimensionless
h heat transfer coefficient J m-2 s-1°C-1; [F] [L]-1 [t]-1[T]-1
hc convection, hh condensing vapours on horizontal surfaces, hr radiation, hs surface, hv
condensing vapours on vertical surface
H enthalpy, kJ kg-1; [F] [L] [M]-1, Hs, enthalpy saturated vapour, Ha, Hb, Hc,enthalpy in
refrigeration system
Henry's Law constant, atm mole fraction-1, kPa mole fraction-1; [F] [L]-2
k constant
constant of proportionality
friction loss factor; dimensionless
thermal conductivity J m-1 s-1 °C-1 ; [F] [L]-1 [t]-1 [T]-1
k'g mass-transfer coefficient
kg gas mass-transfer coefficient, k'g mass-transfer coefficient based on humidity difference, kl
liquid mass transfer coefficient (units and dimensions from context)
K constant, K', K'', etc.
K' mass-transfer coefficient through membrane, kg m-2 h-1; [M] [L]-2 [t]-1; for ultrafiltration m s-1, for
reverse osmosis kg m-2 h-1 kPa-1
KK Kick's constant m3 kg-1 ; [L]3 [M]-1
KR Rittinger's constant m4 kg-1; [L]4 [M]-1
Ks rate constant for crystal surface reactions m s-1; [L] [t]-1
Kd mass transfer coefficient to the interface, m s-1; [L] [t]-1
Kg overall gas mass transfer coefficient
Kl overall liquid mass transfer coefficient
L flow rate of heavy phase kg h-1 ; [M] [t]-1
half thickness of slab for Fourier and Biot numbers m; [L]
length m; [L]
ratio of liquid to solid in thickener underflow;
Lc thickness of filter cake, equivalent thickness of filter cloth and precoat m; [L]
(Le) Lewis number (hc/k'gcp) or (hc/kgcs) dimensionless
m mass kg; [M]
number, general
(M) mixing index, dimensionless
M molecular weight; dimensionless
molal concentration (kg) moles m-3 ; [M] [L]-3
n number, general
N number of particles in sample;
rotational frequency, revolutions/minute or s ; [t]-1
(Nu) Nusselt number (hcD/k); dimensionless
p partial pressure Pa; [F] [L]-2
pa partial pressure of vapour in air, ps saturation partial pressure
factor in mixing and in grinding, dimensionless; factor in particle geometry in grinding, fractional
content in mixing; dimensionless
P constant in freezing formula; dimensionless;
power N m s-l, J s-1; [F] [L] [t]-1
pressure Pa; [F] [L]-2
Ps pressure on surface Pa; [F] [L]-2

(Po) Power number (P/D5N ); dimensionless
(Pr) Prandtl number (cp/k); dimensionless
q heat flow rate J s-1; [F] [L] [t]-1
fluid flow rate m3 s-1; [L]3 [t]-1
reduction ratio factor in particle geometry in grinding and mixing; dimensionless
Q quantity of heat J; [F] [L]
r radius m; [L]
rn neutral radius in centrifuge
specific resistance of filter cake kg m-1; r' specific resistance of filter cake under 1 atm pressure
[M] [L]-1
R constant in freezing formulae; dimensionless
resistance to flow through filter; dimensionless
R Universal gas constant 8.314 kJ mole-1 K-1; m3kPa mole-1K-1 , [L]2 [t]-2 [T]-1 ; 0.08206 m3 atm
mole-1 K-1
(Re) Reynolds number (Dv/) and (D2N/); dimensionless
RH relative humidity p/p , % ; dimensionless
s compressibility of filter cake; dimensionless
distance m ; [L]
standard deviation of sample compositions from the mean in mixing; dimensionless
so , sr initial and random values of standard deviation in mixing; dimensionless
(Sc) Schmidt number (/D); dimensionless
(Sh) Sherwood number (K'd/D); dimensionless
SG specific gravity; dimensionless
t time s, h, min (from context) ; [t]

tf , freezing time h
T temperature °C or T K; [T]
Tav mean temperature, Ta air, Ts surface, Tc centre
Tm mean temperature in radiation
U overall heat-transfer coefficient J m-2 s-1 °C-1 ; [F] [L]-1 [t]-1 [T]-1
v velocity m s-1 ; [L] [t]-1
V flow rate of light phase kg h-1; [M] [t]-1
volume m3; [L]3
volumetric flow rate m3 s-1; [L]3 [t]-1
w solid content per unit volume kg m-3; [M] [L]-3
mass of dry material kg [M]
weight kg; [F]
W work N m ; [F] [L]
mass of material dried kg; [M]
x concentration in heavy phase kg m-3; [M] [L]-3
distance, thickness m; [L]
fraction, mole or weight, dimensionless
mean
X moisture content on dry basis ; dimensionless
Xc critical moisture content, Xf final moisture content, Xo initial moisture content;
thickness of slab m ; [L]
y concentration in light phase kg m-3; [M] [L]-3
fraction, mole or weight, dimensionless
Y humidity, absolute kg kg-1; humidity difference; dimensionless
Ys, Ya humidity of saturated air, humidity of air
z height m; [L]
temperature difference for 10-fold change in thermal death time °C, [T]
Z depth, height of fluid m; [L]

 absorbtivity; dimensionless
 coefficient of thermal expansion m m-1 °C-1; [T]-1

1, 2 length ratios in freezing formula; dimensionless

 thickness of layer for diffusion m; [L]
 difference

tm logarithmic mean temperature difference °C; [T]

 emissivity; dimensionless
roughness factor; dimensionless
 efficiency of coupling of freezing medium to frozen foodstuff
air-drying efficiency, % , dimensionless
 latent heat kJ kg-1; [F] [L] [M]-1
shape factor for particles, dimensionless
 viscosity kg s-1 m-1; Pa s, N s m-2; [M] [t]-1 [L]-1 ; [F] [t] [L]-2
 ratio of circumference to diameter of circle , 3.1416
 total pressure Pa; [M] [L]-1[t]-2 , [F] [L]-2
osmotic pressure kPa; [F] [L]-2
 density kg m-3; [M] [L]-3
 Stefan-Boltzman constant, 5,73 x10-8 kg m-2 s-3 °C-4 , J m-2 s-1 K-4 ; [M] [t]-3 [T]-4 or [F] [L]-1 [t]-1 [T]-4
 shear stress in a fluid Pa; [F] [L]-2
 fin efficiency; dimensionless
 angular velocity radians s -1, [t]-1
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 2

UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

Length 1 inch = 0.0254 m

1 ft = 0.3048 m
2
Area 1 ft = 0.0929m2

Volume 1 ft3 = 0.0283 m3

1 gal Imp = 0.004546 m3
1 gal US = 0.003785 m3 = 3.785 litres
1 litre = 0.001 m3
Mass 1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 mole molecular weight in kg

Density 1 lb/ft3 = 16.03 kg m-3

Velocity 1 ft/sec = 0.3048 m s-1

Pressure 1 lb/m2 = 6894 Pa

1 torr = 133.3 Pa
= 1.013 x 105 Pa
1 atm
= 760 mm Hg
= 1 N m-2
1 Pa
= 1 kg m-1 s-2
1 Newton = 1 kg m s-2
Force
1 lb ft s-2 = 1.49 kg m s-2

Viscosity 1 cP = 0.001 N s m-2 = 0.001 Pa s

= 1.49 N s m-2
1 lb/ft sec
= 1.49 kg m-1 s-2

Energy 1 Btu = 1055 J

1 cal = 4.186 J

1 kW = 1 kJ s-1
Power
1W = 1 J s-1
= 745.7 W = 745.7 J s-1
1 horsepower
= 0.746 kW
1 ton refrigeration = 3.519 kW
Temperature units (°F) = 5/9 (°C) = 5/9 (K)
-2 -1 -1
Heat-transfer coefficient 1 Btu ft h °F = 5.678 J m-2 s-1 °C
Thermal conductivity 1 Btu ft-1 h-1 °F-1 = 1.731 J m-1 s-1 °C-1

Constants  3.1416
 5.73 x 10-8 J m-2s-1K-4
e (base of natural
2.7183
logs)
R 8.314 kJ mole-1 K-1
or 0.08206 m3 atm mole-1 K-1
(M) Mega = 106,
(k) kilo = 103,
(H) Hecto = 102
(m) milli = 10-3
() micro = 10-6
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 3

SOME PROPERTIES OF GASES

(Atmospheric pressure)

Thermal conductivity Specific heat Density Temperature

(J m-1 s-1 °C-1) (kJ kg-1 °C-1) (kg m-3) (°C)
Air (see Appendix 6)
Ammonia 0.022 2.19 0.73 15
Carbon dioxide 0.015 0.80 1.98 0
0.022 0.92 1.46 100
Refrigerant 134a 1.46 1.21 25
(tetrafluoroethane)
Ammonia 0.022 2.19 0.73 15
Nitrogen 0.024 1.005 1.3 0
0.031 100
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 4

SOME PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

Thermal conductivity Specific heat Density Viscosity Temperature

-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -3 -2
(J m s °C ) (kJ kg °C ) (kg m ) (N s m ) (°C)
Water (see
0
Appendix 6)
Sucrose 20% soln. 0.54 3.8 1070 1.92 x 10-3 20
-3
0.59 x 10 80
60% soln. 6.2 x 10-3 20
-3
5.4 x 10 80
3.7 x 10-3 20
Sodium chloride
0.54 3.4 1240 2.7 x 10-3 20
22% soln.
Acetic acid 0.17 2.2 1050 1.2 x 10-3 20
-3
Ethyl alcohol 0.18 2.3 790 1.2 x 10 20
-3
Glycerine 0.28 2.4 1250 830 x 10 20
-3
Olive oil 0.17 2.0 910 84 x 10 20
-3
Rape-seed oil 900 118 x 10 20
-3
Soya-bean oil 910 40 x 10 30
-3
Tallow 900 18 x 10 65
-3
Milk (whole) 0.56 3.9 1030 2.2 x 10 20
-3
Milk (skim) 1040 1.4 x 10 25
-3
Cream 20% fat 1010 6.2 x 10 3
-3
30% fat 1000 13,8 x 10 3
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 5

SOME PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Thermal conductivity Specific heat Density Temperature

-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -3
(J m s °C ) (kJ kg °C ) (kg m ) (°C)
1. Metals
Aluminium 220 0.87 2640 0
Brass 97 0.38 8650 0
Cast iron 55 0.42 7210 0
Copper 388 0.38 8900 0
Steel, mild 45 0.47 7840 18
Steel, stainless 21 0.48 7950 20
2. Non-metals
Asbestos sheet 0.17 0.84 890 51
Brick 0.7 0.92 1760 20
Cardboard 0.07 1.26 640 20
Concrete 0.87 1.05 2000 20
Celluloid 0.21 1.55 1400 30
Cotton wool 0.04 1.26 80 30
Cork 0.043 1.55 160 30
Expanded rubber 0.04 72 0
Fibreboard insulation 0.052 240 21
Glass, soda 0.52 0.84 2240 20
Ice 2.25 2.10 920 0
Mineral wool 0.04 145 30
Polyethylene 0.55 2.30 950 20
Polystyrene foam 0.036 24 0
Polyurethane foam 0.026 32 0
Polyvinyl chloride 0.29 1.30 1400 20
Wood shavings 0.09 2.5 1.50 0
Wood 0.28 2.5 700 30
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 6

SOME PROPERTIES OF AIR AND OF WATER

Temperature Thermal conductivity Viscosity Specific heat Density

(°C) (J m-1 s-l °C-1) (N s m-2) (kJ kg-1°C-1) (kg m-3)
AIR
-73 0.0189 1.36 x 10-5 0.996 1.76
-5
-18 0.0230 1.65 x 10 1.00 1.38
-5
0 0.0242 1.73 x 10 1.005 1.29
38 0.0267 1.91 x 10-5 1.005 1.14
-5
93 0.031 2.15 x 10 1.009 0.96
-5
149 0.0334 2.40 x 10 1.017 0.83
-5
204 0.0367 2.60 x 10 1.026 0.74
WATER

-20 2.39 na 1.943 919.4

-10 2.25 na 2.027 918.9
(ice) 0 2.22 na 2.050 916.2
-3
0 0,57 1.87 x 10 4.23 1000
4 0.57 1.53 x 10-3 4.23 1000
-3
16 0.59 1.16 x 10 4.19 1000
-3
27 0.61 0.87 x 10 4.19 998
-3
38 0.62 0.68 x 10 4.19 992
-3
66 0.66 0.43 x 10 4.19 977
-3
93 0.68 0.30 x 10 4.19 965
-3
100 0.68 0.28 x 10 4.18 958

Extracted from An Introduction to Heat Transfer, Fishenden, M. and Saunders, 0. A., by permission of the
Clarendon Press, Oxford.
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 7

THERMAL DATA FOR SOME FOOD PRODUCTS

Freezing point Percent water Specific heat Latent heat

above freezing below freezing of fusion
-1 -1
(°C) (kJ kg °C ) (kJ kg-1)
Fruit
Apples -2 84 3.60 1.88 280
Bananas -2 75 3.35 1.76 255
Grapefruit -2 89 3.81 1.93 293
Peaches -2 87 3.78 1.93 289
Pineapples -2 85 3.68 1.88 285
Watermelons -2 92 4.06 2.01 306
Vegetables
Asparagus -1 93 3.93 2.01 310
Beans (green) -1 89 3.81 1.97 297
Cabbage -1 92 3.93 1.97 306
Carrots -1 88 3.60 1.88 293
Corn -1 76 3.35 1.80 251
Peas -1 74 3.31 1.76 247
Tomatoes -1 95 3.98 2.01 310
Meat
Bacon -2 20 2.09 1.26 71
Beef -2 75 3.22 1.67 255
Fish -2 70 3.18 1.67 276
Lamb -2 70 3.18 1.67 276
Pork -2 60 2.85 1.59 197
Veal -2 63 2.97 1.67 209
Miscellaneous
Beer -2 92 4.19 2.01 301
Bread -2 32-37 2.93 1.42 109-121
Eggs -3 3.2 1.67 276
Ice cream -3 to -18 58-66 3.3 1.88 222
Milk -1 87.5 3.9 2.05 289
Water 0 100 4.19 2.05 335

Based on extracts, by permission, from ASHRAE Guide and Data Books.

Specific heats, latent heats of freezing and thermal conductivities of foodstuffs can be estimated if the
percentage of water in the foodstuff is known. If this percentage is p then:

(a) Specific heat = 4.19p/100 + 0.84(100- p)/100 kJ kg-1 °C-1 above freezing
= 2.1 p/100 + 0.84(100- p)/100 kJ kg-1 °C-1 below freezing.
(b) Latent heat = 335p/100 kJ kg-1
(c) Thermal conductivity = 0.55p/100 + 0.26(100 -p)/l00 J m-1 s-1 °C-1 above freezing
= 2.4p/100 + 0.26(100 -p)/l00 J m-1 s-1 °C-1 below freezing.

These equations represent a considerable over-simplification so they, and also the tabulated data, should
be used with caution, particularly in the region between 0°C and -18°C. Freezing of foodstuffs occurs over
a range of temperatures and not at any fixed point. For complete data the only really satisfactory source
is a thermodynamic chart such as those prepared by Riedel (for example, in DKV Arbeitsblatt 8-11, 1957
C. F. Muller, Karlsruhe) for lean beef, and also for egg yolk, potato and fish.
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 8

STEAM TABLE - SATURATED STEAM

Enthalpy
Temperature Pressure(Absolute) Latent heat Specific volume
(sat. vap.)
(°C) (kPa) (kJ kg-1) (kJ kg-1) (m3 kg-1)

Temperature Table

0 0.611 2501 2501 206

1 0.66 2503 2499 193
2 0.71 2505 2497 180
4 0.81 2509 2492 157
6 0.93 2512 2487 138
8 1.07 2516 2483 121
10 1.23 2520 2478 106
12 1.40 2523 2473 93.9
14 1.60 2527 2468 82.8
16 1.82 2531 2464 73.3
18 2.06 2534 2459 65.0
20 2.34 2538 2454 57.8
22 2.65 2542 2449 51.4
24 2.99 2545 2445 45.9
26 3.36 2549 2440 40.0
28 3.78 2553 2435 36.6
30 4.25 2556 2431 32.9
40 7.38 2574 2407 19.5
50 12.3 2592 2383 12.0
60 19.9 2610 2359 7.67
70 31.2 2627 2334 5.04
80 47.4 2644 2309 3.41
90 70.1 2660 2283 2.36
100 101.4 2676 2257 1.67
105 120.8 2684 2244 1.42
110 143.3 2692 2230 1.21
115 169.1 2699 2217 1.04
120 198.5 2706 2203 0.892
125 232.1 2714 2189 0.771
130 270.1 2721 2174 0.669
135 313.0 2727 2160 0.582
140 361.3 2734 2145 0.509
150 475.8 2747 2114 0.393
160 617.8 2758 2083 0.307
 180 1002 2778 2015 0.194
200 1554 2793 1941 0.127

Pressure Table

7.0 1.0 2514 2485 129

9.7 1.2 2519 2479 109
12.0 1.4 2523 2473 93.9
14.0 1.6 2527 2468 82.8
15.8 1.8 2531 2464 74.0
17.5 2.0 2534 2460 67.0
21.1 2.5 2540 2452 54.3
24.1 3.0 2546 2445 45.7
29.0 4.0 2554 2433 34.8
32.9 5.0 2562 2424 28.2
40.3 7.5 2575 2406 19.2
45.8 10.0 2585 2393 14.7
60.1 20.0 2610 2358 7.65
75.9 40.0 2637 2319 3.99
93.5 80.0 2666 2274 2.09
99.6 100 2676 2258 1.69
102.3 119 2680 2251 1.55
104.8 120 2684 2244 1.43
107.1 130 2687 2238 1.33
109.3 140 2690 2232 1.24
111.4 150 2694 2227 1.16
113.3 160 2696 2221 1.09
115.2 170 2699 2216 1.03
116.9 180 2702 2211 0.978
118.6 190 2704 2207 0.929
120.2 200 2707 2202 0.886
127.4 250 2717 2182 0.719
133.6 300 2725 2164 0.606
138.9 350 2732 2148 0.524
143.6 400 2739 2134 0.463
147.9 450 2744 2121 0.414
151.6 500 2749 2109 0.375
167.8 750 2766 2057 0.256
179.9 1000 2778 2015 0.194

* Reproduced with permission from J. H. Keenan et al., Steam Tables - lnternational Edition in Metric
Units, John Wiley, New York, 1969.

Note Gauge pressure  Absolute pressure + 100 kPa

 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 9 (a)

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
Normal temperatures 1013.25 millibars
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 9 (b)

PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
High temperatures 1013.25 millibars
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 10

STANDARD SIEVES

Aperture ISO nominal aperture U.S. no. Tyler no.

-3 -3
(m x 10 ) (m x 10 )
22.6 7/8 in. 0.883 in.
16.0 16 5/8 in. 0.624 in.
11.2 11.2 7/16 in. 0.441 in.
8.0 8.00 5/16 in. 2 1/2 mesh
5.66 5.66 No.3 1/2 3 1/2 mesh
4.00 4.00 5 5 mesh
2.83 2.80 7 7 mesh
2.00 2.00 10 9 mesh
1.41 1.41 14 12 mesh
1.00 1.00 18 16 mesh
0.71 0.710 25 24 mesh
0.500 0.500 35 32 mesh
0.354 0.355 45 42 mesh
0.250 0.250 60 60 mesh
0.177 0.180 80 80 mesh
0.125 0.125 120 115 mesh
0.088 0.090 170 170 mesh
0.063 0.063 230 250 mesh
0.044 0.045 325 325 mesh

Note 500m = 0.50 m x 10-3 aperture = 35 US No. = 32 mesh

 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 11 (a)

PRESSURE/ENTHALPY CHARTS FOR REFRIGERANTS

(a) Tetrafluoroethane (refrigerant 134a)
reference state h = 200.0 kJ/kg; s = 1.00 kJ/(kg-K) for saturated liquid at 0°C

Reproduced with permission:

The International Institute of Refrigeration (IIR) - Institut International du Froid, Paris, France.
http://www.iifiir.org/
 APPENDICES
APPENDIX 11 (b)

PRESSURE / ENTHALPY CHARTS FOR REFRIGERANTS

(b) Ammonia (refrigerant 717)

Reproduced with permission:

from Kaltermachinen Regeln, 5th edition, Verlag, C. F. Muller, Karlsruhe.