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High Speed Rail Network for India: A Detailed Analysis

Article  in  SSRN Electronic Journal · January 2018

DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3246645

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 HIGH SPEED RAIL NETWORK FOR INDIA: A DETAILED
ANALYSIS
Dr.Kartik H
Author's email-dr.kartik.h@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Many nations across the world are building High Speed Railways Network. Recently,
one of the Major entrants into this sector is the Republic of India. India already has a
vast and well-established network of Railways. Though it is run professionally, there are
still certain shortcomings of the present railway network in India. A fresh allocation of
resources to create a new High-Speed Railways (HSR) Network is taking place. This
paper analyses in detail the need and methodology for creating a High-Speed
Railways (HSR) Network for India in the presence of an already well-established Rail
Network.

In this paper the various technologies and economic impacts will be reviewed to
examine how HSR can possibly change the transportation scenario in India. Firstly we
discuss about the present Rail Network Scenario in India. Then we analyse the need
for a new High-Speed Railways (HSR) Network for India. We go into the details of the
financial, cultural, energy and safety implications of such an undertaking. The various
High-Speed Railway (HSR) Networks of many nations are also compared. Finally, the
paper summarizes and concludes about the significance and impact of a High-
Speed Railways (HSR) Network.

INTRODUCTION
India has around 65,000 route kilometres of railway line spread out across the entire
country. Indian Railways operates about 19,000 trains a day.it consists of about 12,000
passenger trains and 7,000 freight trains 1A. In 2013, Indian Railways clocked close to
1,100 Billion Passenger Kilometres. This is equivalent to every Indian travelling around
1,000 kilometres a year by train. This is the highest in the world and is analogous to
carrying the entire population of Australia around the circumference of the earth
more than once.

Every day, Indian railway carries around 25 million people (bigger than the population
of Kenya) to their destinations. But India ferries passengers and goods on rail at a very
low average speed. In 2012, it was estimated that an express train runs at an average
speed of 50 kilometres an hour and a goods train at 25 kilometres an hour. EMUs
(Electrical Multiple Units) run at about 40 kilometres an hour and ordinary passenger
trains cover 36 kilometres an hour1.

The way the mass transportation system of a country works is intricately linked to its
economic growth. If we spend a lot in transporting people and goods, the price of
goods and services will be more. People will have to pay more for basic living. This has
two effects. One, it will erode the savings of the people and two; people will have less
money left for other things. By this time, their purchasing power has been reduced.
There is a fall in demand. The industries face losses as their production slows down due
to fall in demand. Since earning is less, industries downsize their labour as they have
no work due to decrease in production (which is in turn due to fall in demand). Now
the jobless labour force is unutilised, creating complications for the society as a whole.

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 1

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3246645

There can be any number of problems like law and order problem, civil unrest, rise in
extremism, mass migrations etc due to mass unemployment. Therefore, the way
transportation is done is very important for the national economy. Mass Transportation,
done in the most cost- effective way helps in the growth of the National economy.

It has been seen that in India, Railways offers the most inexpensive mode of terrestrial
long-distance bulk transportation. This is important for many reasons. As pointed out
earlier, the way a transport system of a country works is intricately linked to its
economic growth. Additionally, there is lesser pollution and greenhouse gas emission
per capita during rail travel. The carbon footprint is therefore least in rail travel.

Does India need High Speed Rail in the presence of a well-established Rail Network?
The answer to this question is possibly linked to a fundamental assumption in
economics. Namely, that the increase in economic activity is essential for economic
growth.

Economic activity can be defined as Actions that involve the production, distribution
and consumption of goods and services at all levels within a society 5. One way to
increase economic activity is to increase the resources in an economy. But resources
are finite.

Another way is to increase the speed with which economic activity is taking place.
That way, the resources are utilised better and faster. How do we increase the speed
of economic activity? It can be done if we have quick ways of moving Information,
goods and people.

Information nowadays moves very fast due to advancements in communications

technology. It is the moving of goods and people that create a bottleneck for rapid
economic growth. This rate of turnover of Goods and People is essential for economic
growth. If we can move goods and people from one place to another quickly at a
reasonable cost, then we can achieve faster economic growth. A High-Speed Rail
Network can ensure faster Turnover of Goods and People.

Even in terms of cost, slower trains costs India more than High speed rail It takes almost
36 hours to travel from Bangalore to New Delhi by Rajdhani Express (which is the fastest
long-distance mail express). Say we were able to travel from Bangalore to New Delhi
in just 6 hours. That would save 30 hours of travel time for every person travelling.
Calculations show that this saving of 30-man hours per person travelling, translates to
a saving of around $1.585 Billion (₹ 11,100 crores) saved every year (at prevailing dollar
rates).

This saving will increase the purchasing power and also earning capacity of Indians
who will use the high-speed railway system. The above estimate is only for long
distance rail travel (e.g. from Bengaluru to Delhi; or Mumbai to Delhi).

If we consider short distances (Bangalore-Chennai; less than 500 Km) or intermediate

distances (Patna-Delhi; 500-1000 Km) then the estimate increases to about more than
two and half times. This translates to a saving of almost $3.57 Billion (₹ 25,000 crores)
and above every year. Moreover, the estimate has considered average per capita
income (PPP). But the people travelling in trains have slightly higher per capita income
based on class of travel. Therefore, the savings will be much higher.

It might be prudent to conclude that due to a High-Speed Rail Network, economic

activity will get a boost to the tune of $ 2 billion per year in savings alone.

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 2

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3246645

THE HIGH-SPEED RAILWAY (HSR) IN PERSPECTIVE.
High-speed rail is a type of rail transport that operates using an integrated system of
specialized rolling stock and dedicated tracks to have an average speed of 250
Kilometres Per Hour (Kmph) or above.

Wherever implemented, High-speed rail has characteristically become the preferred

transit mode. It is a knowhow that has been used throughout various countries, some
with more success than others, beginning as early as the 1960s 2.

In high concentration areas, especially those with high volumes of traffic and
congestion, a well-developed rail system is a very appropriate mode of
transportation. In an age of increased air quality concerns and mobility, many are
finding high-speed rail to be a practical and pleasant alternative to automobiles and
airplane travel.

High speed rail is capable of radically reducing travel times with maxi-mum speeds
well into the 450 km/h range or higher, but it has to balance this speed with energy
consumption, passenger comfort and economic feasibility.

Usually High-speed trains have speeds of over 300 km/h, drastically reducing the time
taken to reach a destination. They are investments that take many years to realize a
yield, but some countries are starting to see Systems start to pay off and begin to make
profit.
Countries with well-developed networks of HSR have seen various types of
commercial impact. Several of them have experienced the consolidation of their
enormous, dynamic urban centres and corporate hubs as transportation between
major cities has become quicker and easier 3.

Many of the densely populated cities in India are facing strong air pollution and traffic
congestion concerns. High-speed rail can potentially reduce both of these resulting
in lower emissions and a smart and often speedier mode of transport to workers and
travellers 4.

Let us now analyse the various aspects of HSR.

FINANCIAL
Perhaps the most important question on everyone’s mind nowadays is this. What
might be the cost of a full-fledged vast railway network for India? HSR requires large
fixed capital investments and thus necessitate a blend of high density private and
government investment to be competitive against existing capital infrastructure.

For costs, we need to compare the various HSR nations.

Germany’s high-speed railway between Frankfurt and Cologne cost $ 41 million a

kilometre6.

For Spain, there are estimates ranging from $7.5 million per kilometre (for the Madrid-
Seville line, opened in 1992) to nearly $24 million (for the Madrid- Valladolid line)
whereas the per-kilometre cost of Italian high-speed rail surpassed $54 million6.

In Japan, lines generally cost between $43.5 million and $56 million per kilometre to
build6.

The U.K. has the highest high-speed rail construction costs, with the Channel Tunnel
clocking in at $ 87 million a kilometre6.

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 3

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3246645

China’s high-speed rail with a maximum speed of 350 km/h has a typical infrastructure
unit cost of about US$ 17-21 million per km, with a high ratio of bridges and tunnels, as
compared with $25-39 million per km in Europe and $ 56 million per km currently
estimated in California7.

The Mumbai–Ahmedabad high-speed rail corridor is an approved 500 odd Km high-

speed rail corridor in India connecting the cities of Mumbai and Ahmedabad. The
project is estimated to cost between ₹ 35,000 to 60,000 crores ($ 10 Billion) 8. (As to
date, the project has been negotiated and estimated to cost Rs. 90,000 plus crores.
But that cost also includes technology transfer, training expenditure, expertise
outsourcing budget, consultancy costs and other fiscal overheads not included in the
above calculation)

Considering the cost of the Mumbai–Ahmedabad high-speed rail corridor, it works out
to around ₹ 120 crores per Kilometre i.e. around $20 million per Km. Since the
purchasing power of Indian rupee is higher; India has a distinct Purchase Parity Power
advantage 9.

This translates to around $14 million per Kilometre of high speed Rail investment. Add
to this the sourcing of labour, materials and services within the country and the price
can be brought down to about $12 million per kilometre 10.

Diamond Quadrilateral

(Delhi – Mumbai – Chennai – Kolkata – Delhi) =Around 6,000 Kms

Delhi-Chennai=2,200 Kms

Mumbai-Kolkata= 2,000 Kms

Delhi-Amritsar = 450 Kms

Rajkot-Veraval = 350 Kms

Chennai-Trivandrum = 850 Kms

Trivandrum-Mangaluru High-Speed Corridor=585 Kms

Bengaluru-Mysuru High-Speed Corridor=110 Kms

To setup a country wide HSR network connecting all the metro cities of India will
therefore come to around 12,000 kilometres.

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 4

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3246645

 A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF A NATION-WIDE HSR NETWORK FOR INDIA

Considering a price range of about $ 12-15 million/Km; the cost comes to about $150
-180 Billion. Spread out over a period of 10 years (to build the network), India must
spend about $18 Billion per year. That is about ₹ 1,26,000 crores (1 Lakh Twenty-Six
thousand Crores) every year. For Comparison purposes; India’s expenditure in the
year 2013-14 was $228 Billion (₹ 16 Lakh Crores). Around 7.9% of the budget can be
earmarked for HSR which appears quite high. But we need to remember that there
will be many stake holders for a project of such important nature.

There will be international companies, private companies, public sector units,

individual stake-holders and so on involved in the project. In spite of all this, the Indian
government will have to invest substantial resources into HSR, probably around 3% of
the budget (for 10 years). Furthermore, as the Indian economy is growing in size the
money to be set aside will be lesser than 3% of the budgetary expenditure. On a
national scale for an economy like India’s, HSR at 3% investment appears affordable
and well within its financial means.

CULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

To build a network of reliable HSR in India is to take a quantum leap in technology.
Fresh new tracks have to be laid, signalling system has to be advanced, new set of
engines, and compartments, electrical systems etc. have to be built. The HSR track,
unlike normal Railway tracks, has to be fenced and isolated from the external
environment. This is because at speeds if greater than 350 km/hr, the train tends to
suck in air onto the tracks due to the high speed and if any cattle or people are near
the tracks, it will pull them in with disastrous consequences. It is also for this reason that
level crossing gates will be eliminated. The HSR will pass either above or under the
roads, but never in level with it. Thus, chances of collisions with automobiles will be
almost eliminated.

In India, some people have a habit of defecating on railway tracks. This will not be
possible on HSR tracks as the tracks will be raised and present within a well fenced
area. This is the cultural aspect of the HSR that needs to be incorporated into any

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 5

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3246645

planning that is done in this regard. Villages nearby the HSR tracks need to be
provided with proper toilets and the people should be educated about HSR trains and
tracks passing through or nearby their villages. That way, the Swach Bharat Mission is
intricately linked to any future HSR that will be built in India.

Indians, especially children are also in the habit of pelting stones at moving trains with
catastrophic results. Many train passengers have lost their eyes and limbs because of
such mischievous elements.

A stone tossed in the direction of a 350 Km/h train, when it hits the train, creates a
similar impact like a bullet being fired. It can shatter glasses and injure passengers
inside. It can even damage engine and cause accidents. Indian HSR may have to
use sturdier materials to protect the train’s body.

The stone-pelters may have no mala-fide intent and they sometimes do it to while
away their time. But irrespective of the intent, such hooliganism must be dealt strictly
as per the law. Therefore, the policing on railways must be up-graded with latest
technology and training.

Similarly, littering along railway tracks by passengers or public has to end. Litter and
debris on HSR tracks can cause problems in the movement and attainment of
required speed. The public should be educated and laws implemented regarding this
matter.

Likewise, the direct discharge toilet system followed on Indian Railways has no scope
in the future HSR. In direct discharge toilet system faeces are discharged directly onto
the tracks. Faeces on the tracks cause corrosion and degradation of track materials.
Moreover, it spoils the aesthetic appeal of trains and stations. India can’t afford to
spend billions of Dollars on building a new network only to have it degraded by faeces
discharged on the tracks. Moreover, at such high speeds implementing a direct
discharge toilet system is not possible. Air pressure variations will have to be considered
which makes direct discharge impractical. Bio-toilets or other system will have to be
installed.

ENERGY
Since high speed is needed, HSR will use electricity to run. There are certain
advantages to it. Electric HSR promotes energy independence and ecological
sustainability. Electric trains use less energy to transport people and goods on a per
unit basis and can draw power from a wide array of sources of energy including
renewable sources than automobile and aeroplanes, which as we know are heavily
dependent on imported fuel 23.

We need to have an idea as to How much energy does HSR involve in terms of
operations? i.e. How much energy will be spent in carrying a person from one place
to another by HSR?

This estimate is important for two reasons. One, it allows us to calculate operational
cost of which energy (or fuel) is the major component. Second, it lets us monitor the
carbon footprint and hence assess the efficiency with respect to environmental
impact. Estimates show that a 12,000 Km HSR carrying around 15 million Passengers
annually will need around 4,400 Gwh (Gigawatt Hour) of energy to run. This is around
0.4% of India’s annual electricity Production. A separate High-Speed Rail Grid may be
necessary to ensure uninterrupted power supply to the network. A nuclear reactor

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 6

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3246645

consisting of 4 reactor units, each producing 1,600 Gwh annually can be earmarked
to supply power to the HSR grid.

ANALYSING HSR VIABILITY IN THE INDIAN SETUP

The case for high speed rail is dependent on a number of market factors and the
development of high speed rail appears to be correlated with certain factors. The
case for high speed rail is strongest in countries where there is a large market for travel
over distances of around 200-800 km10A, and particularly in the range of 300-1,000 kms.
India has around a million long distance train travellers every day. Seen from this
perspective, India has a very large High-Speed Rail Market waiting to be tapped.

A high-speed line can offer very high capacity. For sufficient travel demand for HSR
capacity to be utilised effectively, there must be very large cities approximately the
right distances apart. There must also be a number of significant population centres
that can be accessed by the same high-speed route. India has this combination in
the right proportion. Say a train going from Delhi to Kolkata. The HSR can run through
the following route; Delhi-Agra-Kanpur- Lucknow-Varanasi-Patna-Dhanbad-Kolkata.

The existence of very good conventional rail lines reduces the incremental economic
case for high speed rail, particularly over shorter distances, although if it is possible to
use existing railway lines on final approaches to major cities, the construction costs of
high speed rail can be significantly reduced.

Demand and capacity: many countries have built high-speed rail lines as much for
reasons of capacity as for reasons of speed (securing incremental passengers rather
than journey time savings for existing passengers). The benefits of new construction will
be highest when this new capability can be fully utilised early on – particularly when
relatively high discount rates are used.

Population distribution: the distribution of population around city centres relative to

more distant suburbs, will affect the potential benefits of high speed rail. Journey times
and distance High-speed rail enables journeys over medium distances to be made
quickly.

HSR is better at serving markets where demand is located closely around key nodes.
High speed rail can serve a higher proportion of potential markets in countries like
India, where most of the urban population lives in compactly populated cities.

As discussed above, high speed rail lines can provide very high capacity and the
benefits of investment will be more if this capability can be well utilised. It would be
very unusual for there to be such great demand for travel between two individual
cities that a dedicated high-speed line can be justified: the line must also be able to
handle passengers to/from other cities, either along or beyond the core route. The
case for building of high speed lines is likely to be stronger if population is situated in
corridors that can be served by a single line10A.

Let us compare the various High-Speed Rail systems in operation around the world to
get some insight into which kind of HSR system India can choose.

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 7

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3246645

 COMPARISON
JAPANESE CHINA RAILWAYS RUSSIAN TAIWAN GERMAN FRENCH ITALY
SHINKANSEN E5 CRH380A SAPSAN THSR 700T ICE 3 TGV DUPLEX ETR 500

Maximum 320 380 250 300 330 320 300

speed (Km/h)
Speed record - 486 290 315 368 574.8 362
(Km/h)
Levels 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
Passenger 731 494 604 989 460 512 671
capacity
Entered 2011 2010 2009 2007 2000 1995 Jun 21 1992
service
Weight - - 667 t 503 t 409 t 380 t 640 t
Train length - 666.01 ft. (203 m) 820.75 ft (250 m) 997.37 ft (304 656.16 ft. (200 656.16 ft. (200 1,162.50 ft.
m) m) m) (354.33 m)
Manufacturer Hitachi, Kawasaki China South Siemens Kawasaki Siemens ALSTOM (GEC- TREVI SpA
Heavy Industries Locomotive & Heavy Alstom)
Rolling Stock Industries,
Corporation Rolling Stock
Limited Company,
Hitachi Rail,
Nippon
Sharyo
GAUGE 1435 mm 1435 mm 1520 mm 1435 mm 1435 mm 1435 mm 1435 mm
OPERATOR JR EAST SHANGHAI RAIL RUSSIAN THSRC DEUTSCHE BAHN SNCF TRENITALIA
BUREAU RAILWAYS
POWER 9,960 - 8,000 10,260 8,000 9,280 8,800
OUTPUT (Kw)
BRAKING Regenerative Regenerative - Regenerative - Regenerative -
electrical Eddy currents pneumatic
continuous
pneumatic

We can see from the above table that Russia has a 1,520 mm gauge whereas all other
nations have 1435mm gauge or Standard gauge. Existing Indian Rail Network is mainly
Broad-gauge or Indian Gauge i.e. 1676 mm that is 5 ft 6 in. India is able to carry so
many passengers and freight in huge numbers is because we have the Broad gauge
network. But most of the HSR technology is calibrated to standard Gauge. So here,
we have to make a choice between selecting standard gauge technology and
developing a broad gauge HSR which will be the first in the world. It may be prudent
to choose Broad gauge for India’s future HSR network as it will give India faster and
higher hauling capacity.

ADVANTAGES OF HSR
1) ENERGY EFFICIENCY11
Travel by rail is more competitive in areas of higher population density or where fuel is
expensive, because trains are more fuel-efficient than cars when ridership is high,
comparable to other forms of mass transit. In Japan and France, which have extensive
high-speed rail networks, a large proportion of electricity comes from nuclear
power12.On the Eurostar, a train which primarily runs off the French electricity network,
emissions from travelling by train from London to Paris are 90% lower than by flying13.

Even using electricity generated from coal or oil, high-speed trains are considerably
more fuel-efficient per passenger per kilometre travelled than the usual automobile
due to economies of scale in generator technology 14.

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 8

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High-speed rail can accommodate more passengers at far higher speeds than
automobiles. Generally, the longer the journey, the better the time advantage of rail
over road if going to the same destination. High speed rail provides considerably
reduced travel times between cities. However, high-speed rail can be competitive
with cars on shorter distances also, 0–150 kilometres for example- commuting, given
road congestion or costly parking fees.

Although air transit moves at higher speeds, its total time to destination can be
increased by check-in, baggage handling, security and boarding. These procedures
also add cost to air travel 15.Trains are preferred in shorter, mid-range distances since
rail stations are typically closer to urban centres than airports16.

Likewise, air travel needs longer distances to have a speed advantage after
accounting for both processing time and travel to the airport.

Electric HSR supports energy independence and is eco-friendly. Electric trains use less
energy to transport goods and people on a per unit electricity(kilowatt) basis and can
take power from more varied sources of energy including renewables than
automobile and aircraft, which are more reliant on imported petroleum.

2) SAFETY20
HSR is much simpler to control due to its predictable course. High-speed rail systems
reduce (but do not eliminate)21 Collisions with automobiles or people, by using non-
grade level track and eliminating grade-level crossings.

3) SPACE UTILISATION AND CONVENIENCE

A typical passenger rail carries 2.83 times as many passengers per hour per metre
width as a road. A representative train is the Eurostar, which provides capacity for 12
trains per hour and 800 passengers per train, totalling 9,600 passengers per hour in
each direction. By contrast, the Highway Capacity Manual gives a maximum
capacity of 2,250 passenger cars per hour per lane, excluding other vehicles.
Assuming average vehicle occupancy of 1.57 people 26.

A standard twin track railway has a typical capacity 13% greater than a 6-lane
highway (3 lanes each way) 27, while requiring only 40% of the land (1.0/3.0 versus
2.5/7.5 hectares per kilometre of direct/indirect land consumption)28.

The Tokaido Shinkansen line in Japan, has a much greater ratio (with as many as
20,000 passengers per hour per direction). Similarly, commuter roads tend to carry
fewer than 1.57 persons per vehicle (Washington State Department of Transportation,
for instance, uses 1.2 persons per vehicle) during commute times27.

High-speed trains also have comfort advantages, since train passengers are allowed
to move freely about the train at any point in the journey 17.The seats are also less
subject to weight restrictions than on planes, and as such may have more padding
and legroom18.

Rail travel also requires less weather dependency than air travel. A well designed and
operated rail system can only be affected by severe weather conditions, such as
heavy snow, heavy fog, and major storm. Flights however, generally face
cancellations or delays under less severe conditions.

Technology advances such as continuously welded rail have minimized the vibration
found on railways, while air travel remains affected by turbulence when adverse wind

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 9

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conditions arise19.Trains can also accommodate intermediate stops at lower time and
energetic costs than planes.

4) TECHNOLOGY, GROWTH AND EMPLOYMENT BENEFITS.

By building a HSR system, India can develop an indigenous high-speed rail Technology
industry. The creation and expansion of HSR can develop India into a leader of high-
speed rail building technology. Indian engineers are capable of absorbing imported
technologies quickly, localize production processes, and even begin to compete with
foreign suppliers in the export market. Moreover, there will be spin-offs for India in this
venture.

Additionally, shifting passengers to high-speed lines allows conventional railways to

carry more freight, which is more profitable for railways 23. HSR facilitates cross-city
economic assimilation and encourages the growth of second- tier cities. The
introduction of the high-speed railways was responsible for 59% of the increase in
market potential for the secondary cities connected by bullet trains. (Market
potential, a concept used by economic geographers, measures “a geographic
area’s access to markets for inputs and outputs.”) A 10% increase in a secondary city’s
market potential is expected to be associated with a 4.5% increase in its average real
estate price25.

HSR is bound to improve economic productivity and competitiveness over the long
term by increasing the transport capacity of railways and linking labour markets22.

CONCLUSION
we have seen that though High-Speed Rail system needs heavy investment initially, it
turns out well for the economy and the people. Furthermore, building the HSR is a
labour-intensive process. At the rate of Rs.10,000 a month ($140) per employee, the
Rs.90,000 Crore ($12.8 Billion) Mumbai-Ahmedabad HSR project, over a 7-year period
is expected to create a million (10 lakh) jobs. In building the entire HSR network India
might have to employ millions of people.

HSR can become an avenue to employ the surplus and inexpensive labour that India
has. This Stimulates the economy in the short term as HSR construction creates jobs
and drives up demand for construction industries like consultancy, cement and steel.
Work on the Beijing–Shanghai PDL mobilized 110,000 workers24. India can tap into its
vast labour market and reap the ‘Demographic Dividend’ that it has been waiting
for.

Having analysed the various aspects of a High-Speed Rail system for India, we can
conclude that the advantages of building a High-Speed Rail system are immense and
thus beneficial to the society. Consequently, India can work towards establishing a
safe and efficient High-Speed Rail system.

(Conversion rates in this paper have been taken as 1 USD=70 INR i.e 1 US Dollar= 70
Indian Rupees)

HIGH SPEED RAILWAY FOR INDIA Dr.KARTIK H 10

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3246645

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9. Seen on an equal footing, the Indian rupee has 30% more purchasing power than
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10. India has distinct PPP advantages if labour, materials and services are locally
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10A. HIGH SPEED RAIL: INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS Final Report February 2004
Prepared for Commission for Integrated Transport Page 64.

11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-speed_rail#Energy_efficiency

12. The Times, Friday, 6 January 2006, p54. France will run trains free from fossil fuel,
says Chira

13. “Cut your CO2 emissions by taking the train, by up to 90%…”. Seat61. Retrieved
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