Case 3: Roots of the Denominator of F (s) Are Complex or Imaginary

Given an F(s) whose denominator has complex or purely imaginary

roots, a partial-fraction expansion of such function is illustrated as:
Example B-2: Find the inverse Laplace transform of

Notice that the denominator polynomial can be factored as

𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5 = (𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗2)(𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗2). If the function F(s) involves
a pair of complex-conjugate poles, it is convenient not to expand F(s)
into the usual partial fractions but to expand it into the sum of a
damped sine and a damped cosine function.
o Noting that 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5 = (𝑠 + 1)2 +22 and referring to the Laplace
transforms

(21)
Now, (22)
Solution:

The Laplace transformation of the above differential equation is

(a)

(23)
The output response is as:
(23)
Partial-Fraction Expansion with MATLAB
For complicated functions with denominators involving higher-
order polynomials, partial-fraction expansion may be quite time
consuming. In such a case, use of MATLAB is recommended.

MATLAB has a command to obtain the partial-fraction expansion of

𝐵(𝑠) 𝐵(𝑠)
. Consider the following function :
𝐴(𝑠) 𝐴(𝑠)

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o where some of 𝑎𝑖 and 𝑏𝑗 may be zero. In MATLAB row vectors num

and den specify the coefficients of the numerator and denominator
of the transfer function. That is,
The command
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finds the residues (r), poles (p), and direct terms (k) of a partial-fraction
expansion of the ratio of two polynomials B(s) and A(s). The partial-
𝐵(𝑠)
fraction expansion of is given by:
𝐴(𝑠)

From the equation:

We note that 𝑝 1 = −𝑝1 , 𝑝 2 = −𝑝2 , 𝑝 𝑛 = −𝑝𝑛 ; 𝑟 1 = 𝑎1 ,

𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 , 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 . [k(s) is a direct term.]
(26)
o This is the MATLAB representation of the following partial fraction
expansion of B(s)/A(s):
(27)
o This is the MATLAB representation of the following partial fraction
expansion of B(s)/A(s):v

Note that the direct term K is zero.

o By using the Laplace and inverse Laplace transform. :

(28)
(28)
Transfer Function and Impulse-response Function:
In control theory, functions called transfer functions are commonly
used to characterize the input-output relationships of components or
systems that can be described by linear, time-invariant, differential
equations. We begin by defining the transfer function and follow with a
derivation of the transfer function of a differential equation system.
Then we discuss the impulse-response function.

Transfer Function. The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant,

differential equation system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output (response function) to the Laplace transform of
the input (driving function) under the assumption that all initial
conditions are zero. (1)

Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following

differential equation (n ≥ m):
where 𝑦 is the output of the system and 𝑥 is the input.
The transfer function of this system is the ratio of the Laplace
transformed output to the Laplace transformed input when all initial
conditions are zero, or

By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent

system dynamics by algebraic equations in s. If the highest power of s
in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the system is
called an nth-order system.

Transfer Function for a Differential Equation:

𝑑
𝐶 𝑡 +2𝐶 𝑡 =𝑟 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Taking the Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions:

s𝐶 𝑠 + 2 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 𝐶 𝑠 (𝑠 + 2) = 𝑅 𝑠

𝐶(𝑠) 1
G 𝑠 = =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠+2 (2)

System response from the transfer function:

Input, 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 (unit step) Assumption: zero initial conditions

G 𝑠 =
𝐶(𝑠)
=
1 1 1 1
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠+2 𝐶 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 =
𝑠+2 𝑠𝑠+2
Expanding by partial fraction:
1 1
𝐶 𝑠 = 2− 2 Now, taking the inverse Laplace transform:
𝑠 𝑠+2

𝐶 𝑡 =1 2−
1
2 𝑒 −2𝑡
 1. The transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it
is an operational method of expressing the differential equation that
relates the output variable to the input variable.
2. The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of
the magnitude and nature of the input or driving function. (3)

3. The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input
to the output; however, it does not provide any information concerning
the physical structure of the system. (The transfer functions of many
physically different systems can be identical.)

4. If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response

can be studied for various forms of inputs with a view toward
understanding the nature of the system.
5. If the transfer function of a system is unknown, it may be
established experimentally by introducing known inputs and studying
the output of the system. Once established, a transfer function gives a
full description of the dynamic characteristics of the system, as distinct
from its physical description.
Impulse-Response Function:
Consider the output (response) of a linear time invariant system to
a unit-impulse input when the initial conditions are zero. Since the
Laplace transform of the unit-impulse function is unity, the Laplace
transform of the output of the system is
𝑌 𝑠 =𝐺 𝑠 Eq. (a)
The inverse Laplace transform of the output given by Eq. (a) gives the
impulse response of the system. The inverse Laplace transform of G(s),
or
ℒ −1 [𝐺 𝑠 ] = 𝑔 𝑡

is called the impulse-response function. This function g(t) is also

called the weighting function of the system.
(4)
 The impulse-response function 𝑔 𝑡 is thus the response of a linear
time-invariant system to a unit-impulse input when the initial
conditions are zero. The Laplace transform of this function gives the
transfer function. Therefore, the transfer function and impulse-
response function of a linear, time-invariant system contain the same
information about the system dynamics.

• It is hence possible to obtain complete information about the

dynamic characteristics of the system by exciting it with an impulse
input and measuring the response. (In practice, a pulse input with a
very short duration compared with the significant time constants of
the system can be considered an impulse.)