College of Engineering and Computer Science

Mechanical Engineering Department

Mechanical Engineering 483
Alternative Energy Engineering II
Spring 2010 Number: 17724 Instructor: Larry Caretto

Solutions to April 12 Homework Problems

1. Hodge, page 146, problem 2. A contractor must select a roof covering material from the
two diffuse ( = ) roof coverings whose spectral characteristics are presented in Figure
P6.2. (This figure shows that Coating A has a constant emissivity of 0.8 while material B
has  = 0.6 for  ≤ 4 m and  = 0.2 for  ≥ 4 m.)
(a) Which of the materials would result in a lower roof temperature?
Coating A would result in a lower roof temperature. It would emit more solar radiation compared
to the amount it would absorb, relative to Coating B. We can check this qualitative argument by
computing the average emissivity and absorptivity of Coating B for solar and terrestrial radiation.
(Coating A will have an average value of both  and  equal to 0.8 for all wavelengths.) For solar
radiation (T = 5800 K) the average emissivity, which equals the average absorptivity, is found as
shown below. Here the solar radiation is assumed to be that of a black body with a temperature
of 5800 K (T = 23,200 m·K for  = 4 m) and the values from the blackbody radiation function
table on page 118 of Hodge are used to find the fraction of radiation between the different
wavelengths.
 solar   solar  0.6[ f (T  23200 m  K )  0]  0.21  f (T  23200 m  K )
 0.60.9898  0   0.21  0 / 9898  0.5959
A similar calculation for terrestrial radiation at a temperature of 300K (T = 1,200 m·K for  = 4
m) gives
terrestial    0.6[ f (T  1200 m  K )  0]  0.21  f (T  1200 m  K )
 0.60.0021  0  0.21  0.021  0.2008
For a simple model, the roof temperature can be found from an radiation energy balance between
the incoming solar radiation absorbed, 
solar Gsolar, and terrestial  Troof
4 4

 Tsky , the radiation
emitted, This gives the following equation for T roof for each material.


 solar Gsolar  terrestial Troof
4
 Tsky
4
  Troof
4
 Tsky
4

 solar Gsolar
terrestial
Taking the difference between the roof temperatures for the two materials gives

 solar , B Gsolar  4  G 
4
Troof , B  Troof , A  Tsky 
4 4
  Tsky  solar , A solar  
terrestial , B  terrestial , A 
  solar , B  solar , A  Gsolar  0.5959 0.8  Gsolar 1.97Gsolar
      
  terrestial , A    0.2008 0.8   
 terrestial , B
This shows that coating B gives the higher temperature.
(b) Which is preferred for summer use?
Coating A, which would result in a lower roof temperature, would be preferred for summer use.

Engineering Building Room 1333 Mail Code Phone: 818.677.6448

E-mail: lcaretto@csun.edu 8348 Fax: 818.677.7062
 April 12 homework solutions ME 483, L. S. Caretto, Spring 2010 Page 2

(c) Which is preferred for winter use?

Coating B, which would result in a higher roof temperature, would be preferred for winter use.
(d) Sketch a spectral distribution that would be ideal for summer.
For summer we would like a low roof temperature. We would obtain this with a spectral
distribution that resulted in a low value of solar/terrestial. This would require a distribution, in which
the value of  was small at small wavelengths and large at higher wavelengths, just the opposite
of Coating B.
(e) Sketch a spectral distribution that would be ideal for winter.
For winter we would like a high roof temperature. We would obtain this with a spectral distribution
that resulted in a high value of solar/terrestial. This would require a distribution, in which the value
of  was large at small wavelengths and small at higher wavelengths, similar to Coating B.
2. Hodge, page 146, problem 3. Two special coatings are available for use on an absorber
plate for a flat-plate solar collector. The coatings are diffuse ( = ) and are characterized
by the spectral distributions in Figure P6.3. (This figure shows Coating A with a spectral
emissivity of 0.85 for  ≤ 4 m and  = 0.05 for  ≥ 4 m. Coating B in this figure has a
spectral emissivity of 0.05 for  ≤ 4 m and  = 0.85 for  ≥ 4 m.)
(a) Of the irradiation incident on the plate is G = 1000 W/m2, what is the radiant energy
absorbed per m2 for each surface coating?
We can find the mean absorptivity as was found in the previous problem. At the wavelength
boundary of  = 4 m, the value of T = (4 m)(5800 K) = 23,200 m·K. For the two coatings,
 solar , A  solar , A  0.85[ f (T  23200 m  K )  0]  0.051  f (T  23200 m  K )
 0.850.9898  0  0.051  0.9898  0.8418
 solar , B  solar , B  0.05[ f (T  23200 m  K )  0]  0.851  f (T  23200 m  K )
 0.050.9898  0  0.851  0.9898  0.05817

For a G = 1000 W/m2 the total energy absorbed is 841.8 W/m2 for coating A , and
58.17 W/m2 for coating B .
(b) What coating would you select for the absorber plate? Explain.
Select coating A; it will absorb more solar energy. It will emit less terrestrial tadiant energy.
3. Hodge, page 147, problem 5. An opaque solar collector surface is 3 m by 1 m and is
maintained at 425 K. The surface is exposed to solar radiation with G = 800 W/m2. The
surface is diffuse and its solar absorptivity varies as follows:  = 0 for  < 0.5m;  = 0.8
for 0.5m < 1.0 m;  = 0.5 for 1 m < 2 m;  = 0.3 for  > 2.0 m. Determine the
absorbed solar radiation, the emissive power, and the net radiation heat transfer from the
surface.
Here we have a more detailed spectrum for the emissivity. We have to determine the fraction of
the radiation in each wavelength band. For solar radiation at T = 5800 K we will have T = (0.5
m)(5800 K) = 2,900 m·K for  = 0.5 m; T = (1 m)(5800 K) = 5,800 m·K for  = 1 m, and
T = (2 m)(5800 K) = 11,600 m·K for  = 2 m. The average properties for solar radiation are

solar  0[ f (T  2,900 m  K )  0]  0.8 f (T  5,800 m  K )  f (T  2,900 m  K )

 0.5 f (T  10,600 m  K )  f (T  5,800 m  K )  0.31  f (T  10,600 m  K ) 
0  0.80.72  0.2505  0.50.9252  0.72  0.31  0.9252  0.5007
 April 12 homework solutions ME 483, L. S. Caretto, Spring 2010 Page 3

For radiation from the surface at T = 425 K we will have T = (0.5 m)(425 K) = 212.5 m·K for 
= 0.5 m; T = (1 m)( 425 K) = 425 m·K for  = 1 m, and T = (2 m)(425 K) = 850 m·K for 
= 2 m. The average properties for solar radiation are

terrestial  0[ f (T  212.5 m  K )  0]  0.8 f (T  425 m  K )  f (T  212.5 m  K )

 0.5 f (T  850 m  K )  f (T  425 m  K )  0.31  f (T  850 m  K ) 
    
0  0.8 1.2 x108  1x1013  0.5 8.73x105  1.2 x108  0.3 1  8.73x105  0.3000
The absorbed solar radiation is  solar Gsolar = (0.5007)(800 W/m2 = 400.6 W/m2 .

5.6704 x108W
The surface emissive power is  plate T plate
4
 0.3 425K 4 = (0.5007)(800
m K
2 4
2
W/m2 = 555.0 W/m .

The net surface radiation heat transfer is the difference between these two. Expressed as a net
energy outflow from the plate it is 555.0 W/m2 – 400.6 W/m2 = 154.6 W/m2 leaving the plate.

4. Determine the efficiency of a solar collector with the following design and operating data:
 collector area = 3 m2,
 absorber plate thickness = 0.6 mm,
 absorber plate thermal conductivity = 385 W/m·K,
 absorber plate solar absorptivity = 0.95,
 Transmissivity of glass covers = 0.95,
 inner and outer diameter of absorber tubes = 10 mm, 11 mm,
 overall heat loss coefficient = 5 W/m2·K
 tube spacing, w = 0.15 m,
 bond conductance = 385 W/m·K,
 heat transfer coefficient inside absorber tube = 300 W/m2·K,
 ambient temperature = 18oC,
 solar isolation = 700 W/m2,
 water mass flow rate = 0.25 kg/s, and
 inlet water temperature = 30oC.
We need to find the useful heat which depends on the absorbed solar radiaiotn, Ha, and the heat-
removal factor, FR, (in addition to the data items). The heat-removal factor depends on the
collector efficiency factor, F’, which, in turn, depends on the fin efficiency, F.
To do these calculations we first find the absorbed solar radiation, Ha, as the product of the
incident radiation, Hi, the transmissivity of the glass covers, , and the absorptivity of the collector
plate, : Ha = Hi = (700 W/m2)(0.95)(0.95) = 631.75 W/m2.
Next we do the calculations to find F, F’, and F R. The fin effectiveness depends on the parameter
m, which is found as follows.
 April 12 homework solutions ME 483, L. S. Caretto, Spring 2010 Page 4

5W
m
Uc
 m2  K 
4.652
kt 385W
0.6 mm 0.001m m
m K mm
The fin efficiency depends on the product mL where L = (w – D)/2. w = 0.15 is the tube spacing
and D = 11 mm = 0.011 m is the outer tube diameter. This gives L = (0.15 m – 0.011 m)/2 =
0.0695 m, so that mL = (4.652/m)( 0.0695 m) = 0.3233. Then F = tanh(Ml)/(mL) = tanh(0.3233) /
0.3233 = 0.9665.
We can now compute the collector efficiency factor, F’.

1
Uc
F' 
 1 1 1 
w   
U c 2 LF  D  C B hc, i Di 
m2  K
5W
 0.8826
 
 
0.15 m  1

1

1 
 5W 35W m 2   K 1 
 2 20.0695 m 0.9665  0.011m
m K m  K 300W  0.010m 

We can now find the heat removal factor, FR, which depends on the following computational
group found below.
0.25kg 4,186 J W  s
m c p s kg  K 1J
  69.77
U c Ac 5W
m2  K
3m 
2

We can use this value in the equation for FR.

  c c 
U A F'
 0.8826 
m c p  m c p   

FR  1  e   69.771  e 69.77   0.8771
U c Ac  
   
Now that FR and Ha are known we can calculate the useful heat transfer, Q u.

      631.75W
Qu  Ac FR H a  U c T f , in  Ta  3 m 2 0.8771 
5W
30  18 K

  1504W
 m2 m2  K 
We can now compute the efficiency.

Qu 1,504W
c    71.6%
Ac H i  
3m 2 700W
m2
 April 12 homework solutions ME 483, L. S. Caretto, Spring 2010 Page 5

5. Determine the stagnation temperature (the average absorber plate temperature when there
is no useful heat) for the solar collector of problem 4.
The stagnation temperature, Tmax, is given by the following equation for no useful heat transfer.
  
Qu  Ac H a  U c T p, average  Ta  0 when T p, average  T p, max

Ha
This gives the general result: T p , max   Ta
Uc
Using the data of problem 4 and the result found there that Ha = 631.75 W/m2, gives:

631.75W
T p , max 
Ha
 Ta  m2  18o C Tp,max = 144oC
Uc 5W
m2  K

6. Using some software such as Excel or Matlab plot the efficiency of the solar collector
whose data are given in problem 4 as a function of the inlet water temperature that
varies from 10oC to 60oC. Create one plot with curves for mass flow rates of 0.001
kg/s, 0.01 kg/s, 0.1 kg/s, 1 kg/s and 10 kg/s. Prepare a plot of water outlet temperatures
for the same cases.
The following VBA function was used to solve this problem:
Option Explicit
Const PI as double = 3.14159265358979
Function solarCollector(incidentRadiation As Double, transmissivity As Double, _
absorptivity As Double, centerLineDistance As Double, _
tubeOD As Double, tubeID As Double, collectorU As Double, _
plateK As Double, plateThickness As Double, _
bondConductance As Double, tubeInnerH As Double, _
ambientT As Double, waterInT As Double, mDotWater As Double, _
collectorArea As Double, cpWater As Double) As Variant

Dim absorbedRadiation As Double

Dim lengthBetweenTubes As Double
Dim finM As Double
Dim finML As Double
Dim finEffectiveness As Double
Dim collectorEfficiencyFactor As Double
Dim heatRemovalFactor As Double
Dim usefulHeat As Double
Dim waterOutT As Double
Dim plotParameter As Double
Dim collectorEfficiency As Double
Dim x(1 To 4) As Variant

absorbedRadiation = incidentRadiation * transmissivity * absorptivity

lengthBetweenTubes = (centerLineDistance - tubeOD) / 2
finM = Sqr(collectorU / (plateK * plateThickness))
finML = finM * lengthBetweenTubes
finEffectiveness = Application.WorksheetFunction.Tanh(finML) / finML
collectorEfficiencyFactor = (1 / collectorU) / (centerLineDistance * (1 / (collectorU _
* (2 * lengthBetweenTubes * finEffectiveness + tubeOD)) _
+ 1 / bondConductance + 1 / (tubeInnerH * PI * tubeID)))
heatRemovalFactor = mDotWater * cpWater / (collectorU * collectorArea) _
* (1 - Exp(-(collectorU * collectorArea _
* collectorEfficiencyFactor / (mDotWater * cpWater))))
usefulHeat = collectorArea * heatRemovalFactor * (absorbedRadiation - collectorU _
* (waterInT - ambientT))
collectorEfficiency = usefulHeat / (incidentRadiation * collectorArea)
waterOutT = waterInT + usefulHeat / (mDotWater * cpWater)
plotParameter = (waterInT - ambientT) / incidentRadiation
 April 12 homework solutions ME 483, L. S. Caretto, Spring 2010 Page 6

x(1) = collectorEfficiency
x(2) = usefulHeat
x(3) = waterOutT
x(4) = plotParameter
solarCollector = Application.WorksheetFunction.Transpose(x)

End Function

The plotted results are shown below.

Collector Efficiency vs . Inlet Temperature and Mass Flow Rate

90%

80%

70%

60%
Collector Efficiency

50%
mdot = 10 kg/s
mdot = 0.1 kg/s
40%
mdot = 0.01 kg/s
mdot = 0.001 kg/s
30%

20%

10%

0%
-0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
(T in - T ambient)/Hincident

An evaluation of the equations in the efficiency calculation show that as the mass flow rate of
water decreases the parameter U c Ac F ' m  c p increases. As this parameter increases the ratio
FR/F’ decreases. Since F’ is fixed by the collector design, the heat removal factor, F R decreases
as the water flow rate decreases. This decrease in the heat removal factor decreases the
collector efficiency and consequently decreases the useful heat as the mass flow rate decreases.
However, as the mass flow rate increases, the temperature rise is negligible and the efficiency
does not increase significantly for further increases in mass flow rate. At this point, the
temperature rise is nearly zero.
The figure on the next page shows the temperature increase of the water. The lowest mass flow
rate leads to a temperature that is higher than the boiling point of water and is not feasible.
However, it is included in the plot to show the trend of temperature rise with mass flow rate.
The combination of the two figures shows that a reduced mass flow rate can produce a higher
exit temperature, but this higher exit temperature causes a significant decrease in efficiency.
April 12 homework solutions ME 483, L. S. Caretto, Spring 2010 Page 7

Temperature Rise vs . Inlet Temperature and Mass Flow Rate

140

120

100
Temperature Rrise ( oC)

80
mdot = 0.001 kg/s
mdot = 0.01 kg/s
60 mdot = 0.1 kg/s
mdot = 10 kg/s

40

20

0
-0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
(Tin - Tambient)/Hincident